“The Lost Caviare Days”

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Master's Thesis

– Gastronomy and Alcoholism in Fitzgerald's Tender is the Night

Author: Karolina Eugenes Supervisor: Niklas Salmose Examiner: Johan Höglund Date: 2019-06-14 Subject: English

Level: Advanced, 30 Credits Course code: 5EN01E

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Abstract

This thesis investigates the portrayal of gastronomy in F. Scott Fitzgerald's Tender is the Night. The discussion is based on the ideas “we are what we eat” and “we are where we eat”

and the premise that Fitzgerald creates a significant association to gastronomy by way of the critical field of Food Studies, which divide the arguments into three different subcategories:

Firstly, it presents the principals of Food Studies and stylistics, which focus on literary

stylistic devices such as aesthetics and figurative language. Particularly, the analysis examines that a close reading of the novel is futile without further considerations of contextuality.

Hence, it deals with the text in terms of textuality and contextuality. Secondly, the novel deals with food as a reflection of ethical behaviour and social class, where it examines that

appearance is as significant as money. Further, it investigates the cultural influences in terms of adaption of food preferences in different environmental settings. Thirdly, it explores the association between the concept of psychopathology, mood and the absence of gourmandise in parallel to alcoholism, emotional bankruptcy, escapism and nostalgia. Finally, this thesis seeks to examine that Fitzgerald is “authoring gastronomy” in similar fashion as food critics.

Key Words

Aesthetics, Alcoholism, Class, Drinks, Fitzgerald, Food, Gastronomy, Psychopathology, Stylistics,

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Acknowledgements

I would like to thank Niklas Salmose for his professional and enthusiastic mentoring; Stina Hultberg and Julia Winblad for their heartening company and daily encouragement including numerous coffees and laughs at the University Library; and Jacob Karlegatt for his warm and continual support during my writing process.

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PREFACE

Due to a nine year experience in the food and beverage industry, I have a penchant for gastronomy. I have been working as a bartender and waitress beside my studies during these five years as a literature student in order to show my interests and gain experience in the gastronomic field. Hence, I chose to combine my two main interests literature and gastronomy in this thesis. My intention is to utilise the French gastronomic vocabulary e.g. words and expressions that I have learned through my experience within the food and beverage industry and incorporate them in my close reading and analysis of F. Scott Fitzgerald's Tender is the Night. The gastronomic motif appears throughout the novel, as it is primarily set on the French Riviera and that it frequently refers to French cuisine which is greatly significant in the Western gastronomic sphere. As a result, the structure of the category titles in this thesis reflect the order of a seven course menu in order to enhance the gastronomic authenticity which the novel offers. Firstly, in the section “Amuse Bouche: An Introduction” I aim to open up the reader's senses and curiosity just as an amuse bouche prepares and cleanses the palate before a dinner. Secondly, in “Caviare and Champagne: Previous research and Limitations”

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I will reflect the purpose of caviare and champagne during degustation which usually serves as a palate refreshment, although in writing I would rather refer to it as a memory refreshment.

Thirdly, “Saffron Seasoned Soup: Senses and Stylistics”

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is based on one of the French

degustation menu model where the third course often consists of a soup, hence the name. The

fourth section “Entree: A Fumbling Snobbery” will concern passages reflecting the upper

class in terms of food and beverage choices. Followed by “Le Plat Principal: Uncharacteristic

Burst of Temper” which will primarily focus on Book III and highlight Dick's alcoholism and

emotional bankruptcy. After main course comes cheese, which neutralises the palate's acid

levels after the dinner. Hence, in the section “Fromage: the Absence of Gourmandise” the

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focus will be to slowly round up the analysis and to neutralise the reader's senses through a

discussion of the Diver's malfunctioned marriage. The last meal and sweet ending of this

thesis, “Petit Fours: A Sweet Conclusion” will function as a conclusion which will summarise

the arguments and present the study results.

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AMUSE BOUCHE: AN INTRODUCTION

“Into the dark, smoky restaurant, smelling of the rich raw foods on the buffet, slid Nicole's sky-blue suit like a stray segment of the weather outside” – Tender is the Night (63)

In Food Studies and Literature, Tigner and Carruth define the concept of “authoring

gastronomy” as something that usually refers to food criticism. They do however, contrast the methods of food critics and professional eaters, to novelist's “technique of trope, persona, scene-setting, and storytelling that restaurant reviews employ as well as in the detailed descriptions of dining scenes that pervade fictional texts” (Tigner and Carruth 138). Hence, the main argument builds upon the idea that novelists tend to focus on gastronomy in a similar fashion as food critics focus on restaurant reviews. Tigner and Carruth extend the comparison as they demonstrate that food critics aim to “create sensorial and sociological maps that make cuisine a window onto matters of class, consumerism, labor, leisure, and human-nonhuman entanglements, and they employ literary tools to re-imagine places through the lens of cuisine” (137). In fiction, novelists such as Virginia Woolf, Ernest Hemingway, James Joyce

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and F. Scott Fitzgerald, tend to illustrate this “window” where the characters' eating habits highlight social and cultural contexts.

The contextuality is especially transparent in Tender is the Night, which depicts strong

connections to France in terms of characters who master the French language, indulge

themselves in French cuisine, and consume great amounts of wine. One example is the

consistent appearance of familiar gastronomical luxuries of the upper class such as “caviare

and champagne” (Fitzgerald and West III 53; 190) or “a bouillabaisse” which the Divers

enjoy together with “a bottle of cold Chablis” (187). Bell refers to such portrayals as the “art

of life” (314) referring to the pleasures of the leisure class. In contrast, researchers have traced

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significant patterns in Fitzgerald's novels, particularly characteristics of the upper class as symbolic reflections of historical events such as Prohibition. In Tender is the Night, such representations are portrayed through the characters' heavy drinking which stresses the non- glamorous overconsumption of alcohol. As Dick is “averaging a half pint of alcohol a day”

(178) and Abe's drinking “made past happy things contemporary with the present, as if they were still going on, contemporary even with the future as if they were about to happen again”

(Fitzgerald and West III 71), the narrative emphasises consumption of alcohol as a kind of escapism. Additionally, Tender is the Night deals with alcoholism in correlation to mental illness which both result in the characters' “emotional bankruptcy” as they become “unable to respond to the events that require true emotion” (Bruccolli 289). In a gastronomical context an investigation of alcoholism, class and mental illness becomes essential, since it equally represents the glamorous and non-glamorous lifestyle of the main characters.

Tender is the Night involves the characters Rosemary Hoyt, the beautiful eighteen year old actress, and the married upper class-couple Nicole and Dick Diver. Similarly to Fitzgerald's other characters

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, Rosemary, Dick and Nicole are attending social events in form of luncheons and parties at fancy hotels and restaurants which mirrors their affiliation to the American upper class. In addition to the main characters, there is a minor character who based on my interpretation greatly contributes to the story, namely Abe North, Dick's close friend who drinks heavily and dies in a speakeasy. Further, the original version which is used in the Cambridge edition of the novel, is divided into three separated parts in a non-chronological order: Book I revolves primarily around Rosemary and when she meets the Divers. Soon, she falls in love with Dick and an ambiguity occurs in form of the sexual tension between

Rosemary and Dick. Simultaneously, Rosemary claims that “[she's] in love with [Dick] and

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Nicole” (Fitzgerald 74).

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Further, Book I occasionally foreshadows Nicole's mental illness which is the main theme in the following part of the book. In Book II, the setting changes from the French Riviera to a Swiss psychiatric clinic. It reveals the background to Nicole's mental illness which shows to be an incestuous sexual abuse by her father in her young age.

Additionally, Book II focuses on how Dick and Nicole met and how their relationship developed. It ends with the setting changing back to the French Riviera, where Dick and Rosemary continue their affair and make love for the first time. Shortly after however, he gets jealous and becomes drunk in the hotel lobby which suggests foreshadowing of the primary theme of Book III where Dick falls into a melancholic trap of alcoholism. Further, Book III concentrates on relationship between Dick and Nicole which is falling into pieces due to Dick's alcoholism and poor attitude towards their friends. As a result, Nicole meets Tommy Barban, a French-American soldier with whom she soon initiates an affair. Shortly after, Dick and Nicole get a divorce, she marries Tommy and Dick disappears to the state of New York to practice medicine.

The primary idea of this thesis is to analyse the illustration of gastronomic terms and

concepts, and to demonstrate their central function in Fitzgerald's novel Tender is the Night.

In order to highlight those, I created a concept called gastronomic stylistics. It stresses the idea of aesthetics as a crucial device which enhances the reading experience and the

fundamentality of interpretation. I argue that the gastronomic stylistics in Tender is the Night,

refer to the ambiguous adjectives such as minced, glazed and caked, which bear different

interpretational meanings dependent on the reader's focus. Primarily, the concept of

gastronomic stylistics, shows that Fitzgerald uses gastronomic motifs in similar fashion as

food critics are “authoring gastronomy.” Firstly, it explores gastronomic references through a

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focus on stylistics, such as word choices and figurative language. Secondly, it suggests that the characters' food preferences reflect their social class and that the European environment influence their eating and drinking habits. Thirdly, through a connection to the cognitive term psychopathology, it describes the loss of appetite and decrease of shared meals as a result of mental illness, alcoholism and escapism. Further, it suggests that the gastronomic references strongly enhance the reading as they evoke the reader's senses such as taste and smell. Finally, this thesis is based on Stanley Fish's reader-response theory, which focuses on the relationship between the text and the reader. He argues that “the concept is simply the rigorous and

disinterested asking of the question, what does this word, phrase, sentence, paragraph, chapter, novel, play poem, do?; and the execution involves an analysis of the developing responses of the reader…” (Fish 126). Hence, the method depends on a close reading of particular word choices and word combinations, in order to trace what the constructed sentences do, as much as what they mean (Fish 125). As a result, the reader-response approach offers a profound interpretation of how the gastronomic references affect the comprehension of the novel as a whole. The close readings do primarily consider passages regarding gastronomic references including luncheons, buffets, bars and food and drink pairings. By this I would like to stress that it does not consider possible connections to Fitzgerald's personal life but rather focus on the text it-self and its contextuality, in form of social and cultural influences of the time when the novel was written.

Just as The Beautiful and Damned, Tender is the Night illustrates how Fitzgerald “employed

depictions of food and eating as symbols of his characters’ shallowness and frivolity” (Searles

14). Further, the novel portrays that similarly to the parties in The Great Gatsby, the dinner

parties in Tender is the Night depict an “intoxicating mixture of champagne, bathtub gin and

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bootlegger whiskey, mixed with devastating characters” (Burrell). As a result, this thesis investigates the three parts of the novel in parallel to each other in order to show the frequent overlapping between the glamorous and non-glamorous lifestyle.

In order to highlight the significance of gastronomy in the complete novel, I have borrowed a number of key concepts from Food Studies and gastronomy, Food Studies and psychology and stylistic literary criticism, which will create a base for my individual theoretical

framework, primarily built upon Brillat-Savarin's concept of “we are what we eat” and Bell and Valentine's perception “we are where we eat.”

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Nevertheless, the focus on gastronomy among Fitzgerald researchers is profoundly limited. George J. Searles' article “The Symbolic Function of Food and Eating in F. Scott Fitzgerald’s The Beautiful and Damned” belongs to the minority of gastronomic research examining the importance of food and drinks in Fitzgerald's novel. Searles' ideas are closely related to the main arguments in this thesis regarding the method of close reading and focus on gastronomy. His article is therefore a significant source which complements my own thoughts on Tender is the Night.

Simultaneously, Melissa Faith Dullaghan uses the method of close reading and New Criticism

in her thesis “'Pleasant Episodes' of Gastronomy: Food and Drink in F. Scott Fitzgerald's The

Beautiful and Damned” where she analyses the main characters Anthony and Gloria Patch

and their relationship to food and drinks. Dullaghan believes that the frequent referencing to

the pleasures of gastronomy depict “decadence, provides insight into the psychological

compositions of their characters, and contributes to the coherence and aestheticism of the

novel” (6). She further considers Fitzgerald's language such as the choice of adjectives, names

of characters and places which are strongly connected to gastronomy in order to stress the

concealed references to food and drinks. After reading Searles' and Dullaghan's interpretations

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of The Beautiful and Damned, I wondered if the same stylistic analysis could be applied on Tender is the Night, and there are indeed many similarities. I would therefore like to follow a similar path and continue to emphasise the richness of gastronomic content in another of Fitzgerald's novels, where I believe he is explicitly “authoring gastronomy.” I will expand on this in the following sections.

Food Studies could in short terms be described as the study of food and society in symbiosis.

It is an academic field which concerns scientific questions about food, drinks and eating habits. As Spiegel argues “this new academic field, [took] shape in an expanding number of colleges and universities, coordinates the food-related instruction sprinkled throughout academia in recognition that food is not just relevant, but critical to dozens of disciplines”

(Spiegel). In this context, Spiegel's statement explicitly emphasises that Food Studies holds a complexity in not offering a clear definition as much as it is strongly connected to other academic fields. The scientific aspects within Food Studies vary profoundly and concern all from the ethics of food and dining, food as identity, food preparation as cultural tradition and more. The broad variation of interests within Food Studies is the reason why Food Studies could be described as an interdisciplinary academic field which is dependent on other fields such as art, literature, history and science. Food Studies as such therefore becomes rather complex to define and needs to be presented together with other fields such as Food Studies and gastronomy or Food Studies and psychology in order to clarify its focus.

The theoretical approach in this thesis is based on the idea that gastronomy is the “…science

of eating well…”

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(Tigner and Carruth 137). Within the gastronomic field of Food Studies,

there are several theoretical approaches which focus on food and consumption through

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sociological effects and cultural influences for instance. I refer to these in the passages regarding class and environment. Regarding stylistics, the discussion in this thesis shows that gastronomic references appear through the use of language and ambiguous adjectives such as

“minced” and “glazed”. Also, in terms of characters' names such as Rosemary and Evelyn

Oyster, to which I pay particular attention in order to demonstrate the significance of

gastronomy throughout the novel. Further, the psychological approach of Food Studies is

concerned with eating habits and their effect on the mind and body, which is essential in the

section regarding psychopathological references in the novel. Additionally, regarding the non-

glamourous gastronomic illustrations and destructive outcomes of alcohol, the focus is strictly

on Dick Diver since he is the character who appears most frequently in scenes including food

and drinks in general. I do however also support the discussion with passages involving Abe

North in the later part of the analysis, since he also appears in a great amount of passages

which include alcohol. The idea is then to compare Dick and Abe's drinking habits and

analyse how it affected their lives and relationships to the other characters.

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CAVIARE AND CHAMPAGNE: PREVIOUS RESEARCH AND THEORIES

“First we eat, then we do everything else” – M.F.K. Fisher

In the following section, I present some of the primary texts within Food Studies in order to create an overview of different approaches within the philosophical, cultural and

gastronomical discourse. Later in this segment, the focus lies directly on Food Studies and literature, exploring how previous scholars have studied gastronomic references in modern literature. Finally, I introduce different key concepts which I have borrowed from different published documents within Food Studies.

Introduction to the field of Food Studies

Gastronomy as an academic genre in Europe, has its roots in the beginning of the nineteenth century. The author Jean Anthelme Brillat-Savarin, a French politician and gastronome did not only give name to the triple-cream brie cheese, but is also a co-founder of this particular genre. Firstly published in 1825 France, Brillat-Savarin's handbook has been used as a

fundamental reference frame to many scholarly articles regarding gastronomy, philosophy and literature. An abundance of modern gastronomic texts, not least within Food Studies, derive from the ideas of Brillat-Savarin. It is therefore crucial to include his theories in this paper because his ideas regarding appetite and the physiological sensations are of great importance during close reading of gastronomic terms. Brillat-Savarin's ideas will primarily function as a complement to Fish's reader-response theory as the gastronomic motifs in Fitzgerald's novel predominantly provoke the reader's senses during reading. Based on his saying “tell me what you eat and I will tell you what you are”

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his study is based on the significance of our senses:

sight, hearing, scent, taste, touch and a sixth one, genesiac “which attracts the sexes to each

other, and the object of which is the reproduction of the species” (Brillat-Savarin 57).

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Together with anecdotes, recipes and reflections revolving around gastronomy, Brillat- Savarin's ideas are primarily based on the examination and sensation of taste. Brillat-Savarin highlights thirst and appetite as physiological sensations where he creates a connection between the consumption of food and drinks to imagination, feelings and memories. In other words, Brillat-Savarin's notion of gastronomy is highly suitable for this thesis since it

primarily depicts how consumption of food and drinks affect the characters in Tender is the Night.

Food Studies as an interdisciplinary field however, can be traced back to the 1960s. During

this period of time, anthropologists such as Claude Lévi-Strauss and Massimo Montanari

studied the connection between food and social or cultural structures, in contrast to Brillat-

Savarin who primarily focused on the physiological sensation of gastronomy. Claude Lévi-

Strauss created a fundamental concept of “a culinary triangle”

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by dividing food into three

main categories: raw, cooked and rotten, which represented the natural state and remained

unchangeable world wide. Later on, he added three subcategories: roasted, smoked and boiled

which differed world wide due to cultural influences and variations in preparing food (Levi-

Strauss 34). The primary focus of the triangle was to examine the significance of the natural

elements such as air, water and fire in parallel to cultural structures and “different modes of

cooking” (Levi-Strauss 41). In contrast to Levi-Strauss, Montanari was a historically rather

than structurally based anthropologist where his writing presents an interdisciplinary mixture

of folklore, literature, linguistics, nutrition and medicine. He believed that everything that

concerns food including plantation, harvest, consumption, preparation etc. is strongly

connected to culture. In Food is Culture, Montanari states that “human societies have never

simply adapted to the conditions imposed by the environment. At times societies have

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modified them, sometimes in profound ways, introducing cultures from outside the indigenous areas and changing the landscape itself” (Montanari 6).

Nevertheless, it was not until the mid 1990s that Food Studies emerged as a collective term to describe an authorised field of academic study (Spiegel). This includes a growing interest in the portrayals of gastronomy in literature where scholars argued that “literary texts do not just transmit or depict food cultures and food practices: they also help to structure them” (Tigner and Carruth 1). The idea of food and structure is compelling to this thesis since it partially focuses on food consumption and eating habits as a result of social structures and cultural influences. Scholars within Food Studies further observe that “because literature is a

reflection of life, gastronomy logically features to a large extent in plays, poetry and fiction”

(Maher 1). In light of that, research of gastronomic features in literature has shown significant connections between the portrayal of food and drinks as a reflection of the plot, setting, characters and contemporary gastronomic trends.

Food Studies and Gastronomic Stylistics

The general idea of stylistics refers to literary devices such as metaphors, imagery or

personification. The Czech aesthetician Jan Mukarovsky, believed that aesthetics are “crucial characteristic of any work of art” (41). He coined the term “foregrounding” as a device for interpretation between the “…basic meaning [and] figurative and metaphorical meaning;”

(52). This thesis builds upon Mukarovsky's theory in close readings of passages of figurative

language illustrated in Tender is the Night, which parallels the basic meaning of adjectives to

their metaphorical meaning.

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Furthermore, the section illustrating stylistics and close reading builds upon Stanley Fish's

“reader-response” theory based on two primary questions: First, “what does this sentence mean?” Second, “what does this sentence do?” (Fish 125). It resembles Keshmiri, Mahdikhani and Pardis' belief that Fitzgerald indeed uses stylistics which “evoke sensory responses in the reader” (83). It further mimics Ramsden's concept of eating as a “multi-sensory experience”

which stresses the idea that we eat with our eyes (Ramsden). In similar fashion, Gigante believes that smell and taste has a lower standing in the hierarchy of senses. She explains

“shared ideals” (3) as perceptions which generally look or sound the same to everyone. In comparison, she argues that taste and smell are highly individual, which is why the focus on taste and smell diminishes within the literary and philosophical discourse (Gigante 3).

Gigante's and Ramsden's ideas are of great significance in the discussion regarding gastronomic stylistics and colour descriptions.

In addition, recent debates in literary criticism discuss the methodological trends of

textualising and contextualising (Hestetun 28). Textualising “tends to focus exclusively on text and intertextuality” (Hestetun 28). Its primary interest lies on the formality in terms of language and aesthetics (Hestetun 28). Contextualising, does however refer to cultural and social contexts (Hestetun 28). This thesis aims to blend the two aspects of textuality and contextuality in order to create a profound understanding of the complete novel.

Gastronomic stylistics are also illustrated through the characters' food and beverage

preferences. The section concerning synesthesia and food, is based on Jones' and Mark's

belief that humans feed on metaphors and that eating per se creates multi-sensory sensations,

which Fitzgerald illustrates through synesthetic metaphors in Tender is the Night. In

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particular, the section will expand on Marks concept of “synesthetic metaphor” which

“employs the language of one sensory or perceptual domain to transfer meaning to another domain” (Marks 15). Further, Searle argues that “the semantic consequence is that you can take familiar words with familiar meanings and get completely new semantic units, new meaningful sentence, whose meanings you have never encountered before, but will

understand immediately given that you understand the meanings of the words and the rules for combining them” (644-45, emphasis added). Searle's theory complements Mukarovsky's concept of foregrounding in the comparison between basic and metaphorical meanings of Fitzgerald's gastronomic sentences. In similar fashion, Kyla Wazana Tompkins' presents a view where “meals structure narrative” (246) which parallels the belief that Tender is the Night is strongly influenced by the particular meals which the characters consume throughout the novel. The characters' gastronomic preferences become crucial because they reflect their eating habits and social status. Hence, gastronomy becomes a stylistic device and something that structures the narrative. Further, Dullaghan argues that “…Fitzgerald understands the sensuous power of writing refreshment, and that it is integral to an illustration of decadence”

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explicitly highlights the presence of gastronomic references through poetic language and

particular meals. The gastronomic stylistics in the current thesis do however refer to both food

and drinks consumed in the novel. Hence, it is necessary to emphasise that in my discussion,

Tompkin's idea of “meals” includes both. As Brillat-Savarin states, “the sensation of thirst is

so intense, that in all tongues it is synonymous with excessive desire, and irrepressible

longing: thus we thirst for gold, wealth, power, science…” (197). In light of that, the

connection between thirst and desire, is primarily discussed in scenes regarding Dick and

Rosemary's obvious sexual tension where champagne is of great significance.

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Examples of gastronomic key concepts are found in Nicole J. Camastra's article “I Was Made To Eat”, where she uses Brillat-Savarin's terms gourmandise, amour physique and spiritual satiety, in order to examine the significance of food in Hemingway’s A Farewell to Arms in a way that is similarly applicable on Tender is the Night. Gourmandise is, according to Brillat- Savarin, “a passionate [food] preference” (203). It is a great appreciation of food which should however not be mistaken for gluttony (Brillat-Savarin 203). Amour physique however, defines sexual desire (Camastra 86). The term derives from Brillat-Savarin's description of the sixth sense, the genesiac sense, which examines that “all that is most delicate and ingenious is due to the desire, to hope, or to gratitude, in connexion with the union of the sexes” (Brillat- Savarin 54). Further, Camastra introduces the concept of spiritual satiety, which she describes as “a religious feeling” where “eating acquires a teleological function” (89, 91). Camastra makes a connection between the two main characters' amour physique and their health and happiness. She examines the importance of food and drinks in Frederic and Catherine's relationship which she suggests are strongly connected to their well being. Similarly, this thesis suggests that there is a strong amour physique between Dick and Rosemary, since their relationship is primarily driven by sexual desire. Further, Camastra states that the love

between Frederic and Catherine in A Farewell to Arms is based on their gourmandise and the

significance of shared meals. When the woman in the relationship dies however, the man is

left alone and “his continued hunger assures him that he can endure his suffering” (Camastra

91). Through the concept of gourmandise, this thesis explores the Diver's relationship as it

portrays a great significance of shared meals. The analysis shows that when the Diver's

relationship is cheerful and healthy, the couple dine together frequently. In contrast however,

when the relationship falls apart due to Dick's alcoholism and inappropriate behaviour, there

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is an absence of shared meals and hence the idea of the Diver's gourmandise disappears.

Food Studies and Class.

Regarding the portrayal of social class in Tender is the night, it is important to highlight a number of ideas from scholars within Food Studies. Firstly, I consider Anita Mannur's view that “…the relation between literary characters and food evinces race and social class, often in symbolic terms” (395) in parallel to Brillat-Savarin's statement that “gastronomy…has to do with all classes of society” (93). I aim to expand these ideas and explore the inevitable

relationship between gastronomy and class. In order to demonstrate that gastronomy and class indeed occur in symbiosis in the novel, the section echoes Bell's belief that the frequent parties and gastronomic luxuries illustrate “the art of life” (314). It strictly considers

characters' food and drink choices as a reflection of the upper class lifestyle as a response to

Fussell's statement that social class has to do with appearance and habits as much as with

money (27). It further mimics Gigante's concept of “gustatory aspects” which explains the

ideal food and drink pairings in Tender is the Night. In addition, the close reading of food and

wine pairings, examines Asimov's description of Chablis as upper class wine. It further

investigates the significance of another frequently consumed drink, champagne. Repeatedly,

champagne appears in scenes including Rosemary and Dick which stresses their amour

physique, (Fitzgerald and West III 72-76) where it primarily emphasises its role as a “social

lubricant” (Todd 179). Finally, this section deals with Piff et. al and Seibold's associations

between class and attitude, as they discuss arrogance, greed and unethical behaviour as

strongly connected to the upper class. Further, it comments on Gigante's concept of “culture

of taste” which she affirms, “involve[s] elevating eating, the most basic of all human drives,

into bourgeois commensality or dining; in practice, this mean[s] civilizing appetite through

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the developing etiquette of manners” (8). Examples of this are transparent in scenes where the characters behave inappropriately towards waiters at the restaurants.

Additionally, Tender is the Night is suffused with references to European cuisine. Due to the European setting I chose to borrow David Bell and Gill Valentine's phrase “we are where we eat”

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in order to study the connection between gastronomic references and the European surroundings. Further, I expand Rappoport's concept of “cultural conditioning” (164), through which he suggests that “culturally conditioned personal values and attitudes, emotional traumas, various defence mechanisms, and developmental experiences may all play a role in how individuals and groups negotiate the meanings of food” (69). Hence, this section

considers the French, Swiss and Italian surroundings as an example of “cultural conditioning”

in the novel. The main argument in this segment, is further built upon Hestetun's concept of contextuality which “seek[s] to establish links between individual texts and a historical- cultural context and systems of power” such as social, cultural and political context (Hestetun 28). The general idea is that the American characters are strongly influenced by culture in form of eating and drinking habits which in turn reflect the glamorous and non-glamorous aspects of the upper class lifestyle in symbolic terms.

Food Studies and Psychopathology.

The discussion in this section is primarily based on the belief that food has a significant impact on our behaviour. Food is a crucial factor during our psychological development where we already during the years of infancy recognise our senses. We get familiar with the gustatory perceptions and learn how to recognise sweetness, sourness, saltiness and bitterness.

Scholars such as Bernard Lyman and Leon Rappoport, are significant sources within the field

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of Food Studies and psychology, as they explore the association between gastronomy and psychology in terms of how food reflect our personal traits and eating habits.

Lyman highlights general psychological studies and food in regard to “sensory experience, memories, thoughts, images, and feelings” (8-9). He studies the relationship between food and emotion with particular focus on “moods, feelings and attitudes” in hope of “possible

applications for modifying emotions and outlooks” (8-9). Primarily, the sections in this thesis called “Entree: A Fumbling Snobbery” and “Le Plat Principal: An Uncharacteristic Burst of Temper” investigate the results of a psychological experiment which show that “the largest preference for alcohol was not during anger, frustration, or depression when it is supposedly used to alleviate the feelings, but during love-affection, when individuals reported using wine with meals to prolong the mood” (Lyman 45). Here, food and alcohol preferences are

paralleled to the characters' shifts in mood and behaviour. The two sections are both studied in comparison to the results of the experiment: First, in “Entree: A Fumbling Snobbery” the close reading of passages regarding gastronomy and class, support the experiment's results, as the character indulge themselves in gastronomic luxuries as a portrayal of what Bell refers to as “the art of life.” In contrast, the close reading of passages focusing on alcoholism in “Le Plat Principal: An Uncharacteristic Burst of Temper” does however question the experiment's outcome, as it shows that Dick's alcohol consumption primarily arises in order to relieve or escape his feelings. His yearn for alcoholic beverages, is therefore mostly during frustration and depression. This is simultaneously examined in correlation to the psychological concept called DAD-effect: depression, addiction and denial (Riddle). The characters'

psychopathological condition is further connected to the concept of “emotional bankruptcy”

(Bruccoli 289) and Robert's idea regarding alcohol as a form of escapism. Additionally, this

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section deals with a combination of psychopathology and cultural contexts, based on Miller's, Avey's and Peck's descriptions of the Prohibition era and the significance of gin, wine and champagne.

Further, Rappoport suggests that one of the major issues of the mere interest in food in

psychology is that “it was generally taken for granted as a fact of life, worthy of attention only when symptomatic of some other, more significant, problem” (Rappoport 28). This does also seem to be the issue in why food is not as well researched as other areas in Fitzgerald's works;

gastronomy is simply not as interesting since it is taken for granted and therefore not seen as an intriguing topic. In addition, this thesis expands on Rappoport's idea of investigating “how people think and feel about their food preferences and eating habits” (34). As mentioned above, the focus is to investigate how the characters' food preferences are portrayed in scenes regarding shared meals at dinners and parties, and to trace patterns of their eating habits, partially built upon Rappoport's argument “eating is as much or more a matter of the mind as it is of the body” (13).

The connection between mind, body and food is strongly associated to the concept of

psychopathology which is the psychological study of “social-emotional problems” (Rapport

28). A detailed definition of psychopathology in connection to gastronomy, illustrates how

food reflects our personality traits e.g. food defines us through how we eat, what we eat and

how much we eat (Rappoport 113). Similarly, Rappoport explains that “the personal and

public presentation of self through food…are ubiquitous and often paradoxical, in the sense of

being both inner and outer directed. That is, we may eat in ways aimed at the satisfaction of

inner, personal needs, or in order to impress others” (74). In light of that, Rappoport's

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definition of psychopathology emphasises the relationship between food and appearance and its connection to characters' self- and public image in Tender is the Night (Fitzgerald and West III 72-76). From this perspective, the focus is primarily on Rosemary and her relationship to alcohol. In addition, Rappoport states that “appetite varies up or down

depending on our position on the happy–sad scale” (104) which is of great significance during the examination of the relationship between food and mood. In particular, psychopathology is primarily considered during close readings of scenes including luncheons and parties and the analysis of characters' emotional state when consuming food and drinks. However, the significance of detailed descriptions of gastronomy and physiological sensations in Book I and III, transform into rather abstract, psychological and philosophical descriptions of food and appetite in Book II. In order to comprehend what such transformation does to the text in Tender is the Night, the section “Fromage: the Absence of Gourmandise” expands

Rappoport's approach on psychopathology and contrasts Camastra's spiritual satiety. As the Diver's love does transform into frustration, anger and hate towards the end of the novel, I created a concept called lack of nourishment, which translates as a metaphor to the state when their love disappears. The concept is further expanded in the same section. The discussion of psychopathology and lack of nourishment, is strongly associated to Salmose's notion of nostalgia, in which he claims that nostalgic tendencies are “mimicked, paralleled, and

enhanced by the novel’s structure and style, creating a profound effect on a reader responsive to the novel’s devices” (67). Salmose divides “the emotional content of the nostalgic

experience” into two phases. First, he introduces happiness, which is the “the idealized image or event that brings immediate happiness” (Salmose 68). The second phase is called

reflectiveness, in which we reflect upon the passing image or event in a rather wistful manner

(Salmose 68). Examples of this are particularly seen as the Diver's relationship transforms

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from love into melancholic bitterness towards the end of the novel. Finally, the section dealing with the characters' psychopathological conditions, profoundly investigates

Fitzgerald's narrative style and explains how he conveys metaphorical meanings in terms of

figurative language and gastronomic motives.

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SAFFRON SEASONED SOUP: SENSES AND STYLISTICS

“The diffused magic of the hot sweet South had withdrawn into them–” Tender is the Night (42)

The following section investigates how Fitzgerald is “authoring gastronomy” in terms of stylistics and figurative language. Through Mukarovsky's method of foregrounding, it explores how Fitzgerald creates the semantic consequences which Searle refers to. These methods will serve as a tool in order to examine the gastronomic motifs which in turn define how Fitzgerald's language affects the reading in terms of Fish's reader-response theory.

A Warm Taste of Gastronomy: Ambiguous Adjectives and Food

Tender is the Night is filled with gastronomic stylistics including ambiguous adjectives e.g.

adjectives with several meanings suggesting associations to gastronomy. Already in the beginning of the novel, one reads about the “hairy man” who spoke to Rosemary as he

“Glaz[ed] his eyes to indicate that he had only spoken in order to warn her, he minced off two steps and poured himself another drink” (11). In such descriptions, it is essential to respond to Fish's questions regarding what the sentences means and what it does. In a matter of semantic consequence, Fitzgerald takes “familiar words with familiar meanings and creates “a new meaningful sentence” since the primary focus here is on gastronomic stylistics (Searle 645).

Hence, supposing that the gastronomic motif in this description lies in its metaphorical meaning, it creates a direct association to food such as a glazed donut or glazed ham alternatively minced meat or minced garlic. The present participle form of the verb “glaze”

further portrays a direct action which evokes an association to egg- or sugar coating e.g.

glazing. Similarly, the same verb appears in the scene when “Dick went over Paris to his

bank––writing a check,…Once he raised glazed eyes to look forward the mail department,

then glazed his spirit again by concentration upon objects to deal with” (Fitzgerald and West

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III 103). Although this scene includes a past participle of the verb glaze, it does not differ from the previous example; the association to egg- or sugar coating remains. The

metaphorical meaning is however expanded through the combination of “glazed” and “spirit”, because as the line ends with “to deal with” it suggests a rather sticky situation which

enhances the connection to sugar. The meaning is therefore expanded, since it adds another association. As showed above, a close reading of this particular scene combines Fish's reader- response theory and Searle's concept of semantic consequence, as it both examines what the single words do if the reader only considers their basic meanings. If they are read together as a sentence, and the reader considers their metaphorical meanings, they become an entity which provokes gastronomic associations during reading.

Fitzgerald scholars argue that “…[his] writing style is impressionistic and his details evoke sensory responses in the reader” (Keshmiri et al. 83). Such sensory responses are provoked when Dick and Nicole crash their car into a tree due to Nicole's hysterical behaviour, Dick states that he “want[ed] to grind her grinning mask into jelly” (Fitzgerald and West III 219).

The use of the word “jelly” here stresses the actual sticky situation, where Dick is extremely upset with Nicole for her hysterical laugh. The latter examples therefore suggest that the reader's association is provoked through imagination where Rosemary's jam or Dick's sticky situations stimulates the sensory responses, although no actual food is part of the scene. The concept of semantic consequence does further occur in the sentence when “…[Dick]

considered the world of pleasure––the incorruptible Mediterranean with the sweet old dirt

caked in the olive trees…” (Fitzgerald and West III 223). Similarly to the previously

discussed verbs glazed and minced, this sentence includes “caked” which becomes a

gastronomic motif. If one reads the sentence the verb “caked” together with “old dirt” and

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“olive trees” the familiar meaning would be caked as in muddy. Through a gastronomic approach however, the meaning changes and the verb “caked” creates an unconscious association to a “cake” as in dessert.

Through the concept of foregrounding e.g. the interpretation of word's metaphorical meaning, Mukarovsky discusses the differences and similarities between standard and poetic language.

He questions the general belief that metaphors primarily appear in poetry, and explains they too frequently appear in novels and short stories. Mukarovsky defines the appearance of poetic language in novels as a “violation of the norm of the standard, its systematic violation, is what makes possible the poetic utilization of language; without this possibility there would be no poetry” (43). Fitzgerald's use of poetic language is obvious when:

Nicole's world had fallen to pieces, but it was only a flimsy and scarcely created in world; beneath it her emotions and instincts fought on. Was it an hour ago she had waited by the same entrance, wearing her hope like a corsage at her belt?

…Dress stay crisp for him, button stay put, bloom narcissus––air stay still and sweet.

It will be nice to have fun again, she fumbled on (Fitzgerald and West III 165).

The words “crisp” and “sweet” create similar associations to gastronomy as the previously discussed verbs glazed, minced and caked. However, the poetic language here consists of the sentence about the dress, which seems odd within the context, where the mentioning of

“bloom narcissus” suggests that the reader is let into Nicole's mind which has drifted away.

Foregrounding of the poetic language in this scene, emphasises the importance of symbolism

as much as it supports the belief that Fitzgerald uses gastronomic motifs although no food is

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included in the particular scene.

Further, in terms of metaphorical symbolism, there is a great significance of the word rotten in different contexts throughout the novel as it both describes food, situations or people.

Fitzgerald illustrates a vivid description of the environment as he writes “along the walls on the village side all was dusty, the wriggling vines, the lemon and eucalyptus trees, the casual wheel-barrow, left only a moment since, but already grown into the path, atrophied and faintly rotten” (Fiztzgerald and West III 33). Here, Fitzgerald once again, offers sensations through the portrayal of “dusty”, “wriggling vines”, “lemon and eucalyptus trees” which were “faintly rotten”– all stimulating the senses sight and smell. In this description the meaning of “rotten”

does however signify its familiar meaning, as in something that smells bad. In the following example, the metaphorical symbolism of the adjective “rotten” does however respond to Searle's concept of semantic consequence as its familiar meaning is replaced by new meaningful sentences. At one point in the novel, Mrs. McKisco says “Well [Abe's] a rotten musician” (Fitzgerald and West III 16). In another scene, Dick tells his colleague that “all goes smooth domestically. But my God, Franz, we had a rotten scene this morning”

(Fitzgerald and West III 286). The semantic consequence in these two scenes portrays what

Searle's refers to as “indirect speech act” e.g. something we say that means the thing we say,

but it also means something else (645). Here, the meaning of the word “rotten” means that

something is bad or ill. In contrast to the first example which explicitly referred to the rotten

trees and their bad smell, the latter example does however illustrate a person and a situation as

rotten, hence the reader creates an indirect interpretation of Abe and the scene which Dick

talks about as someone or something bad.

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Similar patterns are traced in scenes such as “they were all very nice people for a while, very courteous and all that. Then they grew tired of it and they were funny and bitter, and finally they made a lot of plans. They laughed at things that they would not remember clearly afterward––laughed a lot and the men drank three bottles of wine” (Fitzgerald and West III 63). The description of the company as “nice” yet later as “funny and bitter” emphasises the constant contradictions in settings containing references to parties, food and drinks throughout the novel. The idea of symbolism in this case rhymes well with the analysis of stylistics in this thesis where imagery and metaphors are frequently used elements. Vivid descriptions such as

“Simultaneously the whole party moved to the water, super-ready from the long, forced inaction, passing from the heat to the cool with the gourmandise of a tingling curry eaten with chilled white wine” (28) include explicit gastronomic references. The adjectives “tingled” and

“chilled” create a contrasting portrayal, which evokes the reader's senses through the

association to the ethic food in form of the “tingled curry” which is quenched by the “chilled white wine.” Further, the verbs “moved” and “passing” emphasise the consciousness of time yet the combination of “super-ready” and “forced inaction” enhances the tension among the party. Following by the descriptions “heat” and “cool” which could both be applied to the ambiguous atmosphere and on the contradiction between “tingling curry” and “chilled wine”.

⁹

In addition, the use of the word gourmandise

¹⁰

suggests a connection to Brillat-Savarin's definition of the concept and emphasises its French origin, which in turn enhances the French authenticity connected to the French Riviera setting.

However, gastronomic stylistics do not only occur in scenes including parties and food and

drinks. Words derived from the gastronomy become obvious even in scenes portraying sexual

tension and desire, particularly between Dick and Rosemary. In the line “Nerves so raw and

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tender must surely join other nerves, lips to lips, breast to breast...” (86) the adjectives “raw”

and “tender” clearly creates an association to meat.

¹¹

In alike descriptions, Fitzgerald's stylistic elements strongly recalls Zola's pathological narration in Therese Raquin. In examples such as “a sanguineous passion had lurked in his muscles, and now that his sweetheart was taken from him, this passion burst out in blind violence. He was madly in love. This thriving brutish nature seemed unconscious in everything. He obeyed his instincts, permitting the will of his organism to lead him” (95-96). Zola's focus on muscles and

organism emphasise his distinctive stylistic technique through which he describes the characters rather from the inside in order to enhance the dramatic tension. Even though Fitzgerald's writing style is far away from naturalism, Dick, Rosemary and Nicole posses similarly destructive characteristics and behaviour such as forbidden sexual affairs similar to Therése and Laurent in Therése Raquin.

In addition, Keshmiri et al, claim that “many literary critics have attempted to identify distinctive elements of Fitzgerald's style…his pattern of linking adjectives that seem contradictory” (Keshmiri et al. 83). The word combination of “raw” and “tender” in the sentence above are examples of such contradictory combination since “raw” refers to

unprepared meat, whereas tender refers to slow-cooked meat. Nevertheless, in connection to the passion and sexual tension, the idea of raw meat could be connected to Dick's character which reflects the naturalistic and rough masculinity. Whereas tender meat refers to youth, delicacy and femininity and is therefore likely fit onto the description of Rosemary.

Simultaneously, “raw” also reflects the nerves as the inside of both Dick and Rosemary, as

compared to the “tender” lips and breasts which refer to Rosemary's looks. As a result, a

careful analysis of the adjectives marks this whole scene as rather contradictory regarding the

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inward and outward aspects, roughness and delicacy emphasised by the sexual tension and desire. Similar contradiction, appears towards the end of the novel, where “[Dick and Nicole]

had a tranquil supper with Dick drinking much beer and being cheerful with the children in the dusky room” (Fitzgerald and West III 324). The contradiction occurs through the words

“tranquil” and “dusky” in comparison to “much beer” and “cheerful.” The hypothetical interpretation is that the two first words emphasise mood in terms of sadness, as they illustrate the environment as rather gloomy. In contrast, the two latter words suggest this supper as a happy moment. The children's presence also enhances the impression of cheerfulness and possibly even innocence. In response to what this contradictory word combinations do to the reading, do however point towards a rather sad illustration as Dick has in fact, fallen into the melancholic trap of alcoholism at this point in the novel.

Gastronomic stylistics further appear in form of colour descriptions and shopping items.

James Ramsden claims that “eating is a multi-sensory experience,” as he remarks that scholars often argue that “we eat with our eyes” or that “love goes through the stomach”

(Ramsden). The interaction between senses explains the fact that we often refer to clothes or other items in terms of food instead of the actual colour. In lines such as “[Nicole] bought colored beads, folding beach cushions, artificial flowers, honey,…and three yards of some new cloth the color of prawns” (65). The particular mentioning of “honey” may arguably seem odd among the other items which refer to home décor. Nevertheless, in regard to

gastronomic stylistics the placement of honey could be interpreted as an item which creates an

association to silky smoothness. From that aspect, honey is able to create a picture reflecting

the beads, beach cushions and cloth which are all likely made from soft material. Also, honey

creates an association to the colour yellow which symbolises comfort, sunshine, warmth and

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energy which further supports the connection to the beads and beach cushions (Olesen). In addition, a “cloth the color of prawns” likely refers to a pinkish colour. The relevance of this description however, lies in the mentioning of prawns since they create an association to the sea, where Nicole buys all the items. The idea of the interaction between senses regarding colour descriptions through food, supports Gigante's belief that “taste has always ranked low on the philosophical hierarchy…” (3). She explains that sight and hearing have got greater attention because they are so called “shared ideals.” In contrast, she suggests that taste and smell are physiological phenomena and therefore the interpretation of the senses is strictly individual. The interplay between senses in the description of “cloth the color of prawns”

however, creates an indubitable connection between touch (cloth), sight (colour), smell and taste (prawns, sea). In addition, Keshmiri et al, write that “commentators have given much attention to symbolism in Fitzgerald's novels and short fiction, particularly to his expansion of color imagery into large symbolic patterns…” (Keshmiri et al. 83) which becomes particularly interesting in one example when “Rosemary was in black pajamas; a luncheon table was still in the room; she was having coffee” (Fitzgerald and West III 238). Here, the black coloured pajamas (sight, touch) unconsciously creates an association to the coffee which could, supposedly, be black (taste). These particular descriptions provoke the reader's senses which enhance the reading experience through several associations to taste, smell, touch and sight.

As the senses do occur in the same sentence at many times, one could argue that their

symbiosis omits the hierarchal system which Gigante refers to. As a result, descriptions which

simultaneously deal with several senses, could be described as equally valuable. However, it

is futile to state that the reading of gastronomic stylistics will create explicit associations to all

senses, hence all readers respond differently. Hence, it is necessary to say that the reading

experience is different among all readers, and therefore the association to the senses in this

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section, is strictly built upon mere possibilities.

Slow Burning Passion: Identity and Food

The complexity caused by the use of figurative language in Tender is the Night is not only created through the richness of ambiguous adjectives, but also through characters' names which evoke intriguing references to gastronomy. However, this section primarily concerns Hestetun's concept of contextuality (28) as one of the names is explicitly connected to France.

The most significant name in regard to gastronomy ought to be Rosemary. The etymology of this name is particularly essential because it explicitly emphasises Rosemary's characteristics in the novel. On the website “Behind the Name” Rosemary is described as a “combination of Rose and Mary. This name can also be given in reference to the herb, which gets its name from Latin ros marinus meaning 'dew of the sea'” (Campbell) Additionally, the name Rose

“was composed of the elements hrod 'fame' and heid 'kind, sort, type'” (Campbell) However, the exact symbolic meaning of the name Mary is according to Campbell uncertain.

Nevertheless, one could argue that it evokes associations to the Virgin Mary which in turn suggests purity and innocence. Regarding the symbolic meaning of the name Rosemary, the elements fame, kindness and innocence are associated to Fitzgerald's character.

¹²

The

assumption that Rosemary is portrayed as an innocent character is primarily found in scenes

where she is in Dick's company, such as “he knew that there was passion there, but there was

no shadow of it in her eyes or on her mouth; there was a faint spray of champagne on her

breath. She clung nearer desperately and once more he kissed her and was chilled by the

innocence of her kiss…” (75) Another essential aspect is the mentioning of “a faint spray of

champagne”

¹³

which confirms Brillat-Savarin's idea of the connection between thirst and

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desire where champagne is consumed in order to relieve or perhaps reveal the sexual tension.

In addition, another metaphoric meaning of the name Rosemary is explained as “dew of the sea” (Campbell). It could therefore be read as a fitting reflection of the setting due to the seaside setting by the French Riviera. As a result, the character's name reflects both the setting and Rosemary's characteristics in the novel where the etymology of the name becomes a central ingredient.

Additionally, in order to support the connection between Rosemary as a character and the name's etymology, it is significant to consider the gastronomic association to the herb.

According to Knapton, “English folklore advises slipping rosemary into the pocket of an errant lover to help them remember their vows…” (Knapton). In light of that, rosemary's mythological connection to love and remembrance could certainly be applied on the scene in Tender is the Night, where Dick says to Rosemary “'I’m afraid I’m in love with you,' said Dick, 'and that’s not the best thing that could happen'” (Fitzgerald and West III 86). This whole chapter is saturated by remembrance since it focuses on Rosemary and Dick's

forbidden yet desirable relationship. Here, the dialogues and actions between the two lovers

utter love and affection yet also desperation and unfortunate sadness. When Dick tells

Rosemary that he is in love with Nicole, she answers that she and her mother will “go to

America right away” (Fitzgerald and West III 76). Dick however, “dismisse[s] this. He was

remembering too vividly the youth and freshness of her lips. He took another one” (Fitzgerald

and West III 76). These contrasting combinations create a dramatic tension and leaves the

reader wondering if Rosemary and Dick will or will not continue to see each other. The

symbolic meaning of Rosemary as an emblem for remembrance, hence becomes a central

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component which refers to both the feelings between the lovers, but also to their relationship as an entity.

In contrast to Rosemary who is an essential character in Tender is the Night, there is one notable character who occurs just as name drop or in a particular scene, yet they bear obvious gastronomic names: Evelyn Oyster. Ms. Oyster appears simply as an American name among foreign names early on in the novel (Fitzgerald and West III 25). In terms of gastronomic motifs however, the particular choice of a name such as “Oyster” adds authenticity to the story since France is commonly known for serving the finest oysters in the world. The reader- response theory therefore suggest that the significant name “Oyster” creates a direct

association to oysters, the sea and France in general. As a result, it further responds to Hestetun's idea of environmental contextuality, as the novel is primarily set in France.

Round Taste and Delicious Voice: Synesthesia and Food

Synesthesia is a literary device frequently used by poets, but also by Fitzgerald. This section echoes Jones' idea that “few activities involve so many senses” as eating. Further, it

investigates the “symbolic discourse utilizing food” (Jones 132). The primary focus is to define gastronomic stylistics through the focus on synesthetic metaphors as Marks calls them (15). The following section hence studies passages in Tender is the Night where the reader comes across metaphorical and figurative language and personification. Finally, the idea is to explore how the synesthetic language affects the reading in terms of providing cross-sensory sensations, supported by Fish's reader-response theory.

Generally speaking, “human beings feed on metaphors [in] ways of talking about something

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else: we hunger for, cannibalize, spice it up, sugar coat, hash things out, sink our teeth into…”

(Jones 132). Synesthesia is largely recognised in the psychological and physiological field where it could also be referred to as “cross-sensory” or “cross-modal metaphor”. One famous example is Fitzgerald's description of the “yellow cocktail music” in The Great Gatsby. Here, the combination of the different senses sight and colour (yellow), taste (cocktail) and sound (music) becomes obvious and increases the reading sensation as it may provoke the reader's personal senses through various associations.

Examples of metaphor, such as personification, are found in the scene after a shooting at the train station, the setting is described as “in the square, as they came out, a suspended mass of gasoline exhaust cooked slowly in the July sun. It was a terrible thing––unlike pure heat it held no promise of rural escape but suggested only roads choked with the same foul asthma”

(Fitzgerald and West III 100). The word combination “gasoline exhaust cooked slowly”

creates an example of a synesthetic metaphor where the “exhaust” is commonly associated

with human qualities, yet also suggests a gastronomic reference to cooking.

¹⁵

One could argue

that the adverb “slowly” further dramatises the overall scene, where the characters are in

chock after witnessing the shooting. In addition, the following description “only roads choked

with the same foul asthma” enhances the heat of the sun and the nervous atmosphere among

the characters. Nevertheless, if the word combination “cooked slowly” had been replaced with

the opposite “boiling” it would create a significant contradiction as the meaning of this scene

would change dramatically as the dramatised meaning of “boiling” could be interpreted as an

active act, as opposed to “cooked slowly” which suggest a rather passive act. The examples

discussed above demonstrate how food images enhance descriptions of things that are not

food.

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Similarly, the scene when the North and Rosemary are “riding along on top of thousands of carrots in a market wagon” (Fitzgerald and West III 91) manifests the multi-sensory

experience evoked in the reader, where smell and taste are of particular importance. For instance, in the portrayal of “the earth in the carrot beards was fragrant and sweet in the darkness, and Rosemary so high up in the load that she could hardly see the others in the long shadow between infrequent street lamps” (Fitzgerald and West III 91) the adjectives

“fragrant”, “sweet”, “darkness” and “long shadow” emphasise Fitzgerald's frequent use of adjective in order to maximise short descriptions through vivid imagery. However, in regard to the gastronomic motif, the description of “the earth in the carrot beards” creates an

association to smell through the word “fragrance” and similarly to taste through the word

“sweet”. Followed by the combination of “she could hardly see” and the previous word

“darkness” which creates an association to sight. One could argue that the word choice

“sweet” is rather relevant in a description of a carrot due to its generally sweet taste.

Nevertheless, the same word further creates a connection to the main character in this scene, the young Rosemary, who gives the impression of being a rather sweet character. In addition, at the end of this scene there is a description of Rosemary “wishing…that [Dick] was here beside her with the warm darkness streaming down” (91). The particular word combination

“the warm darkness streaming down” is an explicit example of synesthetic metaphor where

the darkness (sight) gets qualities which are usually associated to water stream (sound). The

discussed examples in this section, show that Fitzgerald's use of synesthetic metaphors

profoundly affects the reader and demonstrates Fish's theory of what the sentences do and

what they mean. Particularly, for the use of figurative language and cross-sensory word

combinations, the examples display the reader's ability to make unconscious associations to

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something that does not occur in the text it-self.

“The Lost Caviare Days” – Gastronomy and Alcoholism in Fitzgerald's Tender is the Night

Master's Thesis