Summary of Articles

Before moving on to the final chapter of conclusion, let me shortly summarize the three articles in the thesis.

Article I explores parents’ and caregivers’ value of education from a rural-urban perspective. Why do they send their children (and grandchildren) to school and what are they aiming for by supporting their children’s primary education?

Despite the abolishment of the primary school fee in 2001, the numerous contributions imposed on the individual households by the local schools are raised as a main concern. Contributions are paid in cash and in kind and contribute to desks, electricity, meals, administration and other costs. In addition to these contributions, school uniforms and school materials are direct costs of schooling.

Research from developed countries has indicated a positive correlation between parental perception of the value of education and children’s learning outcomes.

In this context, though, it is hard to see how the high parental valuation of education can influence the learning outcome in a positive direction. The exception might be the urban private schools, which due to high fees are limited to the urban elite. Primary schools struggle with poor conditions: overcrowded classrooms, lack of school supplies, lack of water and electricity and lack of competent teachers and from a rural-urban perspective the rural schools fall behind. In addition, the widespread poverty and lack of basic needs severely affect children’s time devoted to school work and the possibility to receive education.

The article concludes that regardless of geographical context or socio-economic status, primary education is highly valued among both parents and caregivers.

Education is needed to become independent, to modernize farming or, even better, become formally employed and change livelihoods. Expectations of future financial support for parents and caregivers are also highlighted. Within the urban upper income area, on the other hand, a child is expected to study hard through all levels of education in order to remain within the class.

Article II focuses on the conditions for obtaining quality in primary education and explores the term quality from a local perspective. Since 2015, inclusive and

equitable quality education for all is one of the 17 Sustainable Development Goals.

Regardless of geographical context there is a coherent understanding among teachers and caregivers that the term quality primarily is defined by measurable indicators. First and foremost the standard VII national exam results are highlighted. Other ratios of textbook-pupil, teacher and student-classroom also serve as indicators of quality. At times, non-measurable indicators are, however, emphasized as well. These relates to the child’s personal development for instance self-confidence, creativity and the ability to apply knowledge outside the school. The non-measurable indicators may also relate to community development or development at the national level, for instance an improved learning environment and the share of pupils selected to secondary education.

The article demonstrates strong rural-urban discrepancies regarding primary schools’ ability to give education and children’s possibilities to receive education.

Poor infrastructure and widespread poverty are two main obstacles especially influencing rural areas and teachers’ willingness to work in remote areas negatively affect the school days of both teachers and children. The children’s school day is limited by the need to collect water and firewood both in school and at home, other household duties, long distances to school and the lack of food and basic school supplies. The teachers’ working day is hampered by low salaries and the need to be involved in other income generating activities.

The regional NER suggests Iringa is about to reach UPE. Nevertheless, regarding SDG4 the article argues that extensive improvements are needed to avoid the creation of a spatial academic gap where the rural youth are left behind.

Finally, in article III I move on to discuss the links between rural livelihoods and education. In 2001, the Tanzanian government introduced a fee free primary education in its aim towards universal and inclusive basic education. At the same time, a capitation grant was introduced by the government to cover the local school expenditure when the school fee was abolished. Against this background, this article explores the financial outcome of a fee free primary education in rural Iringa. The government’s capitation grant, based on number of enrolled pupils within a school, only partial reaches the schools. Therefore, in order to manage the daily school activities and handle the increased enrolment of students since 2001, parents and caregivers have been requested to contribute in cash and in kind. Contributions are needed for example to pay for examination fees, desks, electricity and lunch. In addition to these contributions, parents need to pay for school uniforms and necessary school supplies. These contributions are according

to Ministry of Education and Vocational Training not obligatory. Parents disagree, though, as children are suspended or beaten if contributions are not paid on time.

Data from three villages in Iringa Region suggest that education today, despite being fee free, is the main expenditure for a majority of rural families. In order to secure a better future for their children and give them a chance to move out of poverty and possibly change livelihoods, parents and caregivers struggle to manage the frequent contributions requested.

Following the abolishment of the fee primary NER has increased and Tanzania primary education has in some respect become more inclusive, at least in terms of enrolment rates. Nonetheless, this comes at a substantial cost to parents and caregivers. The article concludes that the aim of a free primary education is not yet achieved in Tanzania as parental contributions have replaced the previous fee.