Food security and smallholding agriculture within households in South Africa: Experiences from the township Lingelihle

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Karlstads universitet 651 88 Karlstad Tfn 054-700 10 00 Fax 054-700 14 60 Information@kau.se www.kau.se Faculty of Social and Life Science Department of Health and Environmental Science

Lisa Falkenström

Food security and smallholding agriculture within households in South Africa

Experiences from the township Lingelihle

C-thesis, 15 credit points Environmental Science

Date/Term: 2012-01-03 Supervisor: Hilde Ibsen Examiner: Eva Svensson

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Abstract

The environmental status in the world is vulnerable as natural resources are depleting and climate change is shifting the environmental conditions. In the same time there is a growing world population, rising food prices and increased rivalry about the land. These conditions put an increased pressure on food security and agricultural practices in the whole world. How can rural people in less affluent countries benefit from agricultural activities and reach food security? In the rural township, Lingelihle in South Africa, there are still urgent challenges with poverty and inequities in order to achieve a sustainable development. What can be done in a township where children are hungry, HIV/AIDS is widespread and where inhabitants are struggling with huge unemployment? This study seeks to explore how households can deal with food security through smallholding agriculture in the township Lingelihle in South Africa. The thesis is based on a qualitative method where I combine field research and semi- structured interviews. There are four interviewed households where two of them are non- cultivating households and two households cultivate in their garden.

The theoretical approach is to investigate how smallholding agriculture and governance activities can contribute to food security and thereby an improved rural sustainable

development. To reach a sustainable development there is important to explore how the food is produced; smallholding agriculture is related to sustainable agriculture where different cultivation practices are discussed. It’s also relevant to search for organization possibilities and governance activities that facilitate the everyday life of inhabitants in Lingelihle. The results from the study involve aspects of family structures, food consumption, governance activities, attitudes, motivation, knowledge and cultivation practices. Experienced constraints and possibilities of smallholding agriculture are discussed according to interviews and own observations.

A lot of work has been done to achieve a rural sustainable development in Lingelihle but there are still much to do. Smallholding agriculture can be a way of enable food security and

contribute to alleviating poverty in the most immediate future. There are some challenges but also possibilities where potential is found in cultivation practices that are connected to

sustainable agriculture and related to governance activities.

Key words: Smallholding agriculture, food security, governance, rural sustainable development.

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Table of contents

1. Introduction ... 1

1.1. Objective ... 2

1.2. Research questions ... 2

1.3 Method ... 2

2. Theory ... 5

2.1 Smallholding agriculture ... 5

2.3 Governance ... 8

3. Result ... 11

3.1 The need of sustainable development in Lingelihle ... 11

3.2 Family structure within households ... 13

3.3 Food consumption ... 14

3.4 Masizakhe Agricultural Project ... 16

3.5 Attitudes and motivation ... 18

3.6 Knowledge and cultivation practice ... 20

4. Discussion ... 23

5. References ... 27

6. Appendix 1: Interview guide ... 30

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Acknowledgements

This thesis was possible to realise thanks to many actors. First of all, my travel to South Africa was enabled through the scholarship Minor Field Study which is financed by the Swedish organisation Sida. Secondly I would like to thank two persons who’s been of good guidance; my supervisor at Karlstad University, Hilde Ibsen, who’s been a great support and showed an immense engagement. There is also my supervisor in field, Nomandla Singeni, who’s been coordinating contacts and facilitating the practical work in field. Without her this study wouldn’t have been possible to fulfill. Furthermore she’s been very inspiring, drifty and letting us in her lovely family with open arms. Thirdly there are some people that’s been closely involved in this thesis and the staying in South Africa; Mr & Mrs Jack, Zelda Colarossi, Johanna Ljunggren, Kajsa-Lisa Jonsson, Therese Svensson and all teachers at Nxuba Senior Primary School. There are also people who have provided me with necessary information; Mrs Majiba, two technicians from Department of Agriculture, a practioner at Social Development, members from Masizakhe Agricultural Project and of course my four interviewed households. Thank you all!

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1. Introduction

South Africa has a troublesome history because of colonialism and the apartheid era, but since 1994 the country has gone through a transition towards democracy. When ANC came to power they developed the Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP). The program was designed to cope with reduction in poverty and inequities in the country. Reconstruction and development should be made through democratic institution, representative democracy, participation and a sustainable and environmental friendly growth and development path.¹ In the Bill of rights in South Africa’s constitution there is a statement according to sustainable development and environmental issues where everyone has the right:

 to an environment that is not harmful to their health or well-being; and

 to have the environment protected, for the benefit of present and future generations through reasonable legislative and other measures that:

 prevent pollution and ecological degradation;

 promote conservation; and

 secure ecologically sustainable development and use of natural resources while promoting justifiable economic and social development.²

The economic, social and political transition since apartheid is of magnitude but there are still huge problems related to poverty and inequality. The country has one of the highest

differences in income, and compared to other middle income countries there is a remarkable high level of absolute poverty.³ Another problematic picture is that there is approximately 70 percent of the poor that live in the rural areas and the social structure is still very segregated.

Looking at a city’s structure there is still typical “white” or “black” areas where the typical

“black” townships often are characterised with poor conditions. ⁴

There are basic and urgent needs to fulfil in South Africa which are important to achieve according to a sustainable agenda. The UN’s Millennium Declaration is handling the relationship between poverty and sustainable development. The Millennium Development

1 Parliament of the republic of South Africa, White Paper on Reconstruction and Development, Ministry in the Office of the President for general information.(1994)

2 South African Government Information (2009) http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm

3Altman, M., Hart, T. & Jacobs, P, (2010) Food security in South Africa http://www.hsrc.ac.za/Research_Publication- 21595.phtml

4 Sogoni, M: “State of the Province Address”, 2009. http://www.polity.org.za/article/e-cape-sogoni-state-of-the-province- address-by-eastern-cape-premier-mbulelo-sogoni-13022009-2009-02-13

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Goals (MDG:s) are developed with the purpose to alleviate poverty and improving lives.⁵ The government in South Africa is implementing the MDG:s especially through The Medium Term Strategic Framework (MTSF, 2009–2014). There are different strategies to deal with poverty and achieve sustainable development; among them it’s essential to reach food security and sustainable resource management that will improve living conditions of all inhabitants.⁶

How to ensure a sustainable development were resources will be used for the benefit of all South African people is a challenge. There are strategies to address the substantial issue about food security and hunger where smallholder agricultural production might potentially offer a way to sustainable development. At the Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries there is an ambition to ensure access to sufficient safe and nutritious food, sustainable natural agriculture and eliminating distorted participation.⁷ To make this happen there is a goal to create 300 000 jobs of smallholding farms in the country.⁸

There are some efforts to reach food-security within the context of sustainable development at a national level; but what is the response in the rural areas in South Africa?The study area of this thesis is the township Lingelihle which is located outside the town Cradock which is to be found in the Eastern Cape Province.

1.1. Objective

In rural South Africa poverty and inequity are still urgent challenges in order to achieve a sustainable development. This study seeks to explore how households can deal with food security through smallholding agriculture in the township Lingelihle.

1.2. Research questions

- How do households in Lingelihle cope with food security in their daily life?

- What are the experienced constraints and possibilities for smallholding agriculture?

1.3 Method

The thesis is based on a qualitative method where I combine field research and semi- structured interviews. The field research is an ethnographic method which is suitable since

5 UNDP, Making progress on environmental sustainability - Lessons and recommendations from a review of over 150 MDG country experiences, Published for the United Nations Development Programme, Environment and Energy Group (2006) p.

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MDG country report 2010 p.16f

7 Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, DAFF (2008) http://www.daff.gov.za/#

8Vuk’uzenzele (2011) Moving with speed to meet government’s priorities, January/February, Government communication, Tyrone Seale www.info.gov.za/vukuzenzele

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I’ve been living within the township during four weeks. According to Alan Bryman it’s a big advantage to be acquainted with the environment the interview objects live in because then it’s easier to understand and interpret the result of the interviews.⁹This method makes it possible to write about my own observations in the natural environment and the everyday life of the township Lingelihle.¹⁰ The study focuses on the interviewing person’s view and on the perspective of the local residents and the outcome of the study is according to a narrative perspective as an ethnographic method. The semi-structured interview is a flexible process and very suitable for qualitative studies. Some issues are arranged in advance as an interview guide but with room to develop certain aspects that’s enlightened by the interview person and with follow-up questions that feels important in the context.¹¹ See appendix 1: Interview guide.

To contribute with new knowledge in an empiric study there is two approaches to theory, namely deductive and inductive. The deductive theory takes the starting point in the theory and thereafter develops hypotheses. Data collection and the analysis from the findings can either confirm or reject the hypotheses. Finally a revision of the theory is made. The inductive approach is to view theory as something that occurs after the collection and analysis of the data.¹² This thesis is not strictly deductive or inductive but includes the both processes, this ethnographic study start out with a deductive theory with some structure in the interview guide and end up with new insights that emerge during the interviews. The in-depth interviews give a bottom-to-top perspective in relation to theories.¹³

How the procedure is made is relevant for the ability to replication of this study. Since I stayed in the township there was convenience to find households close to my living. With that starting point there was mainly a random selection of households but delimited of a few factors. I wanted interviews with two households that cultivate some in their garden and two who don’t, turning out to be four interviews in total with the composition:

- Household 1: Eleven people - Household 2: Six people - Household 3: Six people - Household 4: Ten people

9 Bryman, A, Samhällsvetenskapliga metoder, Liber AB, 2007. p. 300ff

10 Ekström, M & Larsson, L, Metoder i kommunikationsvetenskap, Studentlitteratur (2000) p. 22

11 Bryman, a.a., Samhällsvetenskapliga metoder, p.300ff

12Bryman A, Social Research Methods, third edition 2008, Oxford University Press, New York p. 9ff

13Wilson W J, Chaddha, A (2009) The role of theory in ethnographic research p. 549-564.

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Another aspect of the selection was made for those who can speak English, which not

everyone do well in the township. Considering the study’s reliability depends on whether the measures give the same result over and over again.¹⁴ This study can only say something about the interviewed households in this particular context and spirit of time. The reliability in this study lies in relation to the theories where food security and smallholding agriculture will get an in-depth understanding of the rural inhabitant’s perspective. These in-depth perspectives will be put in correlation to theories that can be either confirmed or disapproved, as well as new knowledge can be shaped. If the questions in an interview guide are understand

differently among the households there could be low reliability. It could have been interesting to stay with the interviewed families for a while to see if what they say correlate to action in the everyday life. How well you measure what you want to measure is managed of the term validity. The measure of sustainable development can be seen differently in different

countries but this particular concept is used in a global context all over the world, even though there is a possibility for interpretation and what you want to focus on. How you perceive smallholding agriculture and food security can also change. In this case these concepts are put in correlation to households.¹⁵

The interviews are analyzed through a qualitative content analysis with focus at the narrative context. This includes a social dimension and the everyday life. At the same time the starting point has a more deductive approach as a directed content analysis where the theories and structures are applied in a narrow context. The interviews are made with various themes from the transcribed material. The themes make it possible to categorize the interviews and link together the underlying sentence.¹⁶

14Bryman, A, Samhällsvetenskapliga metoder, p. 86

15Bryman, A, a.a., p 43

16Hsieh H-F., Shannon S. E., (2005) Three Approaches to Qualitative Content Analysis http://qhr.sagepub.com/content/15/9/1277

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2. Theory

The environmental status in the world is vulnerable as natural resources are depleting and climate change is shifting the environmental conditions. In the same time there is an expected growing population to over 9 billion people in 2050. Even though the history shows an immense urbanization there is still half of the world’s population that lives in the rural areas and will continue to do so in the immediate future.¹⁷ In the rural areas there are approximately 70 % of those who live in extreme poverty with the definition of 1.25 US dollar per day.¹⁸ The greatest population growth is expected to occur in these poorer areas.

An increased world population in combination with higher consumption of livestock-based food will require a more than double global demand for food until the middle of this

century.¹⁹ Food security is a big challenge in the agricultural sector and the world production of food, raising food prices hit the most vulnerable in the world. There is a need of a

sustainable development that alleviates poverty and creates new opportunities in the rural areas. In 2011 The International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) released the Rural Poverty Report where smallholding agriculture is investigated as a coping strategy to reach food security. IFAD is a specialized agency of the United Nations which mission is to enable poor rural people to overcome poverty. The following theory is dealing with

smallholding agriculture and governance as a way to reach sustainable development and food- security in rural and poor areas.

2.1 Smallholding agriculture

There has been little interest in agriculture practices the recent decades; agriculture has not been an alternative way of the future in many developing countries. This has been the general view in a context where there has been hard to make a profitable living, especially among the poor in rural areas. There are several explanations to this: low investments in smallholding agriculture, weak rural infrastructure and inappropriate policies for those in the most urgent need of it.²⁰ Even though there are challenges the report from IFAD stresses that smallholding agriculture is a possible solution to overcome poverty. Smallholding agriculture will not be a way out of poverty for all rural people but many in both the agricultural sector and non-farm

17The International Fund for Agricultural Development IFAD (2011) Rural Poverty Report

18The International Fund for Agricultural Development IFAD, a.a., p. 47ff

19 Science Direct: Long-term global availability of food: continued abundance or new scarcity? p. 246

20The International Fund for Agricultural Development IFAD, a.a., p. 14

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economy are affected of the agricultural sector in one or another way.²¹ About 80% of the world’s rural households continue to engage in farm activities, even if it’s only part-time or self-sufficiency.²² In regions where agriculture has grown strongly also the non-farm economy has increased.²³

Households primarily fall into poverty due to a range of types of risks, ill health, poor harvests, social expenses, raising food prices etc. Many households are moving in and out of the poverty line very repeatedly.²⁴ To adopt strategies that reduce risks are necessary to escape poverty; the most basic strategy is diversification, both in different activities and in the agriculture itself. Smallholders may use highly diversified cropping or mixed livestock and cropping systems to reduce risk. Varieties of the same crop or no-seasonal products can also be a possibility.²⁵

Even if IFAD is promoting smallholding agriculture the report also points out that there isn’t any universal solution and there are some environmental challenges to be aware off. The highest rates of rural poverty are often found in remote areas that are weakly integrated with marginal and low potential land. The dependence of the environment can therefore result in a higher risk for poor rural people because they live in directly connection to the natural

resources²⁶ Those people also live in areas where natural resources are being degraded or increasingly scarce. Many people also live in less-favored land on hillsides, mountainous regions, arid or semi-arid dry lands. This is environmentally fragile lands were soils,

vegetation and landscapes are easily eroded. The climate change can be seen to multiply risks due to more frequent events of extreme weather such as droughts, floods and cyclones.

Climate change will also affect the natural resource base for agriculture, likely because of reduced water availability, increased temperatures, uncertain or shorter growing seasons, less arable land and new pest and disease patterns. There is already a changing of ecosystems and biodiversity that affect agricultural production.²⁷ Managing risk is a prerequisite for

agricultural production but it can also discourage people to seize opportunities and take the

25The International Fund for Agricultural Development IFAD, a.a., p. 76f

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chance to invest in the future.²⁸ Poor rural people and smallholders need better preparedness, early warning and support to adapt to climate change and variation.²⁹

There is a need of a more sustainable agriculture because of environment degradation.The deﬁnition of “sustainable agriculture,” can be seen to imitate the natural ecosystems. Within the concept of sustainable agriculture there are practices about agroecology, integrated agriculture, low input, precision agriculture and organic agriculture. In the last decades the model about sustainable intensiﬁcation has been discussed, the ambition is to produce more food from the same area of land while reducing the environmental impacts.³⁰ But sustainable agriculture face some challenges where replenishing of soil nutrients, water scarcity, erosion, pollution, phosphorus scarcity and energy prices is all of relevance.

There is a rivalry about the natural resources as there is a growing demand for food. ³¹ One argument stresses the question about eating the grain directly instead of raising livestock that are more energy- and resource intense in land and water. A vegetarian diet of an equivalent 2,200 kcal per day requires 33% less fossil energy than the average American diet with meat.³² Livestock production is also a contributing factor to greenhouse gas emissions. In order to work for a more sustainable agriculture many countries need to deal with animal production and meat consumption in our diets, as it directly affects our impact on the planet, natural resources and our health.³³ Overgrazing and deforestation are other environmental problems from livestock farming.³⁴

Agricultural intensiﬁcation and monocultures are threatening long-term crop productivity by increasing soil degradation and causing water shortages. Soil erosion has been estimated to reduce yields on about 16% of agricultural land, especially croplands in Africa. Agricultural practices such as no-till agriculture or minimum tillage can help to reduce soil loss and restore soil fertility. In the agricultural sector there is also essential to discuss water as 70% of the available fresh water in the world is used for agricultural practices. The use of drop-irrigation that is more precise is one way to deal with water scarcity. ³⁵ Extensive industrialized

agriculture greatly contributes to impoverishing crop biodiversity, with the loss of a large

30Gomiero, T., Pimentel, D., Paoletti, M G., a.a., p. 13

31Koning., N. B. J., at.al. (2009) Long-term global availability of food: continued abundance or new scarcity? p.247ff

33Gomiero, T., Pimentel, D., Paoletti, M G., a.a., p.. 11f

35Gomiero, T., Pimentel, D., Paoletti, M G., a.a., p. 8ff

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number of agricultural species and varieties. Biodiversity loss is also found in landscape modification and displacements of traditionally varieties of seeds. Agriculture intensiﬁcation and widespread use of chemicals is also preventing the natural pollination of especially bees.

Pesticides both affect the environment and the health with negative side-effects. Pesticides are known to cause 26 million human poisonings per year and 220,000 deaths. To decrease the use of chemicals and fertilizer there are techniques as crop-rotation that preserves the

nutrients and use of natural fertilizer.³⁶ Crop-rotation prevents the build-up off pathogens and pests, balances the fertility demands of various crops, by cultivating legume crops the level of nitrogen will replenish and alternating deep-rooted and shallow-rooted plants improves the soil structure and fertility. ³⁷ Environmental problems are expansive, there is estimated that

“25% of the world’s food production may become lost due to environmental breakdown by 2050 unless action is taken.” Climate change is likely to worsen this estimated condition.

These changes will affect the most vulnerable people in developing countries, generally those already suffering for food insecurity.³⁸

Despite the agricultural challenges, the world’s population is constantly dependent on the basic condition of food. Smallholding agriculture is seen as a sustainable option and an alternative to intensive monocultures. To grow crops in diversified smallholding agriculture is argued to be productive and bring the greatest opportunities to minimize risks and costs for sustainable rural development.³⁹

2.3 Governance

There is important to investigate if smallholding agricultural might potentially offer a sustainable strategy to addressing food security among the rural people. The theoretical aspects about food security and governance handle the issue about what kind of policies that benefit poor rural people. It is a major challenge to implement agricultural policies that support small farmers in ways that lead to poverty reduction and economic development. The agriculture is dominant in the most rural areas but need to be more productive to increase the food supply. With a multitude of smallholders these need to be organized for a better

efficiency. Experiences have shown that policies that support small farms by correcting for the market failures are important, especially in the early phases of agricultural development.

39McMichael Philip (2011) Food system sustainability: Questions of environmental governance in the new world (dis)order.

p. 5ff

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But the empirical evidence also shows that it is politically diﬃcult to implement such

policies.⁴⁰ The collective action in poorer and more remote areas is relative low which imply a major commitment to mobilize a governance work.⁴¹ In the most rural societies the women have a great role as both caregivers and producers of food crops in developing countries.

Despite women’s importance in the agricultural work they’re not as much involved in

economic aspects or represented in governance processes as men. Women’s voices need to be strengthened.⁴² Smallholders and subsistence production argue that appropriate support is required to improve the current levels of smallholder production. Appropriate support is dependent on the specific contexts under which smallholder farming is practised.⁴³ The role played by external actors is important to make smallholders to engage profitably;

governments, donors and NGO:s are critical actors to complement the private sector.⁴⁴ In research organizations the rural producers are not often represented which is a big

disadvantage for governance work. The report also stresses the importance of greater policy and political support to make a sustainable agricultural agenda possible.⁴⁵

It’s clarified that development paths of resources and capacities need country-specific responses and targets.⁴⁶ South Africa has experiences poor policies, bad infrastructure and lack of openness in trade for the smallholders in rural areas. These circumstances make poor households caught in a bad circle where they will have problem to catch up with better equipped competitors.⁴⁷ As a response to apartheid history and the unequal distribution of natural resources the government initiated land reform programme to balance the segregated land use for enabling food-security and agricultural development. To help groups or

individuals to produce their own food the government initiated Integrated Food Security and Nutrition Programme (IFSNP). If people want to start a small-scale garden or self-sufficient agriculture in both rural and urban areas the programme can provide with agricultural help in form of seedlings, equipment, fertilisers, etc. To make this programme effective there is a need of neutral policy framework that face farmers and where education can be of great importance. The issue about food security is not one of whether governments should or should not engage in food markets, rather how they can support sustainable policies and facilitate a

40Birner R, Resnick D, a.a., p. 1450

41Birner R, Resnick D (2010) The Political Economy of Policies for Smallholder Agriculture p. 1442ff

43Altman, M., Hart, T. & Jacobs, P a.a., p. 19

46 UNDP (2006) a.a., p. 13

47Kuyenhoven, A., (2009) Africa, agriculture, aid, Wageningen University, p. 94f

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governance framework to strengthen people’s assets and capabilities, both individual and collective.⁴⁸

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3. Result

3.1 The need of sustainable development in Lingelihle

Figure 1: Africa Adventure⁴⁹

The township Lingelihle which belongs to the town Cradock is located in the Eastern Cape Province; the province has one of the highest poverty rates in the country, approximately 70 percent. Cradock consists of three parts in general; one white, one black and one coloured.

The traditionally white part of the city structure is Cradock and the coloured people live in Michausdal. Lingelihle is the black township and is also the poorest. People in Lingelihle are originating from the tribe Xhosa. Cradock lies within the Inxuba Yethemba Municipality which is about 250 kilometres north of Port Elizabeth.⁵⁰ Lingelihle has today approximately 15 000 inhabitants and is characterized by a tragic and bloody history. The township was created during apartheid when the black part of the population was forced to homelands in Lingelihle. Michausdal was created in the same way. The different races were forbidden to

49Africa Adventure http://www.africa-adventure.org/1_englis/southafr/info/samap.html 2011-12-11

50 Damane, D, Potgieter, F.E., Venter, DJL, Part three: “Report on a socio-economic need analysis in Lingelihle, Cradock”

in “Report on a socio-economic needs analysis in the Mount Frere, Peddie and Cradock districts”, (2003)

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dwell in other municipality districts than the one they “belonged to” according to former laws.

Despite of the fall of the apartheid regime it is still very unusual for traditionally white people from Cradock to visit or stay in Lingelihle since it is very segregated.

Because of apartheid South Africa inherited unequal access to environmental services and land use. The forced removals to the townships were located on marginal land in the most fragile areas. The landscape in Lingelihle is categorized of semi-dessert and the Xhosa people had no infrastructure or prerequisite to make a living.⁵¹ While staying in Lingelihle you can see that the land is very dry as typical for the Karoo-area in that specific part of Eastern Cape.

The temperature differs very much from day to night and from summer to winter. Inhabitants are used to shifting environmental conditions.

Sustainable development in these kinds of rural areas is more about satisfying urgent basic needs such as access to food and adequate livelihood as an outcome of poverty.⁵² The principal, Nomandla Singeni, at Nxuba School is saying that children are coming hungry to school.⁵³ Access to food must be of high priority to overcome poverty but to cultivate your own food isn’t a usual way of living in Lingelihle. Even though agriculture is not a usual activity in Lingelihle there is an ambition to change this from the politicians in the province.

In the Growth and Development Plan (PGDP) in the Eastern Cape Province it is stated that one key strategy to reduce poverty is through establishing food self-sufficiency for the poorest households. Suffering from hunger is crucial.⁵⁴

Lingelihle face some urgent social problems. Only by walking around in the township you see a lot of poverty, people who hang around on the street due to high unemployment and

substance abuse where some people are drunk even in the early mornings. There is estimated that 70, 5% of the people in Inxuba Yethemba are not economically active and the

unemployment rate is 43,2% according to the Social Development’s report from 2007. The Social Development is a department which has local offices in different municipalities; where Cradock is included. The report emphasize that statistics are not exactly but will still get a picture of the situation. The criminality rate is also widespread and there is not recommended to go outside after dark.⁵⁵ The mission of the Social Development is “To enable poor, the vulnerable and the excluded within South African society to secure a better life for

51 Palm S-O a.a.

52 Sogoni, M, a.a.

53Singeni N, conversation 2011-03-15

54 Barbour T & Dr Sowman M, a.a., p. 20ff

55 Social Development (2007) Business plan Masizakhe Agricultural Project, Cradock

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Figure 2: RDP-house with a complementing shack in Lingelihle (Lisa Falkenström, 2011)

themselves, in partnership with them and with all those who are committed to building a caring society.”⁵⁶

To establish food security there is essential to create income security. Social grants appear to have been the most important provider to reducing poverty and food insecurity in the poorest households in South Africa. In Lingelihle there is a misuse of social grants that big families rely on. Unfortunately job creation is too slow to reach all people in need. Social grants might reduce people’s vulnerability in short term, but in the long run there is a need for more

sustainable solutions based on enhancing the prospects of employment and strengthening livelihoods.⁵⁷ Nomandla Singeni says that people are expecting that someone else will do the hard work and there is a low work ethic among many people.⁵⁸ The community is also

struggling with health problems such as HIV/AIDS, Tuberculosis, transmitted sexual infections, malnutrition and chronic illnesses hypertension. It is estimated that 40 % of the population is infected with HIV/AIDS.⁵⁹

3.2 Family structure within households

The four interviewed households consist of a big family structure where the people live in a very small area. It’s usual with a

small house with a

complementing shack on your yard, to share bedroom is also very common. The poorest people live in so called RDP- houses (Reconstruction and Development Programme) which are provided by the state, these are extremely small houses with the basic formation of one bedroom, one sitting room, a toilet and a kitchen. The

number of household members can be of relevance to overcome poverty. Even though big families can help each other with labor force to make a living the cost of more mouths to feed

56 Social Development http://www.dsd.gov.za/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=29&Itemid=53

58 Singeni N, conversation 2011-03-15

59Social Development (2007) Business plan Masizakhe Agricultural Project, Cradock

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is often greater.⁶⁰ Poor rural households also have more members with less education, less land and less access to running water and electricity in general. In Lingelihle however, facilities as water and electricity ought to be provided in the RDP houses. Families in

Lingelihle usually own their house and the land that belong to it. This is a positive aspect with regard to farming, when farmers own the land they tend to engage more in farming practices that protect the land resources.⁶¹

It’s important to see how people in Lingelihle make a proper living as if smallholding agriculture can be an alternative food security source in a society with high unemployment rate. There are very few people who deal with farming in the township. The interviewed households confirm the general picture of huge unemployment where a big family rely on one income or solely grants. Two of the households contain members who not work at all. One of the interviewed women said “it’s too heavy to live here in Lingelihle and Cradock; there are no jobs and no money”, once she went to a job in another town but she came back to be with her children. When there is no income the household members put together pension funding and grants for the children to “make something”. Social grants have played an important role in improving household food security since 2001 and the reliance of grants will probably continue and even increase. However this is not a sustainable solution in the long run but is satisfying the most urgent needs.⁶²

There was only one person among the four households with the total amount of 33 people that has a full-time job as a radio operator. In another interviewed households there is one person who does “small jobs”. The residents that work in Lingelihle are dependent on small

businesses and diversified income sources as part-time gardening work, taxi services,

domestic services and seasonal jobs. Employment among the inhabitants can also be found at governmental institutions, gas stations, farms and the municipality. In Lingelihle there are no factories or big industries. People from the township walk to the town Cradock were many still are dependent on labour from former segregation system.⁶³

3.3 Food consumption

Food security is about the very basic premise about how people can get hold of food and nutritious diets. Food choices are relevant of both an environmental aspect and as a healthy

60The International Fund for Agricultural Development IFAD, a.a., p.58

62Altman, M., Hart, T. & Jacobs, P a.a.,

63 Social Development (2007) Business Plan Masizakhe Agricultural Project, Cradock

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issue. In South Africa mealie-meal is an important grocery and it’s made from maize

(cornmeal) and called mealis in South Africa. In one interviewed household they make mealie pap and bread from the mealis. Families in Lingelihle also eat samp which is dried corn kernels that have been stamped and chopped until broken but not as fine as mealie-meal or mealie rice. Rising food prices, particularly of maize and wheat which are the staple diet of the poor in South Africa, pose serious problems for the urban and rural poor as most are net buyers of food. Inhabitants in Lingelihle have already experienced rising food prices the recent years and the prices are also expected to increase over the next decade.⁶⁴ Since 2006 the international food prices have increased considerable and the level is likely to remain high as there is a growing demand for food and in the same time there are natural resource

depletion and energy scarcity.⁶⁵ In the paper Food Security in South Africa, Dr. Peter Jacobs finds out that approximately 80% of households could not afford to buy a basic nutritional basket of food costing an average of 262 rand (similar value to the Swedish crown) per person and per month, at 2005 and current prices and levels of fortification.⁶⁶

Many people in Lingelihle buy their food in supermarkets as Shoprite and Spar in the town Cradock. In the township there are local shops called Spaza where basic groceries can be found such as sugar, milk, bread, samp, mealis, flower, rice and egg. Supermarkets in rural areas have healthier food supplies than small shops in general. But healthier options are often more expensive according to a study about price and availability of food in South Africa.

Healthier diets are richer in micronutrients and in the same time have a lower energy density, such as vegetables, fish and fruits. The study emphasize that high cost of a healthy diet can be less of a problem for those people that are able to grow food in their gardens or buy direct from farmers.⁶⁷ Avoiding high prices can be one of the reasons to start cultivate. Two of the interviewed households are cultivating some own vegetables in their garden and the other two households do not cultivate on their own.The interviewed households have varied

consumption habits but still vegetables is important for all the households. This differ from observations from the township and the general view in the country where many South Africans have a weak understanding for healthy food in relation to energy density and

64 Altman, M., Hart, T. & Jacobs, P a.a., p. 8

67 Temple N J, Steyn N P, Fourie J, De Villiers A (2011) Price and availability of healthy food: A study in rural South Africa, Nutrition, Volume 27, Issue 1 p. 56f

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nutrients, many prefer the taste of less healthy food choices such as candy, cookies, jam, and chocolate, rather than oats, beans, carrots, and apples.⁶⁸

3.4 Masizakhe Agricultural Project

Already in 1990 the people in Lingelihle tried to make a sustainable living even though the Apartheid-regime was still in power. The community residents demanded something more substantial to support the families with food and to alleviate poverty and malnutrition. That’s why Masizakhe Agricultural Project started on the initiative of the inhabitants in Lingelihle.

The project is a cultivating site divided into several plots. Among the inhabitants the project can also be called emasimini which means a big garden in the Xhosa language. None of the thesis interviewed households are members of the organisation but the project is of relevance for governance activity, cultivation and food security in connection to households in

Lingelihle.

In 2007 the project was financed with 750 000 Rand (approximately the same as the Swedish current) by the Social Development department in Cradock. The development goal at the department according to food security and sustainable livelihood is that:

“The Cradock community and poor households are empowered with necessary capabilities and access to services that allow them to sustain and improve their livelihood status, participate in the local economy and ultimately contribute to their own socio- economic upliftment.”⁶⁹

The emasimini site owns the 17 hectares of land which were given by the municipality. In the start-up there were 148 family members who divided the land into 140 plots.The project is runned by the management committee who are the office bearer of the organisation. All the members will elect the management committee in annual general meetings. If a person wants to be a member of the organisation and start cultivating you must go to the management committee, the committee decide over the land that belongs to the project and also have the authority to terminate membership on good cause.

“The main objectives of the organisation are:

1. To provide a sustainable solution to the question of food-security.

2. To create job opportunities for the people of Cradock and the surrounding areas.

3. To access resources, skills and training for the small and emerging crop produce farmers.

68 The cost of a healthy diet: A South African perspective p. 506

69 Social Development (2007) Business plan Masizakhe Agricultural Project, Cradock

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4. To improve the social and economic conditions of its members, their families and the people of Cradock and surrounding areas.

5. To access sustainable markets and negotiate better terms of trade for the members.”⁷⁰ This project can be a good alternative for people who don’t have beneficial land or those who want greater space to cultivate for their own sustention. Inhabitants cultivate potatoes, maize, cabbages, beans, carrots, pumpkins etc. The main purpose with the project is to provide food for the household and the community, and the second objective is to grow like a business.

Sometimes inhabitants from Lingelihle can buy some groceries from the farming members.

When walking around at the site it looks like free plots to cultivate at but according to a community development practitioner at Social Development in Cradock it’s because people come and go during the year. The practitioner understands that there is enough space for the members today.⁷¹

The members of the project were dealing with a problem during April 2011 in Lingelihle and had to call for a meeting at Masizakhe Agricultural project. The cultivating products were being destroyed by pigs that live close to the project and wander around on their own. This meeting were hold to provide a resolution, to keep people calm and not taking the laws in own hands where pigs could get injured or killed. There were a chance of a conflict between owners of the pigs and members of the project. A representative from the Social Development suggested that the pigs will be removed to another side at the location which will be given by the municipality after a dialogue with to owners of the pigs. The municipality may also assist with the mending of fences as these got destroyed by the pigs.

The project is not using artificial fertilizer or pesticides regularly but in a conversation with the chairman and the secretary of the committee there is a will to buy in the future.⁷²

Sustainable cultivation practices are found through a drip-irrigation system to prevent water wastage and the project has several rainwater tanks which are a good option as it’s a bigger site with many plots. According to a project member they’re using crop-rotation which is a sustainable agricultural practice.

70Social Development (2007) Constitution of Masizakhe Agricultural Project, Cradock

71 Social Department, conversation 2011-04-14

72 Meeting at Masizakhe project 20/4 -2011

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18 Figure 3: Members of Masizakhe Agricultural Project (Lisa Falkenström, 2011)

IFAD highlights the

importance for producers to organize into groups. To do so people can combine

transportation costs, establish more reliable relationship with larger buyers, get access to financial services and create a greater voice as a group compared to individuals in many different contexts. The success of a producer

organization need a content of economic rationale, governance, management arrangement and actively committed members, only to name some of the challenges.⁷³ Masizakhe Agricultural Project is a good example of a cooperative with governance character as it started on the initiative of the inhabitants in Lingelihle. In two of the interviews the household members associate organisation and cooperation to this emasimini site (Masizakhe Agricultural Project). A man says: “That people help others in the location”. In the other household a woman also talks about

emasimini and remember that she asked for a plot to cultivate at several years ago but she’s still waiting. The same woman express that “If somebody can do the knock-knock door I will go for it”.

3.5 Attitudes and motivation

In a bottom-to-top approach there is interesting to investigate attitudes and motivations to cultivation among the inhabitants in Lingelihle. Two of the four interviewed households cultivate in the garden to supply their own household. One woman’s motivation is to give the children something to eat and she express that when there are no jobs and no money you must go around and see what you can do. Her vision is to find a place as in emasimini (Masizakhe Agricultural Project) to be proud of. The same woman does not trust the social workers according to this: “I go outside in town and I don’t know where to go. I go to the social workers and you came out with no solution”. On the contrary the only person that got a full- time work among the interviewed households believes that social workers can help if you

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want to cultivate. One of the interviewed households is located in the edge of a street and in connection to a field which is owned by the municipality; a small part of this field is lent for the households benefit and is more suitable for cultivation. This can be seen as a good help but the woman in the household express that the municipality can take the land back whenever they want.

The other cultivating household’s motivation for growing crops is because they “need the vitamins, so vegetables are good”; a man also claims that “most people her in location love vegetables”. To relate vegetables with healthiness is also an opinion in another household that not cultivate, a woman says: “We like vegetables, especially my mother. She got high blood and must eat healthy food”. Another aspect of vegetables is that they are essential for people affected by HIV/AIDS. The clinics in the locations in Lingelihle try to motivate the infected people to start cultivate some own and eat vegetables. Food and nutrition security are

important to ease effects of HIV infection. A balanced and nutritionally diet can enable HIV- infected persons to live longer and healthier lives, as well as to be economically active. In the same time, the infection with HIV and AIDS can increase vulnerability and worsen the ability for food security.⁷⁴ One woman says that she don’t know where to go or get information about cultivating, there is no organization. Further in the interview she talks about department of health in answer to where to get help. Again there is a connection between health and cultivation, which is also confirmed in another interview where a woman says that the clinics and nurses can organize for households in Lingelihle. A nurse at a clinic in the location explains that a manager at the department of health is organizing with the clinics to provide some people with seeds.⁷⁵

One of the households that not cultivate says that they would like to grow something and that she would like to both eat and sell her own-produced food. The woman also got plans to ask her brother for a cultivating place as he deals with farming. Even though none of the

households are producing food for selling there is interesting to explore what experiences they have of market options. A man in one household thinks that you might make a profit from cultivation since vegetables are popular and maybe earn some money. According to one interview it’s also lifted that it’s possible to make a profit and that you might sell it to the shops.

74 Altman, M., Hart, T. & Jacobs, P a.a., p.23ff

75 Philan Clinic, conversation 2011-04-20

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The households that cultivate some food in their garden in Lingelihle are mainly self-

supporting but large-scale farmers are more connected to the market. The agricultural base is essential for economic growth and the market can play an essential role in rural poverty reduction. If these markets would include smallholder farmers better there would be greater opportunities to invest and take necessary risks to make a secure and profitable living.

Smallholder farmers face challenges in infrastructure, lack of prices information and are more vulnerable to an immediate pay-back.⁷⁶ But a positive aspect in remote areas is the

development of mobile phones that facilitate everyone to keep up with news, market prices, potential buyers etc.⁷⁷ Even though many people in Lingelihle are poor the most of them have a televisions even in small RDP-houses and mobile phones are used regardless of living standard.

3.6 Knowledge and cultivation practice

Fundamental to sustainable agriculture is the need for smallholders to build up their understanding of their particular ecosystem and farming condition to develop their own capacity.⁷⁸ When asking about sustainable agriculture one interviewed household had not heard the expression before but as the interview continued they could relate to fertilizer and pesticides. The young man in the household will study agriculture the up-coming year in school. Another man in the same household also believes that “you know, like God send me a skill to do this thing. No one knows about this thing but he can do it”, but in the same time he says that the one who cultivate mostly in the household worked at a farm. A woman who doesn’t live in a cultivating household knows how to deal with agriculture because she went to agricultural school but she doesn’t cultivate as she’s the one who work as a radio operator in the household. Another woman in another non-cultivating household also claims that she knows how to cultivate and she thinks it’s easy. Additionally a woman in one of the

cultivating households says that they don’t need help because the garden is too small and they can manage to run it by themselves.

People in Lingelihle don’t raise livestock of great magnitude in the township; there are only some few cows, pigs, sheep and poultry that can be seen. However, in a global perspective the

76 The International Fund for Agricultural Development IFAD a.a., p. 114ff

77 The International Fund for Agricultural Development IFAD a.a., p. 128

78The International Fund for Agricultural Development IFAD a.a., p. 176

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growing livestock farming is a contributing factor to the mismanagement of land and climate change.⁷⁹

Experienced implementation of smallholding agriculture in Lingelihle faces some constraints about cultivation in your own garden. One of the interviewed household says that the garden is too small; one says that the ground is too rocky; and one says that the garden is both too small and too rocky. Through observations at the households this can be confirmed even if size is relative. As a contrast one of the household that cultivate says that “the soil is beautiful, it’s good, not grassy, not clay”. Three out of four believe that the prerequisites are hard even if they are motivated to cultivate. When speaking of smallholding agriculture there is

significant to investigate the relationship between farm size and sustainable agriculture.

Smallholding agriculture, also called small-scale, can be compared to large-scale agriculture.

Large farms are often associated with monocultures that use pesticides and artificial

fertilizers, which are more environmentally damaging and resource intensive.⁸⁰ Small farms have been disadvantaged in South Africa’s history where policies deliberately favoured large- scale farms. The article, Defining small-scale farmers in the South African context, argues that “size is not a good criterion for defining small farms” due to that the land quality differ very much even in the same country as in South Africa. The size is not in correlation with effectiveness.⁸¹

Some vegetables that are usually cultivated in the gardens are maize, spinach, tomatoes, cabbage, onions, beetroot and carrots. A woman from the municipality says that everyone get free seeds, to grow these kind of crops, from the Department of Agriculture if you show motivation to cultivation, she also understand that these services are well known to

inhabitants in Lingelihle.⁸² According to representatives from the Department of Agriculture there are some programs to help inhabitants in Lingelihle. The Siyazondla homestead food production program is targeting poor and vulnerable people to support food security for those who have access to a small piece of land or garden. The program provides people with

money, seeds and tools if you earn less than 2000 rand per month and has good soil. This is managed through field work to prevent misuse.⁸³ Among the two cultivating households there are one family that buy their seeds in different shops in the town in Cradock and say that it’s

80Horrigan L, Lawrence R S, Walker P (2002) How Sustainable Agriculture Can Address the Environmental and Human, Environ Health Perspect. P. 445

81 Kirsten J.F., van Zyl J.(1998) Defining small-scale farmers in the South African context, Agrekon, Vol 37, No 4 p. 554f

82 Majiba N, conversation 2011-03-15

83Department of Agriculture, conversation 2011-03-30