The Wave of Democratisation : Beijing Olympic Games: Improved or Worsened the Democratic Process in China?

JöNKoprNc

INTERNATToNAT-

BusrNEss ScHooL

JöwxöprNc uNrvERSrry

The

Wave

of

Democratisation

Beijing Olympic

Games:

lmproved or Worsened

the

Democratic Process

in

China?

Bachelor Thesis within Political Science

Äuthor:

Parasto Nostati Hefzabad 850513-6526

Tutor:

Professor Benny Hjern

Abstract

In

this thesis

I

will

reflect over whethet the Beijing Summer Olympics in 2008 has

im-proved or worsened a possible democratic development

in

China. This is done by primaniy

ptoviding a theoretical chapter on democtacy and democracy's general development

in

the world. This is followed by updated information tegardrng the general political system and

situation

in

China This part is included

in

the thesis

to

further

inform

the reader about the

general situation

in

China and enable the readet to, more accurately, draw own conclusions

when studying the outcome. Furthefmore, the empirical part

will

reflect statements made

by two noted otganisations, Amnesty International and _{Human Rights !7atch, prior and}

af-ter the Olympic Games

in

Beijing. The reflections

will,

together

with

the theory, be com-piled and compared

in

the analysis

to

investigate whether the Olympic Games has bene-fited or wotsened a democratic development

in

China. The analysis

will

be followed by a

final chapter where the reader

will

be assisted by a conclusion, summary and my own

fe-flections regarding the situation and outcome of the invesugation.

The result

of

the thesis indicates that the Chinese regime aggravated the already poor

human and fundamental rights

in

the country as the Olympic games approached.

Never-theless, the authorities were pressured

to fulfil

some

of

the promises made

to

the

interna-tronal community and International Olympic Committee

priot to

the games, Iike judicial

amendments and providing increased media fteedom. However, international organisations

like Amnesty International and Human fughts \X/atch were not impressed

nor

sausfied by

the, according

to

them, insufficient measufements taken.

Äfter

the Olympic games, the

si-tuation

in

the countfy became less intense,

but

some

of

the pressures

from

international

organisations and states

on the

Chinese regime remained.

The

small and temporaty

im-provements made by the regime pnor

to

the games started a discussion after the Olympics

to

possibly prolong

or

even sustain some

of

these.

It

can be concluded that although the

Beijing Olympic games possibly has contributed to some improvements of human and

fun-damental rights

in

China, one should bear

in

mind that violations

of

these, to thrs day, still

1..

Table

of

Contents

Introduction...

...1

1.1

Backgtound...

_...1

1.2

Pur?ose

_.,...2

1.3 Method and

Matedal

...,.3

1.4 Delimitation and Text

Analysis...

...4

1.5

Disposition.,,

_{....,,...,..5}

DefiningDemocracy

...,..6

2.1

Definition

of

Democracy

...6

2.2The Meaning of

Democracy...

. . .. . ... .6

2.3 Dimensions of

Democracy

.,...8

2.4Mezsutements of

Democra,cy....

_...,..9

2.4.1 Measurement by Freedom House Organisation...,.

.

. . .. .

...9

2.4.2MeasurementbyEconomistIntelligenceUnit,

...,,..10

2.5 Spread of

Democra'cy....

_...,..11

2.5.1 General

Information....

.... .. . ... ..11

2.5.2 F;xplanng the Spread of Demo cracy

.

. . . .1.2 2.5.3 Democratisation

Drivers.

. ,. . .. . ....13

2.6 Prosperities and Adversities

with

Spread of

Democr^cy....

...,....15

2.6.1 Prosperities. ....15

2.6.2 Adversities _.,..15

3. The Democratic Process in

China.

...j,7 3.1 Political

System.

...1,7 3.2 Actual Political

Situation.

_...18

3.3 Olympic Games in

Beijing.

.,..,,...19

3.4 Mass

Media.

_.

_...

_..20

4. Ämnesty International's Interpretation of the Human Rights Situation in China. . .. . ...21

4.lPtior

to the Olympic Games in

Beijing.

_...21,

4.2 After the Olympic Games in

Beijing.

...22

5. Human Rights Watch's Interpretation of the Human Rights Siruation

in

China. . . ..24

5.1 Pdor to the Olympic Games in

Beiling.

,, . ,...24

5.2 After the Olympic Games in

Beijing.

_...25

6. Analysis 6.1 Änalysis on China Prior to the Olympic Games in

Beiling.

...27

6.2 Analysis

in

China

Äfter

the Olympic Games in

Beiying.

...2g 7. Conclusion,

Summarf,andReflection.

_....,..,.30

References.

27

1.

Introduction

1.1

Background

(Huntington,1.993:3) Twenty-five minutes past midnight, Thursday

April

25'h 1974,

a tadio station

in

Lisbon, Portugal, played a song that would be the startrng

point

of

a

new democtatfc era

in

the wodd. F'or miJitary units around Lisbon, the song was a start

signal

for

catrytng

out

the plans

for

a coup

to

overthrow the current dictator Marcello

Caetano.

I(ey

ministties, broadcasting stations,

post

offices, airports,

and

telephone

exchanges _{wete successfully and efficiently occupied and thus, the coup accomplished its}

pulpose.

The following

day,

the

deposed

dictatot fled the

country and died

in

exile

together

with

the dictatorship that ruled for over 35 years.

Samuel P. Huntington _{(Diamond, 2003: 2) describes this event as the tdgger point}

of

a

third

wave

of

democratisation expansions

in

the wodd.

trollowing

Ptrtugal's

triumph

of

democracy

were

ftst

Gteece

and

Spain

in

the mid

1970s.

Nine

Latin American counfties came

to

favour elected civrhan governments before

mid

1980s. By

the end

of

the 1980s the third wave

of

democratisaaon had spread to Äsia. philippinei,

Taiwan, Pakistan, Bangladesh

and Nepal had

all

either proceeded

to

grasp

u

*or.

democratic system

or

became

complete

democratic states.

The thirå

wave

flow

concerned about

two out

of

five

states

in

the wodd.

More

countri.es continued to

institutionalise democracy during

the

1990s.

Most

of

the Eastern European states and

Mongolia started

to

hold

competitive elections after the collapse

of

the Soviet Union.

The wave spread to

Äfiica

as more and more countries began a liberation process. Benin

launched a transition

to

democtacy and Nelson Mandela was released from jail

in

South

Äfrica, commencing a process of dialogue that would come to lead to democracy.

/,

---- - -.a_- ':--a)

so,-+ "'q---* _--;''

Third wave of democratisation

(Soutce: Hadenius, figure 5, 2006:30)

Latry

Dtamond

appreciates

in

his

paper, Universal Democracy,

the

number

of

democracies

rn

1'974

to

41 countries among existing 150 states.

Of

the remaimng 109

states, more than

half

(56) subsequently converted

to

democracy and solely three

of

these; Russia, Pakistan and Sudan, came

to

change

from

democracy. Today around

three-fifths of the world's states are democtacies

of

some kind.

According

to

Diamond, there are

no

current rivals

to

democracy as a model

of

governing. Communism

is

mote

or

less extinct.

Military rule

has

lost its

credibility among

most

ci.tizens. One-party

ruling

has almost drsappeared.

The

only model

of

governing besides from democncy that has a persistent base

with

moral and ideological

appeal is the model

of

an Islamic state. However, the only example

of

such an Islamic

state

is the

disctedrted and unauthorised Islamrc Repubiic

of

I:an,

whose people are

forced

to

follow

the Islamic ruLng, but most probably would prefer a democratic

fotm

of government.

Diamond argues

that

democracy

is

possible as a universal value

for

all

states, no matter

the

condition

of

the

country.

He

exemplifies

Mali

and

states

that

if

a

poor

Muslim

country

with

high

tlliteracy

and poverty

and

short

hfe

expectancy can be

democratic, then there is no reason why democracy cannot develop elsewhere. Refernng

to

the United Nations Development Programme

pNDP),

out

of

the 36 countries that

are classi.fied as having

"Low

Human Development", L1. are democracies today.

1.2

Pulpose

The purpose of this thesis is to investigate the democratisation process

in

the world,

highlighting the case

of

China and

if

their development

of

democracy and democratic

values has improved

or

worsened due

to

the arrangement

of

the Olympic

Games in

Beijing 2008.

The reason

for

choosing this topic

for

the thesis was because

of

the major attention

that was given China and its human rights flaws when Beijing was chosen to arrange the

Olympic Games. The Chrnese authodties claimed that they would imptove the citizens' human rights

if

they were given

the olympic

Games, however, as

the

compeflhons

approached,

the

internaflonal criucisms increased.

Due

to

this

situation

I

found

it

interesting to investigate and analyse whether this criticism was well-founded or not and

if

the Chinese authorities kept their promise

to

the international community when they

were awarded to host the Olympics.

In

order

to

comprehensively grasp

the

act'nl democratic process

in

the

world

and

its tnfluences, a broad theoretical chapter has been provided for discussing democracy rn

the wodd

in

general.

The

emprdcal

patt

will

investrgate

how the

international

organisations Human fughts

lfatch

and Ämnesty have analysed the democratic process

prior and after the Olympic Games rn Beijing. How has the democratic process

in

China

changed due

to

the Olympics accotding

to

these

two

organisations? Has the Olympics

helped

and

opened

up for

a

democratic ptocess

in

China

or

made

the

Chinese

The analysis

will

apply the theory and the empfuical pan and rnvesngate whether the Oiympic Games in Beijing has resulted

in

a stricter Chrnese society moving furthet away

fiom

a democratic development or

if

the Games have contributed to a more democratic

society with improved human rights standards for individuals. Thrs part

of

the thesis

will

be followed and ended by a conclusion that

will

entail the result

from

the analysis and

conclude how the Olympic Games have affected China's democratic values and whether

of

not

the

country has become more democratised

or

more authoritatian due

to

the

arrangement of the Olympics.

1.3

Method

and

Material

This study is

of

a quahtative natute and thus,

not

reliant on the comprehension

of

inter-views. The theoretical part is based on various sources, the majority from published books

written by

intetnationally recognised authors. Published articles

from

reliable

soulces are also used

in

the theoreticalpart

of

this thesis.

The empiricalpatt

includes

infotmation found

in

articles, ptess releases and reports from the internet and

not

from

published books. Since the Beijing Olympic Games occurred recently, books that discuss

the event had

not

yet been published during the time when rnformation was collected

fot

this thesis.

This thesis

will

discuss information taken

fiom

various reliable sour:ces like reporrs,

ptess releases _{and statements made by Amnesty International and Human Rrghts Watch.}

The

purpose

of

using these

two

organisations

is

to

ptovide a

trustworthy and reliant

thesis for the reader.

The strategy used

for

finding information

for

the empirical part was to insett key words

on the search engine Google and tncorporate relevant information from reliable sources.

Some

of

the

key words used were human rights

in

China, haman

right

Be/ing Ofimpics,

Democrary Bei'ing Ofimpict Democragt in Cltina, and Freedom of expression Be/ing Ofimpic:. -Ihe key words enabled

me

to

quickly decide

which

organisations

to

include

in

the

thesis.

Flowever, before starting my information search

I

thought of using four orgarusations in

the

thesis, namely Ämnesty International, Human Rights \)fatch, the United Nations,

and the European Union. My aim was

to

constllrct a strong and solid emprdcal chapter,

but

aftet

searching

rnformation

with

k.y

words

I

found

that

solely

Amnesty

Intetnational

and

Human fughts Watch

entailed enough relevant

informauon that

I

could exclude other organisations.

The analysis is made by comparing the two organisations and how they intelpret the

human rights situation rn China prior and after the arrangements

of

the Beijing Olympic

Games. The democtatisation theory is also applied

to

the analysis and the orgånisatrons'

interpretations.

By

comparing

the

organisations

with

each

other

and

with

the

theory

prior

and after

the

Beijing Olympics

we

can

obserwe

whether

the

democratisation

process in china benefited from the

olympic

Games arrangements or not.

Amnesty International

is

a global, non-governmental organisation that works

for

the rmplementation

of

human rights

in

the world. The organisation's

work

follows the

Universal Declaration of Human Rights stated by the United Nations when investrgating

abuses

of

human dghts and

to

put

pressure

on

governments and other authodties to

respect the individual rights regulated

in

the declaration. Amnesty International is well

recognised among

both

international and regional actots and

its

comments

on

human

dghts situations are given major media attention.

Human Rights Watch

is a

non-governmental

and non-profit human

rights organisation

that

operates

globally.

The

organisation

consists

of

human

rights

professionals including lawyers, journalists, countly experts, and academics with various

nationalities and backgrounds. Human Rights \X/atch annually pubhshes more than 100

briefings

and reports

on

human

rights

conditions

and

situations

in

more than

80

countries.

It

emphasises

on

being impartial

when

teporting, attamrng accurate facts,

using media

effectively,

and

txget

advocacy.

Its

important

work

has

made

the

organisation eminent and respected worldwide. The organisation has continuous contact

and

meetings

with

the

Uruted

Nations,

state governments, regional groups

like

the

European Union and African Union, corporations, and financial rnsututions to utge

for

changes in policies that promote justice and human rights globally.

1.4

Delimitation

and

Text

Analysis

This thesis is based on methodical investigation that elucidates the main standpoints

of

the

organisations involved

with

regard

to

the

specific topic.

The

texts used

in

the

thesis are chosen due to their relevance and time of telease. The information given must

be

up

to

date

to

reflect the most fecent situation

of

the discussed topic. Nevertheless,

the use of recent publications also provides a fau and honest picture

of

the situation for

the teadet. Furthermote, the otganisations are chosen due

to

their global tecognition,

trrrstwotthy informatron, and influenflal commitment in this area.

The

theory

is

taken

from

various reliable sources due

to

democracy's numerous

ways of interpretatton. To provide a more

truthful

and comprehensive theory one needs

to

acknowledge different interpretations

of

the meaning

of

democracy. Furthermore,

the theory describes two ways of measudng democracy and why one way of measudng is

prefened over anothet rn this thesis.

The theory's vatious categories aim

to

provide a general rmpression

of

democtacy.

Self-evidently, this part could constitute alarget

ot

smaller part

of

the thesi.s, however,

it

is concluded that the tnfotmation given

in

the theory is sufficient enough

to

provide a

proper idea of the term "democracy" to the reader.

The

information provided should

be

used

as

a

tool

for

discovenng relations

between

the

theory and

the

organisations' standpoints

prior

and

after

the

Olympic

Games.

The

putpose

of

the

text is

to

make

the

reader understand

the

process

of

democracy

now aftet

the Beijing Olympics compared

to

before

the

arrangement and

whether

the

Olympics have improved

the

process

of

not,

as according

to

discourse

analysis.

1.5

Disposition

The

theoretrcal

part

of

this thesis

will

altght a broad perspective

of

democracy by

discussing its meaning, definition, dimensions, measurements, and international spread.

The theory

will

also discuss various democratic ddvers stated by Larry Diamond. These

drivers

are mainly

fout

essential concepts

that

encourage democratic ptogress, and intetnational organisations and actors

that

contribute

to

democratic development in

numerous ways.

The

ftnal

part

of

the

theory

will

provide rnformation regardrng the

prosperities and advetsities

with

the spread

of

democracy during the

third

wave.

It wili

include drfferent factors that explain successes and setbacks of democracy.

The empirical part

wili

primatily provide information regarding the general political

situation

in

China and continue

with

the main body

of

this chapter. Statements through

official

reports and press releases made by Amnesty International and Human fughts

Watch prior to and after the Olympic Games rn Beijrng

will

illustrate a mole detailed and

updated pictute

of

the political situation rn China. Other sources are uttedy important,

however,

to

narrow

the

thesis

is

cmcial

and

thus,

it

wdl

only

include

these two

organisations that have significant supewision on the situation,

The analysis

will

connect the theory

with

the emprrical part to tr7 to draw parallels to further describe and understand how the democratic process is ongoing. One needs to

obserwe

thatall

parts

of

the theory are not included

in

the

analyacal part, however,

it

is

important to fully comprehend the theory

in

order to draw correct conclusions

fiom

the

analysis.

The analysis

will

be followed by a conclusion that

will

state the purpose

of

the thesis,

2.

Defining Democr^cy

To

fuily

comptehend the problems and possibiJitres

of

the spread

of

democracy, a

clear definition

of

democracy is provided below. The definition is meant

to

constitute a

foundation of the particular issue for the reader to build on as the thesis proceeds.

2.1,

Deftntion

of

Democracy

(Hadenius, 2006: 10) Democracy

is

defined as

"rule by

the

people", whete the

citizens

of

a state have the right

to

rrrle themselves.

All

decisions taken

in

a democratic

state by

r-ling

government must be

for

the best interest of its people. Institutions, state

reptesentatives, govetnment officials and othet pohtically attached units are all obliged

to act according to the

will

expressed by the citizens. For the funcuoning

of

the "rule by

the

people", certain demands are set

on how

the

people's voices are acknowledged. More precisely,

two

pnnciples must be followed; the

plnciple of

political equality and

the pnnciple

of

freedom.

The first

principle

of

political

equality defines

who the

"cidzens"

are and what

functron the governors have. The balance between these sets the political memberslrrp.

Furthermore, all residents

in

a country have rights

to

decide

for

the govemrng

of

the

countrT.

Also,

all governors must be given

the

same rights and opportunities and be

treated equally. Inequality among rulers

tn

a state does

not

constitute

for

a democre'cy.

The second principle

of

freedom states that all opinions, acts, and ideas must be heard

and exptessed

in

a poJrtical process.

In

a democracy, al7 people have the right

to

fieely

and unresttainedly express

their

political ideas and elevate

upon

them.

A

rrrle

by

the

people guarantees equal rights

for

all and gives people the right

to

take advantage

of

all

the possibilities that a democracy creates.

Democracy can take different shapes depending

on

the

state

it

concerns.

Not

all

states share the same possibilities,

oppotunities

and restrictj.ons when democratic ideas

are applied. Countries set different restrictions

to, for

example, the minimum age for

voung.

Other more

controversial testrictions

concern

the

relationship

between citizenship

and

the right

to

vote,

Some countries

only allow

people

with

a

valid

membetshrp

to

vote, othets accept non-ci.tizens that have tesided

in

the country

for

a

cettain amount of trme to participate.

2.2The Meaning

of

Democracy

(Sotensen, 2008: 10)

Ä

rule by the people involves many complex elements since

it

requires careful considerations regarding what _rype

of

ruhng that is destable. However,

there are two main conceptions

of

democracy mentioned by Sorensen; one narrow and

t}e

other comprehensive.

Joseph

Schumpeter

formulates

the

narrow concept

according

to

Sorensen.

Schumpeter descdbes democracy as a way of choosing political leadership. He states that

rival political leaders afe set against each other

to

compete

for

the citizens' votes. The

leader that teceives the most votes wins the election and thus has the power

of

decision

makrng

for

a fixed period

of

time. Depending on the satisfaction

of

the citizens dudng

the ruling

of

the winning

leader, citizens can either replace

or

re-elect

the

politician

during the next

election. Schumpeter descdbes

this

process

of

choosing

a

ieader as

democracy.

David

Held

(Sorensen,

2008:

11)

formulates

the

comprehensive

concept

of

democracy

and

calls

it

a

basic

principle

of

democratic autonomy.

He

argues that

democtacy is when people enjoy equal rights and obligations. People must be free and

equai

in

the

process

of

democratrc delibetation and have

the

dght

to

determrne the

conditions of their own lives without denying the rights of others.

Held's principle

calls

for

a

responsible state and

a

democratic ordenng

of

civil

society

where direct

particrpatron

in

decision

taking

by

the

people

is

possible.

Nevettheless,

it

emphasises on rights that go beyond solely the right to vote

andlcludes

equal _{nghts among citizens and} their final control over the political processes.

Between tlese two main conceptions

of

_{democracy mentioned above lies the} debate

of what democracy is and what

it

should be. _{The presentations made by Schumpeter and}

Held

simplifies

the

understanding

of

democracy and shows

its

different

aspects. For

example, when regarding many developing countries, Held's comprehensive

notion

of

democracy could be applied. Basic rights and equal

oppofunities

for

participahon are

essential

in

developing countries, however

difficult to

_{marntarn since matedal poverty is}

widespread'

Fteedom

for

developrng countries

is

basically

freedom

from

hunger,

povetty and disease. _{Industrialized counfties, on the other hand, do not tangle poveffy as}

a

main

problem

of

democracy,

but

rather

the lack

of

social, economic anå

po[tical

equality.

Howevel, most

Western

indusfttaltzed

countries

ate,

in

basic ,^.rp".tr,

democtacies according to Schumpeter's concept.

(Sorensen, 2008: 13) Tlrrs overwiew

of

the meaning

of

democracy

is

not

sufficient

when determrning which _{countries that arc democratic and wlrrch are not. For this we}

need

to

identi!,

how a government acts towards the pteferences

of its

citizens. Robert

Dahl

believes

that this

is

the key

chatacteristic

of

demo cracy and suggests

that

the following three opportunities must be available to citizens:

1)

Formulating their preferences

2)

Indicatrng their preferences

to

government and fellow citizens

individual action

3)

Having thefu preferences weighted equally when administrating

by collectrve and

the government

Dahl

states

that

these

three

opportunities

depend

on

the

following

instttutional

guarantees:

o

Government officials that have control over government decisions are appointed

through elections

Elections of parues or officials ate held frequently, fairly and without coercion

All

adults have equal right to vote when electrng officials

o o

a

a

Älmost all adults are eligrble to run for government office

The

freedom

of

exptession applies

to all

citizens and gives citizens nghts to

discuss political matters

without

any thteat of punishment

Citizens have the

dght

to

seek information through existing alternative sources

and are protected by law

Citizens have the

right

to

form

independent organisations and associations like

political parties and groups of interests

Dahl

concludes that a pohncal democracy is a

Furthermore, these conditions cover three main

partidpation, competition, and t;iuil and political liberties.

interpreted as a governmental system that gives way

fact when these conditions are met.

dimensi.ons

of

political

democracy-Hence,

political

democracy can be

to following conditions :

A

high Ievel of political participation when selectmg political officials and policies

through a fair, regular and non-exclusive election.

Conpetition among political patties, individuals and orgarusations, which promote and enhance the positions within govefnment.

Ciuil and political libertier

like

freedom

of

speech; expression; the press;

to

form

and

j"ir

organisations,

for

enabling

and

ensuring fairness

of

pohtical patticipaaon and compefltion.

The above mentioned is the definition and meamng

of

political democracy that wrll

apply throughout this thesis.

2.3

Dimensions

of

Democracy

Äccording

to

Held's

comprehensive concept

of

democracy (Sorensen, 2008: 15),

further democratisation is possible once poJitical democracy exists. One dimension when

extending democratisahon is applymg additional liberalisauon. Citizens have

no

use

of

their

political rights and

hberties

if, fot

example,

the

welfare state cannot prevent socioeconomic inequalities and extreme material poverty. Hence, additional liberalisation

develops the formal equal rights

into

substantial rights, which enables the populanon to

fully use and apply their political dghts.

Anothet

dimension

that could

be

extended

is

participation,

By

using

the

above

defirution

of

political _{democtacy, participation mainly concerns government and public}

institutions.

Held

extends

the

participation

to

concern

social

insututions

and

the

economy. He shows _{how the telationsbnp between libetalisanon and participation moves}

Figure

2.1

Relationship between liberalisation

and

patrcipation

toward

democratic autonomy Substantive benefits and entidements Formal rights and libeties

Welfare Democracy Democratic Äutononry

Political Democracy Social Democracy

Public institunons and

governmental processes

Social institutions and

economic pfocesses

PARTICIPATION

The movement from political democracy towatd democratic autonomy

(Source: Sorensen, 2008: 17)

2.4 Measurements

of

Democracy

To

measure democracy

in

the wodd is a science

far

fuom solution

_flhe

Economrst,

2007). Analysts, govetnment officials and academics have drfficulties reaching consensus

when

setting

the

frames

on how

to

correctly measure democracy. However, most

observers today would agree

on

some essential features

of

a democracy. These features

are when a government

is

elected on majority rrrle and thtough decision takrng by the

govetned, the existence

of

fair and free elections, respect for basic human tights and the

protection

of

minority

groups.

All

infotmation

in

this

section

is

taken

from

The Economist.

2.4.1

Measurement by Freedom House organisation

Some experts and observers insist that democracy either exists or does not exist rn a

countly,

without

any in-betweens. However, new measurements give

a

possibiJity to rank demoffacy

ln

vary'tng degrees, dependrng

on

certain directions. Äccordrng

to

the

Economist,

the

Freedom

House

otganisation produces

the best

measurement

of

democtacy

at

present.

They

calcul^te aver^ge values

of

politrcal

freedom

and

civil

liberties

in

a ranking system

with

indexes that constitute a measure

of

democracy. AII

countries are covered rn the Freedom House measure svstem.

Besides

ftom

measuring political fteedom and

civil

liberties, Freedom House also

rates

"electoral

democracies", meaning democracies

that

share

at

least

one

of

the following es sential criteÅa'.

Än

adult sufftage that is universal.

A

political market consistrng of competinve multiparty system.

Regular and safe elections conducted

thtough

rndrvidual and personal ballots

with

absence of voter fraud.

o

Public access

to

politrcal parues

in

election processes through media and open campaigning.

Freedom House sufveys tends

to

classify

mofe

counfties as electoral democracies

than "political

freedom"

democracies.

The political

fteedom

measurement covers

political pluralism

and

electotal ptocesses, however,

to

a

lesser extent, aspects

of

patticipation and the functioning of government.

Measurements

of

democracy ate often drvided

in

"thin"

or mrnimalist and

"thick"

or

wide classes. The

thin

concepts coffespond

to

an academic defirution

of

democracy, as

that of Robert Dahl mentioned above.

o a

o

The Freedom House electoral democracy

measure based

on

political rights and

civil

should be included

to

further immense into

political culture and views of society.

measure is a thrn concept compared to the

liberues.

Other

defirutrons

of

democracy

democtatic measurements,

like

aspects

of

2.4.2

Measurement by the Economist Intelligence Urut

The

Economist Intelhgence

Unit's

index (The Economist,2007)

is

constructed on

the behef that existing measurements

of

democracy are

not

sufficient enough since they

do

not

fully

reflect elements

of

political participation and functioning

of

government.

Solely fteedom

is

not

sufficient

as

an

essential

component

of

democracy. The

Economist

lllslligence

Unit's index is based on the following five categories:

Electoral process and pluralism

Functioning of government

Political paticipanon

Political cultute Civil libetres

These five categories are interrelated and constitute a whole.

The

electoral process

and

pluralism

is

a

basic requirement

of

all

democratic measurement models and

democratic definitions.

Also civil

liberties are considered as a fundamental component

by most definitions, except

for

the srmplest ones. The principles

of

basic human trghtt

are widely

accepted

and

stated

by

international

agreements

between

states and intetnational organisations like the United Nations. These basic nghts include freedom

a a a o a 10

of

speech,

of

expression and the press,

of

religion,

of

assembly and association, and a

fat

justice process.

Änother necessalT component

govefnment. Democratic decisions

democratic concept.

for

democracy is a mlmmum level

of

functioning

of

must be implemented correcdy

to

give value

to

the

Ä

healthy

democracy includes

citizens' free

participation. People

that

are

not

satrsfied

with

the

pohncal process

are ftee

to

express

their

dissatisfaction

by

not

partrcipating. Democracy prospers when citizens

willingly

engage

in

political processes

like

elections,

public

debates,

demonstrations,

and

political

parties.

\X/ithout

participation, democtacy begins

to

diminish

to

solely include certain selected groups

of

the society.

A

pohtical

culture

is

essential

for

the

legitimacy

of

a

democratic environment.

Without the

culture,

the

politrcal

process

would

be

characterised

by

apathy and

submission

by the

citi.zens,

which

is not

consistent

with a

democracy.

A

successful

political culture distrnguishes winners and losers dudng an election

but

ensures

a

safe

and accepted transfer of power by the citizens, regardless what side they support.

The Economist Intelligence Unit's measure

of

democracy rncludes more aspects

of

democracy

than

the

Freedom

House

organisation. However, some components

of

democracy like the relevance

of

economic and social wellberng are

not

considered. The

Economist argues that according to traditional measurements, a vartery

of

economic and

social outcomes can be compatible with politrcal democracy,

2,5

Spread

of

Democracy

2.5.1

Generallnformation

Due to its mote _{tnclusive and wrdet measurement, the democratic model stated by}

the Econornist is used as the fiamework

of

this thesis

for

providrng informauon about

the spread of democracy in the

wodd

_flhe

Economtst).

The

Economist

index

of

cuttent

democracies

in

the

wodd

concerns

165

rndependent states and

two

territories.

Ålmost the

entire populatron

of

the

wodd

is

rncluded and the greater majority of the world's 192 independent states.

The Economist index displays almost half

of

the wodd's countries as democracies,

however, the number

of

"fi.rll democracies" are

by

compatison

low,

simply 28 states.

The number

of

flawed democracies is 54, while

of

the remaining 85 states 30 are "mixed

regimes", and 55 authoritarian.

Not

sulprisrngly,

all

developed

OECD

countries,

with

the exception

of

Italy, dominate among the

full

democracy section.

This

category also

inciudes two Latrn American, two central Eutopean, one Asian and one

Afiican

countllr.

Hence,

it

verifies

that

a

country's

level

of

development

is not

a

restriction when measuring democracy.

The

survey states

that

solely 13

pet

cent

of

tlre world's

population

live

in

full

democraci.es, however, more than half

of

the wodd's populauon reside

in

a democracy

of

some sott. Moteover, almost 40 pet cent s';ll live under authoritanan rule, a majorig,

being in China.

2.5.2

Explaining the Spread of Democracy

Äccotding to the 2007 index, the country

with

the highest score and thus closest to

a

perfect democracy

is

Sweden. Countries followrng are Iceland and the Nethedands.

USA and Britain fall to the bottom

of

the

full

democtatic category however for different

teasons. America is given a low rank due to therr civil liberues and aspects of governance

whjle Britain falls due to their low political panicipation rate, which is the lowest among

the developed countries. Also France performed nther poody as a result of low poliucal

patrcipation, functioning of government and political culture. Italy is excluded

ftom

the

full

democratic category and placed

to

the

flawed democracy sectof as

a

result

of

problems

in

the

functioning

of

government, electoral process

and lack

of

political culture.

(Democracy across the regions (Source: The Economist, The \7odd in 2007:7)

Regionally, the distributions

of

different regime t)?es are concentrated

in

different

continents. Flawed democtacies are mostly found in Laun Ämerica and Eastern Europe,

and

to

a lesser extent in Asia. The reasons

for

the spread of weak democracies

in

Latin America ate the

low

levels

of

political participation and weak democratic cultures.

Ä

maiority

of

Eastern Eutopean countries that

arc

represented as

the

new

European

Union

members have equal levels

of

civil

libenies and

polincal

freedom as

the

old

developed members. Nevertheless, dre new countries fall behind rn political culture and

partrcipation- a result

of

anomie and weakness

of

dernocratic development. The Czech

Democracy index average Numbet

of

countries Full democtacies Flawed democracies Hybrid regimes Authoritarian regimes North America 8.64 2 2 0 0 0 !7est Eurooe 8.60 21 18 2 1 0 Eastern Europe 5.7 6 28 2 1,4 6 6 Latin America & the Caribbean 6.37 24 2 T7 4 L Asia

&

Austtalasia 5.44 28 3 12 4 9

Middle East

&

North Africa 3.53 20 0 2 2 1,6 Sub-Sahatan Africa 4.24 44 I 7 13 23 Total 5.52 767 28 54 30 55 T2

Republic and Slovenia are

the only

Eastern European countries

that fall

in

the

full

democracy category. Counffies

of

the

former Soviet

Union

are strongly domrnated by

authoritartan and hybrid regimes.

Middle

East and

Africa

are mostly characterised

by

authorttarian regimes, which

also appear

in

Äsia

to

a

certain extent.

The

scarcity

of

democratic regrmes

in

North

Äfrica

and

Middle

East has created

^

gte^t debate about

the

causes. Scientists often

point on

the statistical relationship between democtacy and income as berng the marn

feason.

piamond,

2003: 5) Middle East is the only

pat

of

the

wotld

where democracy is

absent. Democtacy has never existed among the 16 states

in

the Middle East,

with

the

exception

of

Lebanon. Furthermore, the development

of

freedom is also at halt

in

this

atea while the rest of the world is proceedrng.

The spread

of

democracy has evolved enormously dunng the last decades and exists

now

in

vrrtually

all

types

of

states, however

it

is

far

more

cofirnon

jn

developed

counffies.

Poot

countries are moving towards a democratic system rather rapidly, and

many

of

these ate abeady showing significantly libetal tendencies. Small states

with

less

than one million inhabitants tend

to

have

a

gteater liberal vi.ew than other democracies.

Moteover,

the

largest states, eight

out

of

11.,

with

populations

over

100

million

are

democracies. Even tough these numbers invoke on the trend of a democratic revolution,

the Ärab

states

^te

excluded

since these countries are

considered completely

undemocratic.

2.5.3

DemocratisationDrivets

(Diamond, 2003: B) There are sevetal reasons

fot

the spread

of

democratic values

and systems

in

the wodd. Diamond mainly focuses on four essential factors thathave a

rather great impact on the success of the democratisation process.

Economic

development

is

one

democracy

driver.

Increases

in

national wealth

generates effects

like

increasing

level

of

education,

the

creation

of

a

diverse and

independent

middle

class,

and

the

development

of

a

more

diversifi.ed,

vibrant

and

tesourceful

civil

society. These changes lead

to

a

more

conf,dent, questroning and

pluralistic political culture, all signifrcant

for

a democratic system. Counfties like South

I(orea and Taiwan aie examples

of

these societal changes _{towards democratisation that}

follows

with

economic development.

Also

Thailand, Mexico, South

Africa

and Btaztl,

have successfully managed

to conttol civil

society and convert

into

a semi-authoritartan

rule. Malaysia and especially Singapore, being the richest authoritarian state rn the world,

are examples

of

exceptrons sjnce they are economically developed, however, the ptessure

for democtatisation has not yet been prosperous.

Econornic petformance is another democtatic driver that is based on government

performance

in

economic situations. Many authoritarian regimes

try

to justify their rule

on political and moral grounds

on

the basis

of

their achLrevements. Issues

like

fighting

corruption and

subversion,

uni$'ing

the

nation, and

achieving

a

positive

economic growth are used as excuses

for

claiming the authotitatian rule. However,

if

the regime fails

to

fulfil

their

promises, they

forfeit

their

moral

right

to

rule.

If

they succeed in

overcoming the national problems that brought them the power, the people may feel as

if

they have served their purpose and should be exchanged.

The third

wave

of

democtatisation has mainly

btought

changes

in

the

policies,

expectations, and actions

of

akeady estabhshed democtacies, like the United States. Both

Ji--y

Carter and Ronald Reagan tried

to

put

pressure

on

undemocratic counfties by

promoflng

democracy

by

establishing organisations,

parties, interest groups,

and

rnstitutions.

The United

States

were

spending large amounts

of

money

to

support

democratic development abroad and many countries became dependent on this financial

contribution. As the pressures for democtacy increased, United States withdrew funds to

certain countries that were lackrng persistent development. These countries were left in

acute fiscal crisis, which thus forced them to refotm their political standpoints.

The European Union is another powetful organisation that has taken active part in

international actions

and

pressures towards democratisation.

The

European Union initiated a condition

for

all states seeking membership to manifest a democratic practice

and

respect

for

human

rights and

freedoms.

Many

European states

that

were not

democracies

befote had

to

change

their

political views

since

the

EU

refused to

cooperate

with

them, hence, leading them

to

erlormous economic losses and isolaflon

from

the European community. This way

of

pressunng authofltarrein states

to

become

democratic has generated a positive pohucal development, especially

for

states

in

post

communist Europe.

International actots such as the United Nations, NGOs, regional organisations and

other

states

have during recent

decades become rnvolved

in

elecflon processes in

authoritartan states.

As

observers, their pu{pose

is

to

morutor the elections, reassuring

that

cotuption

does not occur and that peace is kept. These types of pohtical intrusions

question the fundamental idea

of

sovereignty and the presumption that states are free to

act as prefered withrn their own borders.

The

fouth

essential factor that has an impact on the democratisation process is the

change

rn

international nonrrs and conventions.

The

wodd

community

is stating

to

pfomote democracy as human rights through tteaties, international discourse, law and

collective approaches. Democratic governance has become a demand

on

international

level, expressed thoroughly through different documents

of

regional organisations and

the United Nations.

The

four

factots

mentioned above have

mainly

contributed

with two

things.

Primad\,

political

interventions have

become possible,

not

only

for

multilateral

countties,

but

also

for NGOs

and single states. Secondly,

it

has encouraged domestic

human rights and democtacy-driven actots

to

act and drive important issues

for

the

benefit of the people. These international legal and normative trends have been essential

for sustaining and further developing the third wave of democratisation.

2.6

Prosperities

and

Adversities

with

Spread

of

Democracy

The th:rd wave

of

democtatisation has btought many posinve effects

_to

states and

their citizens, mainly increased freedom and human

ttghtr. Most

states that embrace a

liberal and democratic system tend

to

experience a positive response

from

the citizens,

making any revetsions to authoritzrian lule rather difficult _{to implement. However, there}

ate counfties that have reversed

from

a democratic mling, and also counfties that have

not

yet adopted a democratic system due

to

several factors. Thus, this section wdl deal

with

the successes and setbacks of the democratisation process during the third wave.

2.6.1

Prosperities

According to Diamond

piamond,2007:11),

_{mainly three factors have contributed}

to

the immunity

of

a

democratic bteakdown dunng

the

thrrd wave.

First,

a positive economic development has

brought

democracy

to

countries

like

Taiwan,

I(orea

and

several other states

in

Centtal and Eastern Europe and Latin America. Studres made by

Przeworski and colleagues show

that

if

a

country's

per

capita income

is

higher than

$6,0551, a breakdown of democracy is unlikely to occur.

The

second

factor

concerns

the public opinion

and normative

change within

countries.

A

large part

of

citizens tesiding

in

states that have reformed

to

a dåmocratrc

system over the past

two

decades are dissatisfied

with

the performance

of

the political

system, patties, and politicians. Yet they do

not

favour an alternative rule. Insteaå, when

dissatisfaction

appers,

ci.tizens tend

to

become indifferent, which leads to lower voting

poils. Fven

rf

apathy is a thteat towards democracy,

it

is

not

worse than preferdng an

authoritarian al ternative.

In

past decades, almost

all

forms

of

rrrlings have been

tried

in

the

world,

from

monarchy

to

fascism. However, the only form of

rolirg

that has expanded and persisted

is

democracy.

Äccotding

to

Amartya

Sen, referred

to

by

Diamond,

supporters

of

democracy

will

flourish

in

numbers and

not

decrease as

the

democratisation

pto..r,

continues.

The

third

factor illustrates the

difficulty to

revelse democracy

to

authoritarian rule

due

to

the interwentions that

would

occur

on

regional and international levels. Many

states

that

have been tempted

to

change

their

system

know that their

economic and

political standing

will

be setback by countries and organisations that have great influence on the global

^ten^.

2.6.2

Adversities

Around 70

countries

in

the world have

managed

to

resist

the third

wave's

democtatisation ptocess. Several factors explarn the reasons, the most uncommon being

I

In 1985 Purchasing Power Parity US dollars

authodtarian success.

Mainly

Malaysia

and

Singapote

can

account

for

this

tlpe

of

success, havrng

a

raprd economic

gtowth

dunng recent years.

Another

state

that

has

faced

an

economic

growth

is

China, howevet,

its

closed,

corrrlpt

and unpredictable

political system assigns the

county in

a lower-middle income level. Other countries that

have managed

to

maintain authoritarran rule are the

oil

states

in

the Middte East. They

have

the

prosperity

to

buy

off

their

people

with

structures

of

domestic security and

control.

Besides

from the

mentioned states above,

no

other

authodtadan rules are

surviving today because they bnng wealth to their people.

Dictatorships rn the

wodd

suwive because

thet

leaders rule their counfties

with

an

rron hand. The ability

to

handle

power

freely attacts leaders and often accumulates to

gteat

personal wealth.

The main

obstacle

for

the

expansion

of

democracy

is

that

dictators batdcade themselves inside their state power and manage

to

keep a sufficient

flow of

resources

to

feed their

political

apparalts. Yet, authodtarian states do

not

tend

to genefate organic resources adequately, hence they ate dependent on the international

environment.

To

solely rely on domestic investments, entrepreneurship, and innovation

makes tegimes r.'ulnerable and discourages foreign investments. Many dictatorships are

therefore in great need of foreign aids and loans.

The Middle East has managed

to

stay authoritarian due

to

their revenues

from

oil

and internatronal aid. National ptoblems are hrdden

in

the fog by the leaders who set the

focus

on

other

international conflicts,

like

the

existence

of

the

state

of

Israel. This conflict enables tegimes

to

legitimate their rrrle by convincrng the people that their way

of mling is the most pteferred way. By continuously avoiding peoples' wants and dealing with national issues, Middle East

will

not face a long lasting democratisation process in a

near futute, accotding to Diamond,

3.

The Democratic

Process

in

China

The general democratic overview

in

the previous chapter is intended

to

constitute a

foundatton

for

understanding

the

spread

of

democracy

in

the world.

The

following

chapters

will

concentrate on the democratic values

in

China and how these values have

changed due

to

the arrangements

of

the Olympic Games

in

Beijing

in

August 2008. To

fully understand the changes and influences

of

democtacy

in

China

with

respect

to

the

arrangement

of

the Olympics, one should

ftst

comprehend China's general democratic

standpoints

priot to

the

event. Hence,

this

chapter

will

focus

on

the general political

situation in China.

All

information below is taken ftom Landguiden (Landguiden 2008).

3.1 Political

System

According to Chinas constitution the nation is a socialistic state2, where the power is

laid

in

the

hands

of

the

people.

The ruling

communist pattf

_,

Zhongguo Gongchan Dang, and the nation state ate combined

to

constitute one main actor

of

power and

decision taking. Besides

from

the communist paftf

_,

there are eight smaller parties, so,

called

"democlatic

patdes".

Howevet,

these

eight

are

not

regarded

as

oppositional

parties but rather n,

^ ,rrpport to the communist party. Their marn function

i, lo

inform

and transfer information from the pubhc organisations to the ruJrng

parq.

A

party called Chinas Democratic

Pafy

rvas implemented

tn

1998

to

challenge the

communistic authoritarian pafty.

The

Chrnese _{government heavrly oppressed the party}

and imprisoned many of its members.

Human rights like the freedom

of

press, belief, speech, and the

dght to

belong to

various

associations

and

engage

tn

demonstradons

are

expressed

rn

the

Chinese

constitution. Nevefiheless,

it

is

stricdy forbidden

to

hatm the socialistic system rn any

way.

Ä

constitutional amendment

in

2004 tenforced the importance

of

protecting and

upholding human rights, yet the Chinese government does

not fulfrl

these promrses as

they are violaung

the

human rights

in

sevetal ways. According

to

numerous human rights organisations, thousands

of

people are and have been sentenced

to

prison

for poliucal engagements since 2005, The exposed people are often deprived fair trials and

deported to working camps without prosecutions. People that criticrse the authorities are

often sentenced

fot

threatening the security

of

the nation, a ctime that is

not

narrowly defined, enabling

the

government

to

apply

it

on a

considerable range

of

cases and

situations.

In

2005

the

Chinese government unexpectedly granted permission

to

a

United Nations

reporter

to

inspect Chinese prisons.

The

reporter

stated

that

methods

for

tortunng prisoners are s

;ll

used, despite

of

the implementatron

of

a law that forbade

tortute

n

1996.

'

An

".otto-ic system that is affected by gradual state action to benefit the working class

China has, during the last

two

decades, considerably reformed their judicial system

to

compile

with

international _{and societal demands. Judicial professions}

like

advocacy

have been resuttected and a justice depattment has been rmplemented. Also, rules

for

the offices

of

public prosecutors and the police department has become more defined

and uniformed.

In

conjunction

with

Chinas

membershrp

1n

the

\Wodd

_Trade

Organisation

in

2001,

the

Chrnese leadets emphasised

on

the

importance

of

"nrling

China

with

law", which

could be interpreted as

a

step

in

applyrng

a

broader judicial

system to guude the nation.

Cornrption is a major obstacle

within

the judicial system and the communist party

has a sttong influence on the lower authodhes as well as the Supreme Court

of

law.

A

special authority was established

in

2007 to prevent corrrrption.

Citizens

in

Chrna have the possibilrty

to

appeal constitutional decisions through a

special appealing system that functions side by side with the odginal judicial system.

The Chrnese government has

not

yet abohshed the death penalty and according to

several human rights organisations thousands

of

people are executed annually. Amnesty International stated

tbat

1,770 people

were

executed

in

2005, according

to

official

Chrnese governmental calculations.

The

organisation presumes, however,

that

the

numbers are inaccutate, believing

that

thousands

of

executions are made

in

secret.

Amnesty estimates the teal number of executions to be between 8 000-10 000 annually.

Citizens could

be

sentenced

to

death

for

a wide range

of

charges such as theft,

cornrption, drug ttading,

fraud,

mutdet,

robbery,

and

engagement

in

activities that

constitute a thteat to the social otder. Nevertheless, the Supreme Court must approve all

death

sentences

due

to

an

amendment made

tn

_January 2007.

This

addition

was

tmplemented

to

enhance

the control ovet the

death sentences and prevent incorrect

convictions.

The

Supreme

Court

has also

requested

the local

courts

to

be

more testtictive

when

assigning

the

death penalty due

to

the

many people that have been sentenced to death, but later been proven innocent.

3.2

Actual

Political Situation

A

latge

pat

of the commurustic

paty

was replaced by a younger genetation

n

2003.

The

political

focus was

mainly

set

on the

economic development

of

China, which benefited

the

business sector.

The

economical expansion

led

to

larger gaps

in

the

sociefy, especially between people Jrvrng

on the

countrTside and

in

large cities. The

differences lead to increased unemployment, protests, and crimrnality, which became an

issue

for

the government

to

solve quickly

in

order

to

sustain the stabihty rn the country

and avord potentral social disturbances like riots.

Another

problem

for

the

communistic

patty

is

the

decreasing

popularity

and

credence.

The

large

conrrption and

hunger

for

more power

has spread discontent

among the population.

The

government tesponded

by holding own

investigations to

find

cormpted polrticians

and

has, since 2003, convicted

63

000

people

for

fraud,

corr-uption, and bdbery.

The govetnment expressed, due to increasing distrust, the importance of listemng to

the

people

and

satisfying

their

needs.

Yet,

any

oppositional

power

is

still

strictly forbidden by the regime. Rappotts

of

imprisoned tegime critics and activists increased

during the beginning of the 21" century.

3.3

Olyrnpic

Games

in Beijing

Since

the

Olympic Committee declared that the 2008

Olympic

Games

would

be

held

in

Beijing, China, many human dghts organisations hoped for an improvement

of

the human rights and democratic values

in

the country. Howevet, as the affangements

continued

to

prepare

Beijing

fot

the

Olympics,

no

latge

changes

wete

made in

democratic issues.

In

Tibet

protests against

the

Chinese governmeflt were escalating,

leading

to

violent

invasions

of

Chinese military

into

Tibet

to

stop

the

protests from

spreading

to

other patts

of

the country. The tegime arrested and kilIed several hundreds

of people that were protestmg in peace,

in

an attempt to avoid further damaging

of

their

reputation.

Even

though

the

demonstrations

were

decreasing

in

Tibet

due

to

the

governmental action,

the

wodd

awareness

of

Chinas

brutal

abuse

of

human dghts

increased. This resulted

in

many states threatening

to

boycott the opening ceremony

of

the Olympic Games.

The Olympic torch relays during late spnng 2008 was often characterised by hear,y

pfotesting against

the

Chrnese regime. Chaos arose

in

London when the torch

was

carried throughout the city.

In

Paris

in

the beginning of

Äpril

protesters managed to put

out

the fue. The many demonstrations against the relays

of

the Olympic torch and the

situation in Tibet created a hostile atmosphere

in

China towards the $Testern world.

Amnesty International clarms

that

China has

not

only

ignored

to

improve

the

human rights situation

in

the country, but also even made

it

worse

with

the preparations

for

the

Olympic

games.

The

otganisation accuses

the

Chinese

regime

for

using

unnecessary violence agarnst the demonsttadons

in

Tibet

and

fot

the imprisonment

of

innocent human rights activists.

China was a t^rget

for

terrorist attacks during the last preparation months

of

the

Olympic games. Bomb explosions

in

Shanghai and the Yunnan province resulted

in

the

death

of

five people rn May and _{July. In July, the Chinese governmeflt declated that they}

had exposed

five

teffor

cells

in

Chrna

that

had planned attacks against

the

Olympic

Games. Howevet, many speculators argue that these statements were made

up by

the

govefnment as an excuse to use violent force against regrme opponents.

It

was obvious during

the final

days

of

the

Olympic

Games

that

China

had benefited enormously

from

atraneing

the

event.

The

Chinese

Olympic

organisations

received good ter,rews

for

their

work

during the games, the air

pollution

decteased in

accotdance

with

the

promises made

by

the

Chinese regime, and

the

security system

managed

to

block all

types

of

possible attacks against

the

event.

Yet,

the regime was

heavily criticised

for

rts

unjust

exercise

of

authority

to

oppress protesters and

demonstrations.

Many

foreigners

that

expressed discontent towards

the

regime were

sent back

to

their

counffies. Eight Americans were rmprisoned because they protested

against Chinas actions in Tibet. China had, formally, permitted protests

in

specific areas

appointed by the government, howevet, nobody was emitted authorisation to protest.