The effects of economy and governance on the social structures of the local

I will discuss the findings of interviews and participant observation in light of the economic policies and governance.

6.6.1 Economic approach

By the 1990s, Syria adopted a market economy that enhances the role of the private sector in investment, as a new economic approach to achieve economic and employment growth (Hopfinger

& Boeckler). After participating in the Earth Summit in 1992, however, Syria declared its commitment to sustainable development and sought to develop its institutions and programs in line with this purpose. Accordingly, the so-called “social” market economy was adopted, through which Syria seeks to achieve economic growth, social justice and sustainable development. Hence, the new constitution of the state adopted in 2012, includes the institutional structure that are supposed to facilitate these gools, “the constitution was adapted in parallel with the new environment law No (12/2012), which considered a regulatory and organizational pillar in the area of environment protection and achieving sustainable development” (SYR. 2012:8). However, the problems that face the state in its effort to achieve the desired gools of sustainability, the most prominent of which are the poor economic conditions, negatively affect the adoption of the planed policies, and “forces the state to prioritize economic growth over development issues and environmental degradation” (SYR.

2012:14-15).In doing so, the current policies of the state focus on economic growth and employment generated by immediate and low-cost solutions, which strip the adopted approach of its sustainability and social justice.

The findings of the interviews and participant observation indicate how the actors in the field are influenced by the economic approach of the state. First, the national economic policies and interventions frame and affect the communities and specifically the miners by stating who has the right to use and access the resources and monitor how this is done. The prevailing logic today among the miners is the same as that of the officials of the relevant authority that regulates mining activities,

which reflect the effect of the dominant economic approach that focuses on economic growth and employment, i.e., I work and produce, and thus the law gives me the right to resources and the right to use them accordingly,

When we went to the Public Company (the relevant authority) to file a complaint against our neighbour in the quarry of Al-Sura, because they are exceeding the limits of their quarry towards ours to extract resources, the officials told us that since we are not working in the quarry currently, the Company prioritize our neighbour as they work and pay fees and tax. (Quarry owner 06/03/2022)

The quarry of X family is considered a common land (khalié mubah), but it belongs to us according to the prevailing customs as it is a complementary of our land. Moreover, they use our own land to access the quarry as there is not another way. Their argument is that the law supports them as they work and provide incomes and pay taxes.

(Landowner in Al-Kharnouba 08/03/2022)

As a result, these policies have encouraged and facilitated the acceleration of mining activities and their expansion over a large geographical area, in order to benefit from their material incomes to increase economic growth.

In addition, the national economic approach influences the actors and underestimates the value of protecting the environment by not including relevant procedures or significant considerations in the permits granted for extraction. Mostly, there are no main restrictions regulating the extraction, during or after the completion of work. Hence, the miners do not pay significant attention to the environment and sustainability, except to be able to continue their operations.² Furthermore, the municipality does not consider the waste resulting from mining activities and their industries, that are randomly dumped within the limits of the town, as a priority to be treated and regulated at present.³ As a result, the social and environmental considerations are secondary matters, that are not of vital importance when regulating and implementing mining activities, compared to the great importance of material income.

Secondly, the national economic politics influences the social position and identity of the local people. The competition for quick and high economic benefits pushes people to switch their activities from farming and agricultural activities to mining and related industrial activities. Recently, there has been an increasing tendency among the local people to change the use of agricultural lands to extract rocks if the farmers expect them to contain suitable commercial qualities,

My uncle wanted to open a quarry in his part in our joint farm. We imposed that strongly, because of the great negative impact such activity would have on our farm. Currently, he has changed his mind, but we do not know about the future. (Local interviewee 5/3/2022)

2 “Our area is rich in different types of rocks, which are treasures that must be explored and invested in a feasible way” (Quarry owner 06/03/2022).

3 “Securing people’s basic needs is a priority under the current living conditions” (Municipal council member 07/03/2022).

The current policies have the effect of gradually changing the identity of the town and the people of the region, who focus on mineral extraction instead of agriculture.

6.6.2 Governance and power relations

The new constitution, adopted in 2012, emphasizes the role of the participation of both state and society in achieving the goals of sustainable development, and stipulates the adoption of laws and creation of bodies focused on the environment and natural resources to achieve these goals,

All the previous mentioned obstacles did not prevent Syria from renewing the state’s role in shaping and achieving sustainable development and the shared responsibility of both state and society in protecting the environment, through a referendum on a new constitution in February 2012. (SYR. 2012:8)

To facilitate this end, the Local Administration Law of 2011 was adopted as a part of governance system that aims to achieve the participation of local communities in the process (SYR. 2012). In fact, this vision of participation and governance is compatible with Habermas framework of the colonization of lifeworld, i.e., the contradiction between a democratic lifeworld based on communicative rationality on one hand and the state’s need to govern through economic and bureaucratic institutions and interventions, i.e., instrumental rationality on the other (Smith, S.B 1986;

Postone 1990).

However, the findings from the interviews and participant observation show that the policies do not live up to their goals. The municipal council does not work with, nor does it have the power to regulate the mining, or grant permits of extraction. The state Public Company is the main authority entrusted with these powers. Moreover, the powers of the municipal council are increasingly decreasing in the areas that include mining activities.

Nevertheless, while the owners of quarries reject any role of the municipal council in regulating mining activities due to “lack of knowledge about these matters”, the local people believe that such a role would be beneficial for the future of the area, as is the case with all other economic activities that fall within the municipal boundaries and affect the local people, such as agricultural activities,

When people suffered from the problem that rose from keeping livestock, which spread widely within the town and negatively affected the lifeworld and environment, particularly through spreading unpleasant odors, the municipal council decided to compulsorily move them outside the residential areas. This decision solved the problem and spared the town from serious problems that were beginning to appear. (Local interviewee 19/2/2022)

This example illustrates how important the participation of the local people in decision-making process, regarding their natural resources, would be if sustainable development should be achieved.

Undoubtedly, regulating mining activities by the government, without the participation of the locally

elected municipal council, leads to imbalance in rationality. The absence of local people participation undermines their ability to prevent economic activities to colonize their lifeworld (Postone 1990).