Department of Social Science
Peace and Development Studies
Ebola virus (EVD)through the lenses of news articles
Author: Gjyljeta Fifa Tutior: Heiko Fritz
Examinaitor: Lennart Wohlgemuth Fall semester: HT 20142015, Peace and Development Studies Bachelor’s Thesis
Date: 15.01.2015
Abstract
Media in modern society uses their influence and power to frame social phenomenon in society from political elections, health crisis, war to terrorism etc. The aim of this study is on a global level to observe how selected newspapers have portrayed Ebola virus (EVD). The conceptual framework presented will be a mixture of concepts based in Peace and Development studies and Media studies with an emphasis on the first as this thesis is iwhitn Peace and Development Studies.
This study will be a qualitative study, where selected articles are observed and analyzed with the help of a content analysis (textual analysis). The selected newspapers are The Salone Monitor (Sierra Leone), The Daily News (US), Dagens Nyheter (Sweden) and The Guineeconakry (Guinea). The selection of each newspaper is influenced by the research questions in terms of using two African newspapers located geographically in countries effected by Ebola virus (EVD) and two Western newspapers with geographical distance, to observe similarities and differences in how Ebola virus (EVD) has been portrayed in correlation to geographical placement.
The conclusion drawn from this research indicates similarities and differences in how Ebola virus (EVD) has been portrayed in respect to the conceptual framework used which relates to the risk and crisis communication, power, securitization and “Them and us” concepts.
Indicating similarities concerning limitations in reporting about care communication in terms of raising awareness by communicating knowledge about transmission and protection strategies for respective audience.
In addition, Ebola virus (EVD) is greatly securitized through the lenses of each newspaper using their (newspapers) influence (form of power) to create fear between readers at the same time showing differences in the process of how Ebola virus (EVD) becomes a global threat.
Additionally, also reporting risk and crisis communications greatly by communicating information about dangers EVD possesses. Processes of “them and us” are established characterizing Ebola virus (EVD) as a threat for Africa until confirmed cases occur outside Africa. Therefore changing how Ebola virus (EVD) becomes shaped and identified as a global security threat after outbreaks in US and Spain.
Keywords: Securitization, “Them and us”, power, risk and crisis communication, Ebola virus
1. Introduction 5
1. 1 Problem idenfication 6
1.2 Relevande in peace and Development Studies 6
1.3 Methodological limitations 7
1.4 Disposition 7
1.5 Purpose and research questions 8
2. Method 8
2.1 Selection and limitations 10
2.2 Coding Scheme 11
2.2.1 Themes of Coding Scheme 12
3. Conceptual framewok 13
3.1 Securitization 13
3.2 Risk and crisis communication 14
3.3 Power 16
3.4 “Them and US” 16
3.5 Previous research 17
4. Background 18
4.1 Overview of Ebola virus (EVD) 18
4.2 Media in modern socieities 19
5. Research results 20
5.1 Time diffrences in news reports 20
5.2 Potraying Ebola virus (EVD) (part 1) 22
5.3 Further spred into West Africa (part 2) 24
5.4 Outbreaks beyon Africa (part 3) 30
6. Discussion 35
7. Conclusion 41
8. References 42
List of Abbreviations
EVD – Ebola virus
WHO – World Health Organization US – United States of America
DN – Dagens Nyheter newspaper (Sweden)
The NY Daily News – Daily News newspaper (US)
1. Introduction
The view of democracy has since its establishment been the force of providing an open system of communication to and between citizens. Based on the idea of offering news in different forms in the media sphere as fostering public debates, providing access to uncensored information but how media has measured up to these principles is another question. A great amount of empirical studies done in the field provides various perspectives on how news can be understood as they are influenced by factors such as values, ethnics, and the organizational form to news gathering routines (what is often published), economic pressures, cultural, ideological influences, information and communication when producing news (Nab & Olivier, 2009:113144).
In a world full of news, media must grip and keep readers attention. Media texts can be published news, novels, titles of TV programs, frontpage of websites with the aim of engaging and communicating in order to produce reaction. In other words all texts can be defined to be active in the way of producing meanings in the mindset of readers. It can be argued that the reader is conscious towards some meanings meanwhile other hidden meanings are produced unconsciously. However, through support of textual analysis hidden messages in media texts can be detected (Burton, 2005: 4546).
Media has a decisive role in communicating statements made by diverse social actors.
Information is interpreted, absorbed, reconstructed and later on reproduced in new structures for readers. While reproducing news, meanings are often reconstructed or lost where original messages adopts new forms. Consequently media plays a crucial role in framing public communication. All media texts are influenced and constructed by own storytelling of how to describe, what to present and what to focus on and how to best reach out to the public. To determine meanings of events or how to understand them are a complex process in itself (Jackson, 2005:29, 164165).
1.1 Problem identification
The problem identification is to investigate how newspapers have portrayed EVD and this will be done by conducting a content analysis to investigate how EVD is portrayed, shaped and presented in each selected newspaper.
Consequently aiming to explain on a global level how concepts of power, securitization, geographical placement, crises and risk communication, “them and us” can be detected in news articles presented. In addition, Burton (2005) argues for the idea how news can reflect the interests of commercial cultures, of the market, of national preference, of cultural values being directed towards providing entertainment (Burton, 2005:274275).
1.2 Relevance in Peace and Development
The relevance of this study in Peace and Development studies takes its fundamental grounds in understanding how other major social actors such as global media uses their influences for creating understandings of the real world. In terms of understanding media’s role in framing public communication by observing how process of information is created and provided to the international community.
In addition, all types of “instabilities” in societies such as social, political, economical or cultural ones are often topics highlighted in media. Therefore becoming an influential actor in constructing views of how events such as civil war, health crisis, economical collapse etc. in
“the real world” should be interpreted and understood. Therefore media becomes central for understanding how events can be framed and constructed in media, in contrast to how formal institutions portray certain phenomenon in this case how WHO portrays EVD in comparison to the newspapers.
1.3 Methodological delimitations
EVD is observed through the lenses of certain significantly selected newspapers causing that certain news articles have been selected in terms of information covering cases of classification made by WHO: a) Those with widespread and intense transmission (Guiana, Liberia and Sierra Leone) b) Those with or that have had an initial case or cases or with localized transmission (Mali, Nigeria, Senegal, Spain and US) Additionally, this limitation is due to observing how Western and African newspapers have portrayed EVD. Selecting a volume of 19 articles to establish a correct content analysis in respect to time limitations.
Furthermore, by using an abductive mode of inference the results will be limited to the frame of analysis used for this research. The conceptual framework created from found themes in news articles are among several possible concepts for explanation. Based on the findings and conclusions drawn from the conceptual framework, these are some of the possible results of how EVD has been portrayed.
In addition, when conducting qualitative research the researcher plays a role in how data is analyzed, as certain points of departures may be favorable over others. Since researchers are influenced by own ontological assumptions of the research objective that is being observed and studied. Additionally, as researchers are engaged being the main collector of how data is selected outlining certain favorable structures of the analysis.
1.4 Disposition
Chapter one presents the purpose and research questions of the thesis. Chapter two explains the methodology used in the research following chapter three of the conceptual framework including previous research. Following, chapter four contains background information about EVD where an additional description of media is presented. Chapter five presents results structured in categories in terms of four parts presenting EVD. In chapter six results are analyzed and chapter seven outlines the conclusions made.
1.4 Purpose and research questions
The purpose lies in understanding how newspapers framing process of a certain phenomenon are created. Additionally, investigating on a global level how selected newspaper have portrayed EVD in Africa. The point of departure will be set on a global level where main focus is placed on Western and African newspapers.
Research questions
1. How is EVD portrayed in selected regions?
2. What can explain how EVD has been portrayed?
3. What similarities and dissimilarities can be found in their comparison?
2. Method
This chapter will present as well discuss the methodological choices made for a qualitative content analysis. Primary data sources are news articles additionally using literature for conducting and analyzing the findings. A volume of 19 articles and 4 newspapers are used to create the content analysis in respect to time limitations. Following a detailed presentation of a content analysis and the created coding scheme.
A qualitative method has been used for structuring a content analysis. A qualitative method is a research method with means to provide opportunities to understand and examine social phenomenon in accordance with individual or groups’ perceptions Creswell (2009) . Therefore qualitative method provides measures for investigating and understanding
underlying forces behind social problems ascribed by individuals as well groups. In relation to the qualitative research the quantitative research is centered on testing theories through established hypothesis, examining variables relationships through statistical data (Creswell, 2009: 4).
In addition, all types of modes of interference inductive, deductive and abductive are forms of how argumentations are constructed. The types of interference mentioned above structure and affects how conclusions later on are drawn. In this case, articles are analyzed through a content analysis following a structure of an abductive reasoning. The abductive inference provides the interpretation and reconceptualization through support of conceptual
frameworks, where the strength lies in analyzing ascribed meanings given to certain events (Danermark, 2002:80).
According, to Danermark (2002) all mode of interference contains certain steps of how to conduct a certain mode of interference, depending on the kind of reasoning used. Therefore implying differences in how research can be conducted depends on what kind of argumentation is constructed. The abductive mode of interference used in this research describes the process of using analytical frameworks or concepts to explain and interprete the data findings. The abductive mode of interference provides therefore a way to study reality. In terms, the abductive reasoning provides opportunities for a certain phenomenon to be viewed and analyzed in different ways depending on point of departure and frame of interpretation.
Providing abilities to reconceptualize reality depending on what analytical framework is used creating means of new ideas and assumptions when observing a social phenomenon. With new instruments of interpretation new assumptions of reality can be drawn. Additionally, this causes that the abductive reasoning can’t claim any truth hence only indicating how a certain phenomenon can be understood (Danermark, 2002: 9091).
A coding scheme of collected data is commonly identified as content analysis. Content analysis can be conducted both on qualitative and quantitative methods where data collection decides the method. Data can be collected on numerous ways from words, phrases, sentences, paragraphs, sections and chapters depending on relevance since concepts or conceptual frameworks are applied to analyze hidden messages. The qualitative content analysis examines foremostcollected data from coding schemes or analytical schedules. Coding schemes are created from themes discovered in texts a tool to identify concepts to analyze collected data (Bergström & Boreus, 2011:12, 18, 23, 43ff, 49ff).
Primary data has been articles complemented with secondary sources as literature and peer
reviewed academic journals. In addition, it is essential to be critical since all researchers conducting research in all forms are influenced by their own underlying assumptions when presenting her/his argumentation. Each article used in this research is to some extend characterized by diverse interests. In addition, journalists while presenting events of EVD use their perspective making them active actors when constructing worldview adapted to their own assumptions of reality. In line all public information are affected by underlying
assumption of the world. Therefore data can be viewed in various ways depending on the applied perspective.
To a large extent theories and analysis in the book Media and Society by Burton (2005) has been employed for analyzing articles providing basic guidelines of Media perspectives.
Burton, takes his point of departure in critical perspectives of Media studies providing critical overviews of traditional ways of thinking about media. Additionally, taking a holistic view of media and society to understand connections of news media, therefore lacking in providing information how indicators are related when news are shaped. Furthermore, a more detailed analysis is not of focus in this thesis, as overviews are needed to understand main aspects of how news is established.
2.1 Selection and limitations
The methodological limitation is foremost impacted by time limitations in terms of fulfilling a correct content analysis in line with what has been discussed abow, with awareness of 10 weeks to produce the thesis. In addition, with a volume of 19 articles in total 5 articles from 2014. Furthermore, DN (Sweden) did not publish an article in March 2014, which results in choosing only four articles to analyze . Five articles from The Guineeconakry (Guinea), The NY Daily News (US) and The Salone Monitor (Sierra Leone) newspaper have been selected.
Moreover more articles in awareness of time limitation would have caused “overviews”
prohibiting a richer analysis.
More articles would have provided higher representative increasing reliability but would have prohibited depths of an analysis produced in 10 weeks. The validity of answering the research questions causes greater difficulty in comparison to qualitative methods. Since qualitative methods have a greater difficulty in increasing validity. Therefore there is a need to observe if collected data with support of frame of interpretation can provide ability to answer created research questions. It is crucial to be aware if collected data is compatible with frame of interpretation when answering the research questions. To increase validity it is crucial to be precise in measures of reliability. In terms of a content analysis reliability is concerned with accurate presented data being able to conduct a thesis multiplied times with same results. Therefore when performing a content analysis it is essential to use sources with high rehabilitee as literature or other academic works. (Bergström & Boreus, 2011: 34ff). For
example, how WHO has identified EVD in relation to how newspapers have presented the topic to be able to observe incorrect information.
Each newspaper is significantly selected in awareness to geographical placement in Africa (Guinea and Sierra Leone) where originally outbreaks began. The selection process is influenced by access of archives of each newspaper. The selected newspapers have been influenced by the purpose and research questions where newspapers have been accessed through the web identifying “online newspapers”.
Narrowing down articles deciding to select events to observe how each newspaper have reported to investigate “what kind of information” is highlighted and what is not. With significantly focus on using “newspapers” as the organizational form yet the organizational form/structure is not of focus in terms of observing ownership. Events have been selected from Ebola Response Roadmap established by World Health Organization (WHO). Grounded on two identifiable categories, selecting articles content from this classification (WHO; Ebola Response Roadmap, 2014).
The classification of the categories contains following:
1. Those with widespread and intense transmission (Guiana, Liberia and Sierra Leone) 2. Those with or that have had an initial case or cases or with localized transmission (Mali,
Nigeria, Senegal, Spain and US)
Thirdly, English written newspaper are used expect the Swedish DN (Sweden) newspaper and French newspaper The Guineeconakry (Guinea). These articles will be translated into English. Through out the results only selected parts will be highlighted and not whole articles.
Providing an overall analysis of content of selected articles with themes found through in each article text with support of the established coding scheme.
2.2 Coding Scheme
The coding schema follows the path of the conceptual framework presented in 2.2.1.
Questions have been employed for each text to identify similarities and dissimilarities.
The coding scheme has been created from discovered themes in each text, the coding schema has assisted in constructing a structure of what kind of information should be researched.
Studying each text to observe the information published linking data with themes and concepts.
The structure of Themes of Coding Scheme 2.2.1 presented below identifies questions employed to each article texts. Where each question is constructed from the conceptual framework in terms of analyzing found themes such as selection of information, actors and action, global health news, crisis and risk, “them and us” and changes in news reports. In other words found themes have been analyzed in the light of the conceptual framework of concepts of power, securitization, risk and crisis communication and “them and us”.
The value of a coding scheme is to detect observable patterns of similarities and differences between each text. Through the support of a coding scheme limitations are created and a clear structure is created for observing “what kind of information” should be researched for.
2.2.1 Themes of Coding Scheme 1. Selection of information
What characterizes each text?
2. Actors and action
Statements? How are actors telling the story? Security action. Is Ebola becoming securitized?
3. Global health news
What does it mean that newspapers are located in diverse regions?
4. Crises and risk
Threats presented? What is each reader presented with in accordance with risks?
5. Them and us
Interlinked with power influences? What is highlighted? What kind of reasoning is each text formed after? What do we get to know?
6. Changes in news reporting How does the story change?
3. Conceptual framework
In this chapter the conceptual framework established is presented. The selection of each concept is influenced by The coding scheme presented in 2.2.1,. in terms of forming a conceptual framework influenced by “what kind of themes” have been found in each article text. The amount of using four different yet similar concepts lies in providing a greater picture of how EVD has been portrayed in other words to prevent from viewing EVD from one angle of perspective.
3.1 Securitization
In terms of Abiri (2002) the term securitization describes societal problems observed as non
military threat to the society in the post cold war. The term securitization defines the process of what is interpreted as threats to society, such as environmental collapse, international criminality, conflicts, population growth and migration (Abiri, 2000. p. 47). In addition, Buzan (1998) argues for how security concerns economic, social and environmental damages and are analyzed in how the last three factors causes damage to the state. Moreover security identifies “survival in the face of existential threat”, even if “what constitutes an existential threat is not the same across different sectors” (Buzan et al, 1998:27). Furthermore the security concept has additionally become a wellknown term used by the media. Abiri (2000:
49) argues for how security concepts holds different analytical stages in terms of individual security, security of family, security of identity groups, state security, security of macro
region, and international and global security etc. As each concept of security is linked to what people perceive as threats in their societies, where each perceived threat could become securitized.
“Development requires security and without security you cannot have development”
(Duffield, 2007) according to Duffield (2007) development assistance to developing is primarily associated with securing western way of life. Development issues such as poverty, environmental collapse, civil conflict or health crisis compose threats to western ways of life, as these problems do not respect geographical boundaries (Duffield, 2007. p. 14, 111)
In addition, Duffield (2007) argues for this new way of security thinking emerging after the coldwar era presenting the emerged “human security” as a term bringing a new meaning to security. The population of the developing world, which constitutes a security issue for west, is referred as “surplus population”. While capitalism introduced progress and social benefits
to a large group, it also brought about a disrupted and marginalized group whose skills, status or even existence are in excess of prevailing conditions and requirements (Duffield, 2007:9).
Duffield (2007) argues for how policies have become security questions. In other words, how policies have been securitized from being discourses of development into security questions on a global level.
3.2 Risk and crisis communication
Lundgren and McMakin (2013) define risk communication as a concept describing communication of risks covering communication of health crisis, safety risks or environmental risks. Numerous aspects influences what kind of information is published.
When a crisis emerges with sudden danger news is likely to contain existing information of care communication. In other words information needed for the public to protect themselves.
Later on news articles usually contain more detailed information to uncover information causing the crisis. All news coverage is impacted by timeliness, geographical closeness, importance, consequences, human interest and visual impact. Therefore, media may not give attention needed to clarify likelihoods of outbreaks arising under certain conditions, not describing a wider societal or policy circumstances given a certain risk. Media holds obligation to informing potential dangers and recognizing methods for protection (Lundgren
& McMakin, 2013:208, 211212).
Crisis communication is defined as care communicationspreading information of protection and care. In this case how to prevent further spread of EVD through communicating information of protection. Crisis communication is spreading information about sudden danger, accidents and outbreaks of viruses. This sort of communication occurs during as well after emergencies. Influenced from how to best present a topic as care or consensus communication is highly influenced from how greatly readers are involved or affected depending on location or destination (Lundgren & McMakin, 2013:45).
However, risk communication is also risk management. A risk assessment defines overviews of the event analyzing of who is affected, how many, how long, how will this outbreak be handled. Through support of risk assessment newspapers select what information is published depending on geographical location of both the disease and newspaper, a process of selection is in force. Assessing what information will be communicated depends on who can be
affected, or are affected and if this will be an interest of the audience (Lundgren & McMakin, 2013:5).
3.3 Power
Luke (2005) outlines threedimensional level view of power categorizing a threedimensional level of how power can express itself through each level. The basic assumption of concept of power can be defined as “A affecting B” yet becomes problematic when applied in social life since there is a need to understand “what makes A’s affecting B significantly.” In daytoday life individuals’ impact each other thus to understand this process concepts such as coercion, influence, authority etc., can be useful for observing traces of “power” individuals can possess. Luke (2005) argues for the idea of power shaping forms in threedimensional levels and expressed in diverse ways in social relationships. All threedimensional views on power can be used as interpretations or applications of real cases. Defining the concept power as “A exercises upon B, and how A can affect B in a way contrary to B’s interests” (Luke, 2005:29
30, 37).
The two dimensional view is often linked to Bachrach and Baratz (1970), in addition they argue for power containing two faces. Identifying power in general terms referred to all forms of successful control “by A over B”. First face of power contains securing compliance in other words successful control forms “A over B”. The second face can be referred as
“coercion”. Coercion contains power that embraces influence, authority, force and manipulation. Influence forms where “A without resorting to either a tactic or an overt threat severe deprivation causes B to change his course of action”(Luke, 2005:21) (Bachrach and Baratz 1960 & 1970 see Luke, 2005:2021).
In addition, Persons (1967) argues for specific mechanisms behind changes of action driven by individuals or in collectives. In the sense of understanding action in processes of social interaction where power identifies capacities to secure responsibilities by individuals or collective ones. Having abilities to secure collective goals linking power to authority, consensus and the chase after collective resources. Hence “the power of A over B is, in its legitimized from, the right of A”(Luke, 2005:31) where A contains legitimated right for power of decisionmaking in collective processes.
However, Person criticize Milles view on power as “exclusively as a facility for getting what one group, holders of power, wants by preventing another group, from getting what it wants”
(Person, 1957 & 1967 see Luke, 2005:31) instead of viewing this process as “a facility for the performance of function in and on behalf of the society as a system” (Luke, 2005:31).
Differences arises when power analytically is defined in either as a right of power such as forms of authority or when focus lies on how certain groups contain power for pursuing individual interests by preventing other. In all forms, power can be detected and when conceptualizing power it is essential to understand differences of how power can be created.
3.4 “Them and Us”
The concept of “Them and Us” is closely linked with concept of power, which Elias (1999) presents in his research of Established and Outsiders. Elias (1999) argues for how groups in societies are interlinked and dependent on each other yet holding uneven amount of power.
This crucial relationship itself causes establishment of perception of group’s moral value.
How groups with greater amount of power view themselves as superior in relation to other groups in society. Differences in power are followed by various moral statuses. In each social group moral hierarchies exist separating established groups who act more honorably following morals, laws and cultural orders from outsiders groups. This identifies socalled moral differentiation that established groups maintain power differences between groups.
Power differences between groups are affected by stigmatization caused by power relations (Elias, 1999: ivv). In other words stigmatization process defines oppression against certain groups in society such as men and women, poor and rich etc. therefore Elias (1999) debates for how all forms of oppressions are fundamental grounded in power relations between groups in society. As the moral differentiation becomes a strategy used by powerful groups to form other groups’ selfimage and identity making them weaker (Elias, 1999: vi).
In addition, Elias (1999) shapes the general perception of outsiders putting forward human inferiority as a tool used by established groups. In other words established groups tend to point out certain behaviors and characters to create exclusion and oppression that follows from being inferior (1999: vii).
However, the conclusion Elias (1999) draws from his observations and research of established and outsiders is firstly grounded on a) unequal power relations between two groups that are
Secondarily b) the moral differentiation of groups has an important role between relationships of established groups and outsiders. Thirdly c) ascribing moral value is central for established groups to maintain and create superiority against outsiders groups to create subordination (1999: ix).
3.5 Previous research
The discourse of the subject necessary to keep in mind of EVD being relatively new and literature reviews exist not in the current. In relation to EVD the H5N1 avian influenza identified as “bird flue” is another epidemic with a great amount research done. Whereas H5N1 avian influenza “bird flue” has been discussed through many different point of views.
However, as this research is focused on media especially newspapers current literature is vast.
In the sense of what news are reported, what types of news creates a discourse of a certain health issue, and how a health issue can be constructed in various ways depending on what kind of news.
Many sorts of arguments have influenced the ongoing debate of medias role. In the case of H5N1 avian influenza the media have during a long time reported its outbreaks since its firs started in Hong Kong ands its further spread. In terms of H5N1 avian influenza has been identified as one of the epidemic in the history of influenzas. Collinson and Heffernan (2014) argue for how mass media has a crucial role of reporting diseases outbreaks. In the sense of understanding how mass media and its power can influence how disease transmission under the period of influenza can be reported upon. Therefore arguing for the important role media plays out in defining health issues, as news is a major actor in providing information for the public. In relation they argue for how this affects how the public reacts to reported outbreaks of diseases in terms of risk and crisis communication (Collinson and Heffernan, 2014:6).
However, concept of power is often debated upon since no universal agreement exists in terms of how to exactly define power, how to conceive it, how to study it and if it can be measured, and how to measure it. Disagreements of identification of the concept can be described in countless ways. One description can be in terms of the “word” power containing multiply and diverse meanings, appropriate to different settings and concerns. Meanwhile others argue for concepts of power having diverse meanings in various local languages.
Hence, the vocabulary of power can be expressed in numerous ways in diverse contexts for
diverse purposes becoming problematic when striving for creating an universal identification of concept of power. (Luke, 2005: 6162).
Boero (2006) argues for media having a fundamental base in construction of how the epidemic itself is showcased in the view of the public. In terms of how diseases are constructed and understood (Boero, 2006:42). In line with this argumentation of medias ability to provide knowledge when outbreaks of diseases occur spreading it through broadcast, newspapers and television. Making media an important actor in the transmission process of reporting upon how the disease is spread through communication. Defining risk and crisis and care communication as media coverage provides ability for the public to be apart of transmissions process in rapports of vaccinations and spread. In other words how media reports upon diseases influences readers mindset towards the disease itself, which can affect interventions for pursuing vaccinations to prevent further spread. Shortly through media provides access of information therefore playing a crucial role of spreading information (Wang, Cao, Jin, Zhang and Sun, 2013:5825).
4. Background
In this chapter background information is presented to be able to provide an overview of what EVD is and as well present what countries are currently suffering form outbreaks. Further down some information of medias role in society is presented to give readers a greater understanding of what kind of role media plays in modern society.
4.1 Overview of Ebola virus (EVD)
Ebola virus disease (EVD) or Ebola hegemorrhagic fever emerged first in 1979 in Sudan and Democratic Republic of Congo causing two outbreaks. The current EVD in West Africa has become the biggest outbreak since recorded back in 1979. More cases and death have been recorded compared to other cases detected throughout the years. Previous outbreaks have been recorded in Sudan, Uganda, South Africa, Gabo and Cote d’lovire hence Sudan, Democratic Republic of Congo and Uganda have had numerous recurring outbreaks throughout the years. Last cases of EVD were recorded back in 2012 in Democratic Republic of Congo and Uganda. Outbreaks in Central Africa arose in isolated villages near tropical rainforests where current outbreaks have arisen foremost in urban and rural areas in West Africa. The first case recorded in March 2014 in Guinea spread across borders to Sierra Leone
cases of EVD are Guinea, Sierra Leone and Liberia. Where fragile health systems, lacking human and infrastructure resources has caused bigger outbreaks (WHO, Ebola virus disease, 2014).
Normally fruit bats are victims of EVD Hence been transmitted to humans’ through interaction with infected animals as chimpanzees, gorillas, fruit bats, monkeys, forest antelope and porcupines from blood, secretions, organs and bodily fluids. Where transmission between humans happens via contact with blood, secretions, organs or other bodily fluids from infected people as well from surfaces and materials such as clothes. Numerous cases of health workers reported being infected while nursing patients have been caused from close contact with ill patients. At the same time, decreased patients can impact the transmission as long their blood and body fluids, including semen and breaks mike containing the virus (WHO, Ebola virus disease, 2014).
Symptoms of EVD are fever, muscle pain, headache and sore throat followed by vomiting, diarrhea, rash, weakened kidney and liver function and sometimes also internal and external bleeding. Infected patients develop symptoms of EVD from 2 to 21 days. The fatality of EVD is approximately 50% with a variety of case facility 25% to 90% in previous outbreaks.
Treatments and vaccines to cure do not exist. However through carerehydration with oral or blood fluidsand treatment of particular symptoms increases chances of survival (WHO, Ebola virus disease, 2014).
Means to prevent and control further spread has been through implementing case control, surveillance and contact tracing, laboratory service, secured funerals and social mobilization.
With community engagement to effectively controlling outbreaks, educating in risks as well in protection of human transmission. Knowledge concerning risks of wildlife to human transmission, humanto human transmission and containment of (burial) decreased (WHO, Ebola virus disease, 2014).
4.2 Media in modern societies
Media inhibits a crucial role within sectors such as political, social, economical and further on. Playing a critical role in communicating information to societies. Media defines everything from newspapers, radio, broadcasting, television and web with the main goal of spreading information. To understand the complex relationship between societies and media,
it is crucial to understand medias role in shaping worldviews (Hadenius, 2009:1516). Today societies are extremely dependent on media for information of public affairs both in accessing and understanding given meninges of events. This process constantly confirms the dependent relationship societies have towards media for information. Therefore media is a key actor in framing public communication for how to present and describe events. Making media a key actor for transmitting and reproducing discourse in societies (Jackson, 2005:164, 167).
5. Research results
In this chapter all the research findings are presented and following all results are separated in different headings. In terms of each heading representing their own “findings” in ways of presenting articles in a created timeline of March to October. Therefore each heading also represents articles in a timeline of when first outbreaks began, the middle time identifying when outbreaks began spreading further beyond Guinea and last part contains findings of when outbreaks occurred outside Africa. In other words this separation is influenced by what is presented in Method 2., of how WHO categorized the spreading of EVD.
5.1 Time differences in news reports
This chapter will summarize the findings of when all four newspapers reported the first time.
In terms of showing time differences of when each newspaper have reported and what factors can influence when newspapers decide to report. Therefore the findings presented here will be the first everpresented article of EVD in March 2014.
As mentioned in EVD overview in 4.1, the first recorded case arose in March in Guinea. The Guineeconakry newspaper in Guinea published the first case EVD in March 23, 2014 like NY Daily News in US. Meanwhile, The Salone Monitor in Sierra Leone reported on May 27, 2014 yet DN in Sweden reported firstly by August 3, 2014 confirming real cases of EVD in West Africa.
Before presenting content descriptions, time differences will be presented. Emphasizing differences in time aspects when first articles got published. To describe differences in time, Burton (2005) presents how the term “news” refers to a certain media material and published news, broadcast news and TV. Whereas news in all forms seems open created from a world of
events yet all news are controlled and produced and published in diverse forms (Burton, 2005:275).
News “assumes” to be true to some extent yet what is published and how it is told differs across a great amount of newspapers, channels, across nations, as there exist no universal understanding of what is essential to report as news. All three newspapers were closely linked in period of time when first article where published. Meanwhile the Swedish newspaper DN was tremendously late in reporting about EVD outbreaks in West Africa not reporting until August 2014.
However, there exist no assurance of what will become news or how events will be represented and interpreted. Therefore key features of news are lightly understood as matters essential for people to have insight to. News can take shape in all forms with focus on providing entertainment from gossip to politics. All news are ideologically influenced and may seem neutral yet impacted by various indicators. In countless ways news reflect interests of commercial cultures of the market, of national preference, of cultural values (Burton, 2005:275).
In addition, to EVD being global news also affects how newspapers selectively chose what to publish. Hadenius and Weibull (2008) describe news concept as closely linked with news publishing systems of newspapers. Publishing systems of news are influenced by cultural, economical and political factors which influences what becomes global news. Outlining how global events does not imply of becoming news in allglobal societies. Where the existence of norms of news production varies from newspapers located geographically near the event or not (Hadenius & Weibull, 2008:302).
In addition, Lippmann (1924) explains how journalists create news to awake emotions and give readers ability for identification. In other words car accidents in Denmark have a greater chance of becoming news in Sweden in comparison in the US. Therefore geographical closeness is essential in terms of providing greater identification for readers. Time factors of when first publishing can be impacted by “being” the first newspaper to report a certain issue.
Newspaper can also prefer to report later on to achieve greater attention (Lippman (1924) see Hadenius & Weibull, 2008:302303).
Prakke (1969) frames how time, cultural and space effects news production. The further away an event is in one or more of these three aspects of time, cultural and space the less probable for it to become news. The model highlights aspects of news that causes attention and identification for readers. Foremost events evolving political, economical, accidents, crimes, elites etc. have greater chances of becoming news when geographically, welltimed and culturally close (Prakke (1969) see Hadenius & Weibull, 2008:304).
5.2 Portraying Ebola virus (EVD) (part 1)
This chapter will summarize how first and second article published in March and April 2014 portrayed EVD presenting how the discourse of EVD is firstly constructed in the beginning of when EVD began recording outbreaks. In ways of presenting how EVD was firstly presented in each article in March and April to get a greater understanding how EVD is constructed later on.
However, diversity of news content and news appearance does not implicitly mean that news is plural as discourses and ideological subjects influences how news can be presented. To illustrate, deaths from acts of terrorism commonly becomes exaggerated in news reports in contrast to those who die in car accidents since terrorism presents danger against any state therefore having a high position on the ideological agenda (Burton, 2005:276).
First news article of EVD of The Guineeconakry (Guinea) covers information about transmission and risk and crisis communication. Involving geographical, identification and cultural closeness to aware the population hence also involving UNICEF representative in Guinea, to communicate the seriousness of the current situation. By using selected information and statements made by social actors, this article emphasizes a crucial situation of lack of medical means for protection in other words framing a future crisis.
Presented below are quoted parts from article 1.
“In Guinea, a country where health infrastructure is already low, a disease like this can be devastating, "said UNICEF Representative in Guinea, Dr. Mohamed Ag Ayoya.”
(The Guineeconakry, March 23, 2014)
"Avoid contact with sick and dead bodies. Wash your hands and those of your children frequently. Always keep your food properly closed. Avoid being present at the scene of the
funeral as possible”.
(The Guineeconakry, March 23, 2014)
The first news article from NY Daily News (USA) in correlation to The Guineeconakry (Guinea) portrays EVD more in security terms highlighting a crucial situation yet focusing on actors and death cases. Involving governmental officials, health ministry and Doctors Without Borders to transmit messages of social actors and institutions shaping the discourse of EVD outbreaks in security means. Presented below are quoted parts from article 1.
“There’s a definitely a risk but it all depends on the movement of people”
(NY Daily News, March 23, 2014)
“The fatality rate for Ebola can range from 25 to 90 percent. Serk said there were concerns the disease could spread to neighboring West African countries Sierra Leone and Liberia”
(NY Daily News, March 23, 2014)
The first news article from The Salone Monitor (Sierra Leone) published on May 27, 2014 confirms the first ever recorded EVD case in Sierra Leone. Throughout the article actors such WHO are used as information source to present and inform about the first case of EVD in Sierra Leone and presenting information about the current situation in Guinea. Presenting the storytelling of how the first patient in Sierra Leone got infected therefore highlighting statements from ministry of health, ministry of sanitation and director of disease control to confirm the crucial situation. In relation to NY Daily News (US) this article highlights security action to prevent further spread. Presented below are quoted parts from article 1.
“Sierra Leone’s Minister of Health and Sanitation, Mitta Karbo, reportedly said her government was restricting travel to the eastern part of the country”
(The Salone Monitor, April 1, 2014)
“Disease control and Prevention director said, unlike Gambia, which banned flights from Liberia and Guinea following their Ebola outbreak. Sierra Leone has not yet banned travel to
Guinea. “What we have done is intensify what we call ‘contact tracing,’ that is that we have some routines that people go through. When you come to the airport.”
(The Salone Monitor, April 1, 2014)
DN (Sweden) did not publish under March or April therefore no article will here be presented.
However, as we can observe all three presented articles above are shaped in different ways in terms of what information is presented. This can be explained in terms of news values; in addition, Galtung and Ruge (1970) describe news as containing information about events and people. News is characterized by consonance with audience beliefs, connection to what is already in the news, cultural closeness, elites, negativity, personification of what has happened, magnitude of the event and suddenness. In addition, Gans (1980) identifies news following events involving recognized actors, expectable events such as crime, protests and government results, disagreements within nation and society or national subjects interlinked to foreign news (Galtung & Ruge (1970), Gans (1980) see Burton, 2005: 276).
In addition, Jackson (2005) highlights how media takes a critical position in any social discourse in its first stages therefore having power of how it is portrayed and constructed in news. Where all sorts of statements including those presented are all reconstructed, reproduced as well intensified for readers. Losing the original meaning statements takes upon new forms and storytelling get created (Jackson, 2005:164).
5.3 Further spread into West Africa (part 2)
In this chapter the research findings presents the results from how “the middle time” in terms of how EVD is presented in July and August. In other words presenting how EVD got portrayed after spreading further into West African countries after outbreaks were recorded in more countries than Guinea. Therefore findings will show how EVD is portrayed after spreading in more countries.
Newspapers own news values influences also what gets published. The process of selection of publishing events such as conflict, local interests, drama, personalization that would be of interest for their own specific audience to read (Nab & Olivier, 2009:144). Valuing certain news above another, as ways of telling stories are valued over others. Newspapers can be influenced by social values or have certain ideological position in connection with institutions
these values are expressed and where they may come from, to observe what events are published as news and what is not (Burton, 2005:281282).
The second period of how EVD has been portrayed will be presented here. Articles from July and August will be presented portraying a period of time where EVD began spreading beyond Guineas borders into neighboring countries such as Sierra Leone and Liberia. Since outbreaks began outside Guinea all three countries such as Guinea, Liberia and Sierra Leone has had largest cases reported, with a total of 20 171 confirmed cases of EVD with 7890 deaths reported up to 29 December 2014 by Ministers of Health of Guinea, Liberia and Sierra Leone (WHO, Ebola Response Roadmap, 2014).
The Guineeconakry (Guinea) article from July and August traces same type of information related to first published article in March. To a large extent presenting statistics of reported cases of EVD. By classifying EVD as crucial health issue causes awareness for readers when presenting data and death cases. Highlighting rural areas of being most touched with focus on Guéckédou, a town in southern Guinea. Declaring Sierra Leones first two recorded cases of EVD Presenting a more detailed risk communication of health crisis and care communication in ways of communicatinginformation of protection and care (Lundgren & McMakin, 2013:45). Presented below are quoted parts from article 2.
“A pandemic that had fallen sharply in April 2014, prior to resurface more strong advantage in recent weeks become of risk behaviors practiced by the population, especially in rural
areas”
(The Guineeconakry, July 7, 2014)
The news report from August takes another turn focusing on presenting information about implemented security action performed by neighboring countries. Communicating how several neighboring countries have implemented health checks and closed boarders from Guinea. Senegal has closed its boarders from Guinea, Sierra Leone and Liberia where Guinea Bissau and Cote d’lovire also closed borders and flights. In this process changes of news reports occur by presenting crisis and risk communication first then turning into security matters.
This can trace how EVD is constructed in a securitization problem by viewing actions performed by other actors. Where neighboring countries have started perceiving EVD as a threat. Therefore traces of power can be detected in the sense of neighboring countries influencing each other to take action. One nation closes its borders another follows in definition by “what makes A’s affecting B significantly” (Luke, 2005:25). Presented below are quoted part from article 3.
“Cote d’loviore, which has been somewhat supportive, announced recently, in addition to the strengthening of control borders, the cancellation of all flights to and from countries affected
by the Ebola virus”
(The Guineeconakry, August 13, 2014)
The NY Daily News (USA) articles from July and August follows same red thread as in March.
Highlighting caution and awareness by warning no travel to affected countries in West Africa.
Portraying EVD as a threat in terms of security matters, due to fear of spread beyond Africa.
Through communicating human security safety in terms of no travel for American citizens fear is created when using statements made by state officials.
Meanwhile, creating “them and us” aspirations by bringing home two American citizens infected and creating more fear by communicating cases of two American becoming infected in West Africa. Outlining, how readers can identify themselves to two American cases in relation to 700 patients in West Africa. In addition, Duffield (2007) argues how global threats in all forms have become security matters. How global threats has caused securitization of policies to secure the state and its citizens (Duffield, 2007:111). Presented below are quoted parts from article 2.
“Americans should not travel to Guinea, Liberia and Sierra Leone because of the deadly Ebola virus outbreak currently ramping the West African nations, U.S, health officials
warned on Thursday.”
(NY Daily News, July 31, 2014)
“White House Press Secretary Josh Earnest said the U.S is looking into medical evacuations to bring home two American aid workers diagnosed with Ebola.”
In relation to July, the article from August follows the storytelling of an American citizen showcasing traces of EVD in New York yet describing it as a false alarm. Where the storytelling is mainly focused on highlighting security action performed by British Airways by suspending flights to infected EVD countries. Following news frames, argued by Jackson (2005) how journalists select certain events and in this case highlighting security action implemented in the US. Framing certain facts to construct some sort of interpretation. All cases in all articles are framing fear in different ways (Jackson, 2005:165) Through the use of political leaders a certain interpretation are constructed. In other words, having power to form public’s view on events of cases of EVD. Presented below are quoted parts from article 3.
“Meanwhile, as fear continues to spread, British Airways announced it will suspend all flights to Guinea, Liberia and Sierra Leone.”
(NY Daily News, August 6, 2014)
“In Washington, at a summit meeting with African leaders, President Obama said the U.S. is ready to "do whatever we can to help" with the crisis.”
(NY Daily News, August 6, 2014)
The Salone Monitor (Sierra Leone) articles from July and August take another storytelling yet following themes of security. When representing data of cases of EVD this can be due to performance of so called risk assessment. Risk assessment has its ground from risk management that includes an assessment over who, or, how many, how is the transmission going (Lundgren & McMakin, 2013:5). Sierra Leone reporting cases of EVD information about current spread is presented. After performing a risk assessment surveillance procedure is taken into action. Presented below are quoted parts from article 2.
“Fifty new cases of Ebola and 25 deaths have been reported in Sierra Leone, Liberia and Guinea since July 3, as the deadly virus continues to spread in families, the World Health
Organization (WHO).”
(The Salone Monitor, August 8, 2014)
Measures include better surveillance to detect the virus and enhancing cross border cooperation.”
(The Salone Monitor, August 8, 2014)
Meanwhile the article from August is mostly based on information about security action undertaken in Sierra Leone. Declaring security implementation made by Liberia and Sierra Leone after declaring EVD emergency. Security measures of troops to block movements and further spread where the main focus is placed to portray the current situation. In the same process building fear by not presenting care communication to prevent further spread.
Presented below are quoted parts from article 3.
“The goal is to seal off at least four affected counties in the north and west of the country and the borders with Guinea and Sierra Leone.”
(The Salone Monitor, August 11, 2014)
“Security forces in Liberia and Sierra Leone set up roadblocks and took other measures to limit people’s movements.”
(The Salone Monitor, August 11, 2014)
However, DN (Sweden) reported its first news article in August. Two articles will be presented in this section from August. The first article from August published in DN (Sweden) follows the event of one aid worker from US infected by EVD in Liberia. Following up the article describes the storytelling of how this patient got sick while news are created from its originally source material all news turn into narrative storytelling. Selected information has been presented where readers can easily connect to the content (Burton, 2005:277). Instead of focusing on the current situation in West Africa the focus is placed on one American case creating greater identification for the audience. Constructing meanings of one patient in America “as more essential” in relation to cases in West Africa. This process identifies the creation of “them and us”, where US is part of the western world in several ways such as culture, political and economical similarities meanwhile Africa is not.
Presented below are quoted parts from article 1.
“One of the American aid worker infected with Ebola has now arrived at the hospital, Emory in Atlanta in the US. “
(DN, August 03, 2014)
“Anders Tegnell: There are few infectious diseases today that kills as fast and as much”
(DN, August 03, 2014)
The second article from August published in DN (Sweden) presents facts. Outlining the course of EVD after a half a year since first case were recorded. Communicating facts of how transmission is going, death cases and how further EVD has occurred yet shifting emphasizes to the political instabilities within communities especially in Sierra Leone.
The cause of communicating political agenda can be described in terms of time factors in line with Lippman (1924) as DN (Sweden) was last in reporting EVD this can be explained by using a strategy of presenting new information instead of publishing “old news” to get greater attention (Lippman (1924) see Hadenius & Weibull, 2008:302303). By presenting information about political instabilities in Sierra Leone meanings of “them and us” is created.
Placing political instability as a central factor for continued spread of EVD. In other words pointing out flaws within society to create exclusion (Elias, 1999: vii) of how political system currently in Sierra Leone has caused further spread. Presented below are quoted parts from article 2.
“Knowledge flawed and warnings are not taken seriously. Many infected chooses not to trust neither authority nor doctors to follow the quarantine restrictions. “
(DN, August 11, 2014)
“In Sierra Leone, the state has betrayed the people for a long time. Its history is full of corruption scandals and failure in welfare.”
(DN, August 11, 2014)
News becomes a type of narrative, where selective versions of real events, expressions and actions are represented that is observable in each article. In terms of Burton (2005) news are forms of “constructed reality,” (Burton, 2005:277) of events. How events are represented depends on society and its common set of views on a certain event. In addition, Burton (2005) argues for how public information contains underlying understanding of the world. In all published news, information gets selected where all information are some sort of knowledge, and Burton (2005) categorizes knowledge not as a substance of facts but a substance of
