Linköping University SE-581 83 Linköping, Sweden
+46 13-28 10 00, www.liu.se
Motivations of Middle
Managers for
Implementing Change in
IT
A Comparative Analysis of the United States and
Sweden
Elizabeth Korniat
Thomas Wehner
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This thesis has been written by Elizabeth Korniat and Thomas Wehner as participants of the Atlantis Program at Linkoping University, Sweden. It was conducted during the Spring 2020 semester. The completion of this thesis along with a passing grade will allow us to earn a bachelor’s in business administration and we would like to thank those who have helped us.
Our greatest thanks go to Aliaksei Kazlou, our thesis supervisor. Without his knowledge and help this thesis would never have come to its completion. Thank you for your dedication and knowledge to guide us throughout the process.
Special thanks to Gunilla Andersson (Linkoping University), Courtney Recht (INSEEC), Donna Wiencek (Western Illinois University), and Danny Mittleman (DePaul University) for being so cooperative and allowing us to partake in such an extraordinary program. Without the support and help of you four, none of this would have come to fruition.
To our fellow Atlantis students, a huge thank you for the loyal support and productive comments/critiques to further our thesis.
Thanks to our interviewees for taking time out of their day to aid in our research as well as their participation to help us gather information from them.
And lastly, a special thanks to the few people who proofread our thesis to make it understandable and grammatically correct.
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The purpose of the study is to examine the motivating factors of IT middle managers who work on implementing change in their organizations. The study will be based on a framework of knowledge to assess a comparative analysis of motivation.
Previous research mostly focuses on motivating employees through a manager’s choice of theories; there is little research done from a middle management focus especially on the motivation within the IT industry, motivation in relation to levels of management, and how countries may compare to each other with motivation. While it may be evident that motivations will differ, it will be difficult to prove that motivators are affected by their institutional frameworks.
Conducted interviews will aid in understanding and analysing how these individuals motivate themselves either intrinsically or extrinsically and come to discuss how several factors led to such results. The study gap in this area may help in understanding IT middle managers willingness to continue working on change projects as well as create conclusions that top management may find useful in motivating those left to carry out their goals.
Keywords: Motivation, Change Management, Institutional Framework, Middle
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1 INTRODUCTION ... 1
1.1 Background ... 1
1.2 Problem Statement ... 4
1.3 Research Question & Purpose ... 5
1.4 Scope of Research ... 6
2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ... 7
2.1 Middle Management & Motivation ... 7
2.1.1 Herzberg Two Factor Theory ... 11
2.1.2 McClelland’s Need Theory ... 14
2.2 Change Management ... 15 2.3 Institutional Framework... 17 3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ... 24 3.1 Research Philosophy ... 24 3.2 Research Approach ... 24 3.3 Research Strategy ... 25 3.4 Research Method ... 26 3.5 Sampling ... 26 3.6 Data Collection ... 27 3.7 Data Analysis ... 28
3.8 Research Validity & Reliability ... 28
3.9 Ethical Considerations ... 29 3.10 Limitations ... 30 4 EMPIRICAL DATA ... 31 4.1 Interviews ... 31 4.1.1 Sweden 1 ... 32 4.1.2 Sweden 2 ... 33 4.1.3 Sweden 3 ... 34 4.1.4 Sweden 4 ... 35 4.1.5 United States 1 ... 36 4.1.6 United States 2 ... 37 4.1.7 United States 3 ... 38 4.1.8 United States 4 ... 39 5 ANALYSIS ... 41 6 DISCUSSION ... 52
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REFERENCES ... 59
APPENDIX 1: Introduction & Interview Guide ... 67
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1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
Middle managers are frequently talked about and how important they are to companies however there is little research on how middle managers create value (Duncan, 2019), especially within the change process. Middle managers are the employees in charge of implementing strategies and plans and also for meeting organizational objectives (Duncan, 2019). These underappreciated employees are the vital in which they bridge communication both top-down and bottom-up (Duncan, 2019). Since the middle managers are often the scapegoat for organizations when change implementation goes wrong it makes sense that these same employees have feelings of vulnerability and insecurity, seeking to protect their role (Kempster, 2017). However, these middle managers play an important role in helping with change success by lowering employee resistance (Buick, 2018). The middle managers are often left translating what the organizational strategies from top management are down to their lower level managers (Buick, 2018). Additionally, the middle managers are responsible for change
implementation (Buick, 2018). They are also the employees who make sense of what top management is striving to change and implement (Kempster, 2017). Furthermore, the middle managers are key to strategic thinking to help implement change (Buick, 2019). Which means if a middle manager does not have the same end goal congruence in mind as the top management then the end product is not what satisfies top
management (Kempster, 2017).
Middle management is commonly thought to stifle innovation while the truth is contrary and the middle management alleviate managerial pressure and allow for a more
successful change implementation especially for innovative projects (Grimpe, 2019). Middle managers are vital in allocating attention to change innovation to the lower level managers (Grimpe, 2019). One role of middle managers is to provide information of current operations to best show top managers how resources need to be allocated (Grimpe, 2019). Another role is that Middle managers are challenged with the task to figure out the way and the means of meeting the desired results within the limited timeframe (Anand, 1996). Middle Managers play a role in strategy building and strategy implementation (Hope, 2010). Furthermore, middle managers actively implement change initiatives from top management (Hope, 2010).
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Today a great many companies are facing unstable competitive environments that are often changing profoundly (Phillips, 1983). Change is an omnipresent phenomenon that is continuously happening (Kennett-Hensel, 2018; Chrusciel, 2008). Most companies cannot avoid external changes like the economy, competition and advancements in technology (Frota Vasconcellos Dias, 2019). Knowing that the world is constantly changing, companies likewise need to adapt quickly and frequently. With the rate of change companies are experiencing, it is difficult to imagine that roughly 70 percent of change projects fail (Burnes B. and Jackson, 2011). However, other sources find it even worse where only 10 percent of any change projects are successful (Oakland, 2007). With either of these rates, it goes to show that there is a clear need for a better understanding of how to manage change in an efficient manner. However, managing change is known to be very hard (Colombo, 2002) but if an organization can manage change effectively it can be a competitive edge for businesses by being ahead of the game (Oakland, 2007).
Elton Mayo conducted research during the years 1924 and 1932 altering the way of thinking about employees (Ololube, 2016). This research was known as Hawthorne Studies and one of its conclusions was employees require much more than just money. The study introduced the human relations approach to a company’s management (Nickson, 1973). The importance of this study and the introduction of human resources to management led to further research about employee motivation and successful work. These concepts continue to apply in the present and have expanded slowly to the focus about change management. Middle management is left with the task to the
organization’s future and the implementation of successful change management. Change management has remained relevant and generated academic interest over the past two decades (Kotter, 1996; Hiatt and Creasy, 2012). Change management should be considered an essential asset to businesses and organizations.
For a company to keep up with the fast-paced competitive environment, they need to manage change effectively (Ng, 2015). Organizations need to continuously manage change as they face new challenges everyday (Grimolizzi-Jensen, 2018). As Human Resources professionals know, managing change is important to the success of your organization (Green, 2004). Leaders need to build a new change management team that is highly participative from other employees that are called team-driven approaches
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(Yonardy, 2014). In the competitive environment organizations have a strong need to change (Singh, 2011). Paired with organizational change, studies began to provide abundant analysis of successful change management and motivators for lower level employees. The research focus has mainly proved motivating factors to aid in the
implementation of change within organizations at lower levels; factors such as monetary incentives based on countless blends of performance measurements, career growth potential, and employee empowerment/team building, are among the few examined for their benefits and drawbacks. However, there lacks academic research for the
motivating factors at the middle managerial level.
Culture within every organization is different and diverse (Patnaik, 2019) and hard to change, but it is also a huge factor for why many employees leave a company
(Tinypulse, 2019). With a study conducted by TINYpulse they found that 43% of employees would leave their current company for a 10% raise at a different company (TINYpulse, 2019). TINYpulse shows us that plenty of employees wouldn’t leave just for the 10% raise because they want more money, but rather because the work culture is poor. These interviewed employees were looking for a place that had better benefits and incentives to work there, not just the salary. This is especially true for United States employees who have seen a cultural shift to wanting a better work culture, looking for benefits like: work from home, more flexible schedules and casual days (TINYpulse, 2019). Within organizations there are several types of cultures that could exist, and some are the following: Individualistic/collectivistic, the work hard/play hard, power culture, task culture, etc (Patnaik, 2011). Another cultural idea is institutional diversity, which allows for institutions to address several purposes with a limited need for debate or restrictions (Benefits of Institutional Diversity, 2013).
Motivation is critical when looking for success in any portion of an organization, especially any planned projects. Many studies lead to the conclusion that motives are the whys of behavior-the needs or wants that drive behavior and explain what we do (Nevid, 2013).The need for motivation stems from the need for survival and motivated employees help organizations survive (Smith GP, 1994). The importance of motivation is that it focuses on increasing efficiency, building relationships, incorporating human resources, and leading to stability. Several theories of motivation are suggested to study what drives a person, but they all have a similar tone to them suggesting that certain
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actions must be taken. Our motivation on the chosen subject is to dive into an
overlooked area of business and specifically middle management in IT. It is evident that research focuses more on why an organization would be motivated for change and how to implement it. However, there is a lack of focus on middle managers, the ones who are left responsible for ensuring the transitions and changes set by top management.
Therefore, it has become an interest to find what motivates managers tasked with successful change management in an organization, especially within IT which implements the backbone of countless technological aspects of life.
1.2 Problem Statement
Middle Managers are crucial to the success and failure of technological changes within organizations (Taylor, 2009). Middle managers are the backbone of companies (Yi, 2017). There are several factors for middle management that are necessary for organizational change. An important factor is empowerment because it is shown that middle manager disempowerment can lead to change failure (Raelin, 2011). Middle Management's main responsibility is to oversee and coordinate the activities of the employees below them (Yi, 2017). Middle managers have both downward and upward influence essentially making them a bridge for communication about goals and
strategies (Ukil, 2017). Middle managers heavily influence the decision for change both to their upper and lower level managers (Ukil, 2017). However, middle managers are still under the discretion of top managers, so the middle managers are receivers of information (Ukil, 2017).
Change management’s importance has been noticed over the past two decades and increasingly more in the Information Technology (IT) industry. As the industry can be considered the backbone through rapid implementation of new business solutions- new elements, techniques and solutions (Olding, 2018), and providing the necessary
technological changes for organizations to have competitive advantage and necessities to stay running, it is important to know how managers in such a fundamental industry remain motivated to handle changes. A plethora of research provides insight into the different steps to transforming organizations and types of change, challenges that may be present, how to create meaningful change and managing it, among factors that motivate employees. There is a greater focus on other levels in an organizational hierarchy and even more focus on other managerial levels, most likely because of the negative image created during the 1980s which continued into the view middle
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managers were resistant to change (Wait-Kwong et al., 2001). This resulted in limited information about the management side of organizational change management in the industry. Middle managers are required to be flexible and adaptable to meet the
constantly changing environment (McKenna, 1999) yet adequate coverage has not been given to the role middle managers play in organizational change (Huy, 2002; McKinley and Scherer, 2000). Their roles often involve providing support to and facilitating communication between senior management and employees (Peters, 1988). This lack of understanding of middle management factors to implement change may lead to
problems for organizations since it is simpler to motivate employees, but the same may not be completely applicable to the managers with larger responsibilities. Bringing about such organizational change by devising different kinds of strategies and patterns of operation creates a much greater managerial challenge than simply continuing to perform well within established strategies and operations, and it is a challenge for which few senior managers have much relevant experience (Phillips 1983). It is possible that blame may be placed on middle management when projects fail or the expected success is not present, but there is less known about what drives these managers to fulfil their responsibility when it is at a greater level and contains many more factors to consider than the average employee working on a project. In summary, there is a need for further understanding on motivators for managerial level employees from the lowest level managers to the middle level managers.
With all we find that this is what our research problem is:
The motivating factors for middle managers to enforce change are not well discussed. This knowledge is important because change is inevitable for companies, even more so for IT companies, and since middle managers play a vital role in the success or failure of change implementation it is important to understand the motivation for them.
1.3 Research Question & Purpose
The purpose of this thesis is to determine motivating factors for IT middle management who are responsible for implementing changes in their organizations. The focus will be on defining middle management, briefly summarizing change management to deepen an understanding of the managers’ experiences and discussing motivation theories helpful in looking at the topic from a micro level. This analysis of the micro level will then lead into a macro level approach through a discussion of the institutional contexts and
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culture dimensions present in both the United States and Sweden. Throughout there will be acknowledgement of limitations as well as implications to clearly link the fields of interest since they do cover a larger amount of knowledge.
The research will hopefully result in a list of motivating factors per each manager, as well as a general statement for middle managers as well as a statement about each country. These results should have the foundation for future research not only
applicable to the chosen industry but to further understanding of what makes a manager successful in change management.
The study aims to answer the following research questions:
1. What motives does middle management have when handling organizational change management in the IT industry?
2. How do the motivating factors of middle management differ across institutional and cultural contexts of USA and Sweden?
1.4 Scope of Research
As the study’s aim is to examine middle management in the IT industry with regards to change management, the study is carried out through observing descriptive data existing within these subject areas as well as interviews with managers in organizations with experience from working in change management projects. Given that the IT industry constantly goes through technological changes we decided that our study would best be suited for a field that encounters constant and consistent change. Since the IT industry is indispensable, manages technological advancements, and nearly every work
environment is dependent on this industry to keep it running, the focus on the IT industry was a crucial area to study middle managers who are most often met with managing change. The organizations are based within the IT industry and are located both in Sweden and the US where they will later be compared based on their
institutional context. These differences will allow the examination of motivators relative to the context middle management is experiencing. This makes the case relevant, as middle management within the IT industry in two different market economies may likely produce different results from one another.
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2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
The framework will revolve around three concepts: Motivation, Management, and Institutional Framework. The framework will be split into a micro level that focuses on the individual person then followed by a macro level of the institutional influences on such individuals. The first section will look at middle managers and their motivation. Secondly there will be a focus on change management, and finally, institutional framework with the inclusion of cultural dimension.
2.1 Middle Management & Motivation
According to Schlesinger (2006), a leader must consider mission and strategy, the organizational structure, and human resource management (Ehrenberg, 1994). Leaders within organizations can be assigned the title of managers on different levels and responsibilities. Managerial levels come from a hierarchical view and consist of three main levels. The emphasis lies on middle management and its importance but will follow short definitions for the other levels to distinguish how middle management was considered in the study.
Middle management consists of individuals accountable to top management for their function. These managers devote time to functions focused on organization and
direction. In small organizations, there is only one layer of this type of management but in bigger corporations, there may be different sublayers.
Middle Manager (MM) researchers have emphasized the crucial role of MMs in both strategy formulation and implementation (Wooldridge, 2008). Despite some emphasis on their crucial role, MMs still struggle to gain importance because of the negative connotation left from the 1980s and 1990s. Middle level managers often feel like their efforts are neglected and that they are at the organization to take the blame for all the failures, both from top managers and lower workers (Anand, 1996).
The lack of middle management support could be lethal to change within an organization, but there are several understood factors that point to why the middle management would lack support.
Lack of trust; Lack of communication, little to no transparency; Little employee empowerment, voice and opinion is unheard; Lastly, a lack of motivation (Anand, 1996).
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Understanding how the middle managers feel and what factors cause a lack of support can help in preventing failure. Therefore, middle managers play one of the most
important roles when faced with the task of change management. This is because middle management teams (MMTs) are more likely to understand the causal ambiguities of specific problems (King, 2001) and the firm’s internal competences (King, 2001), they have a strong influence on how effectively the resources allocated to innovation are used. These managers also have the responsibility of delegating direction and
interpreting the broad objectives laid out by higher management, which is a challenging task.
Figure 1. Motivation and Job Satisfaction. (Lather, 2005) The figure above is a visual representation of what middle level managers motivational needs are. Lather shows us in the table above that middle level managers are looking for three main things as motivation: need for self-control, need for monetary gains, and need for nonfinancial gains. Two of those needs have the highest coefficients with need for self-control and need for nonfinancial gains being the two highest factors standing at
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.333 and .32 respectively, while also maintaining a very high level of significance (<.01). These two are important because they are more intrinsically focused motivations which already aligns with our thought that middle managers will be more intrinsically motivated. Based on the table, in the figure middle managers also have a fourth motivational need which is the need for social affiliation and conformity. This gives insight to the areas in which middle managers look to for reasons of motivation and desire to implement change, which is intrinsic given that three of the four mentioned motivators are intrinsic motivators. Clearly there is a lot that middle managers are looking for so motivating them should be easier than other levels of employees especially since it seems that a major part of motivation comes from intrinsic motivators.
Top Management
Typical positions of chief executives, presidents, and board of directors are among those in the top level. Roles performed by these managers may include creating objectives and policies for the company, responsibility of shareholders concerning performance, and mobilizing outside resources.
Low Management
Positions include a focus on control and direction, appearing to be team leaders, assistants, and section leaders. Their roles may include assigning tasks, guiding in everyday tasks, and preparing reports of performance.
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Figure 2. Satisfaction and Dissatisfaction for Supervisors (Lal, 1981) This figure shows us what higher level employees are motivated - satisfied - by and dissatisfied by. The figure also shows us that the supervisors (managers) are more motivated by personal things like responsibility, achievement, independence and recognition as well being motivated by the work itself out of pure joy for their position. While the more dissatisfactory areas were salary, promotion, and status. To help
understand this graph it is important to look at the mean of both satisfied and
dissatisfied factors and compare whether the dissatisfied mean is closer to the satisfied mean. When the satisfied mean is further away from the dissatisfied mean it portrays that that specific factor is more satisfied, and when the dissatisfied mean is closer to the satisfied mean then it is more dissatisfactory. A lot of the factors found in this figure are used in our interviews with our middle manager participants.
The elusive nature of job satisfaction advanced the development of several different theories. Different types of motivation theories have been developed over the decades, deviating in what is the focus of motivation. However, it is important to note that there are no specific theories of motivation for managers or leaders. Many theories were discussed and considered to determine which may lead to quantifiable data in their
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results and which will be the most beneficial to follow. For this thesis in the domain of IT, the best motivation theory was chosen to be Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory with a further deepening of the Learned Needs Theory (McClelland, 1985). The reason for this is Herzberg factors can be ranked and compared to lead to conclusion on context effects and findings from a neuroscientific study specifically on McClelland’s need theory support and enhance key assumptions of the need theory (Bergner, Rybnicek, Gutschelhofer, 2017). Let’s dig deeper into those two theories below.
2.1.1 Herzberg Two Factor Theory
The Two Factor Theory was proposed by Herzberg in 1959; it is also known as the Motivator-Hygiene theory. The premise of the theory was that certain attributes (motivators) would lead to job satisfaction and an absence of other factors (hygiene) would lead to job dissatisfaction (Herzberg, Mausner, and Snyderman, 1959). The results of this study were from a sample of mostly engineers and accountants with some other professionals. The findings suggest factors leading to job satisfaction are separate and distinct from those factors leading to job dissatisfaction. These two sources provide insight of goals and incentives which satisfy known needs. Herzberg notes that a
shortage of motivating factors will cause employees to focus on hygiene factors; there is also attention to job design making managers aware of problems with motivation (Ball, 2003).
Hygiene Growth
Supervision: Fair and appropriate Recognition: Formal acknowledgement of
accomplishments
Interpersonal Relations: Relationship or
association without conflict between
individuals working in the same organization. Common goals and respect of each other’s views must be present for a healthy
relationship
Achievement: Successful accomplishment
through skill or effort
Pay/Salary: Appropriate and reasonable but
equal to others in the same positions in the industry
Growth: Advancement opportunity of new
skills which can happen through formal training or on the job
Company Policies: Guideline to foster fair
treatment, ensure regulations are being
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Job Security: Should be provided by
organization; high confidence in future employment and unlikeliness of dismissal
Advancement: Promotion opportunity
Status: Position within the organization Work Itself: Meaningful and challenging
tasks
Table 1. Herzberg Hygiene and Growth Factors (Herzberg, Mausner, and Snyderman, 1959) Hygiene
These job factors are essential for motivation to exist in the work environment. If these are absent, they will lead to dissatisfaction. Hygiene factors are also considered extrinsic to work and are required to avoid dissatisfaction.
As any level of employee, the supervision and interpersonal relations are important because of the common phrase “People leave managers, not companies”. Middle managers especially have a greater load of tasks to manage which makes their relations to their supervisors also valued to continue with greater clarity and direction to motivate them. Company policies may also add to the motivation of some individuals, especially managers, since the control levels and company motivations need to align to the
manager. Growth factors
Motivators here are more related to what happens at work rather than the extent of work. Growth factors are considered intrinsic and revolve around the individual. The motivator factors “advancement” and “growth” translate into the central dynamic of new learning leading to unique expertise.
MM can work with teams on ‘higher levels’ meaning goal setting, clear direction and desired outcomes, and allowing slight independence to complete work. While these actions may seem more cantered around how to implement motivators, it can be considered the motivators for MM as well. All the growth factors above, although
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perceived entities, in some combination will motivate MM to continue working on change projects.
Limitations
As with any of the motivation theories, it is important to note a few limitations.
First, the basis of the theory originates from a sample of certain professionals who may strive for responsibility and challenging work; it ignored blue-collar workers. However, it may be beneficial for IT which strives for exactly these objectives.
Secondly, Herzberg's theory states that although satisfied, hygiene factors tend to eliminate dissatisfaction for the individuals. Instead, they do little to motivate individuals to increase capacities.
Thirdly, the theory’s reliability is under question. Employees may consider their work acceptable without satisfaction or enjoyment. It also may blame dissatisfaction on external factors while also giving credit for internal satisfaction.
Implications
The implementation of Two-Factor theory has been found less practical for today’s employees since most findings vary across countries and industries with the extrinsic factors impacting satisfaction (Tan, 2013). Although it may be less practical as taken by the book, a broader scope of usage through both types of factors will allow for
managers to consider motivations and allow for challenges to be overcome when implementing new change. Herzberg’s theory can be helpful to managers in deciding the development of a motivated workforce (Pardee, 1990) and how it applies to
motivate themselves. Improving performance, managers work on motivators and change the nature of work to be more intrinsically rewarding (Tosi, 1986). Additionally, the work should be both rewarding and stimulating so employees will feel more motivated to provide their best work for their organization. The basics of the theory are easily understood, having the ability to be applied to all organizations. Furthermore, it appears to support the position and influence of management (Frederick Herzberg, 2003). The main way that this theory supports the influence of management is by the employee/job-enrichment as a method of employee motivation.
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2.1.2 McClelland’s Need Theory
To further the ideas of Herzberg, McClelland’s content theory of motivation focuses on a trichotomy of needs including achievement, power, and affiliation as the influences on behaviour. The theory first became popular in the 60s most likely because of his
pioneering work with achievement levels in several cultures; he also found this
behaviour could be learned after receiving training (McClelland, 1969). It has been said to be more useful for managerial contexts. And supported by studies such as Anderson’s (1994) where 222 interviewed Swedish managers show managers usually have a
motivation profile. Need for
Achievement (nAch)
Individuals with strong needs here will like situations to take personal responsibility for problem solving since it provides potential for personal satisfaction if the problem proves
successfully solved. Tend to take some risks; the lack of challenges may be boring while risky approaches reduce probability of goal achievement and satisfaction. Additionally, there is also a want for feedback about their work in order to self-evaluate thus increasing their potential to perform better.
Need for Power (nPow)
Individuals concentrate on obtaining and exercising authority. One will be concerned about influence on others. If the use of power reflects inspirational behaviour, it will have positive effects. Factors determining performance are strength of one need relative to others, possibility of success in tasks, and value of incentives. Need for
Affiliation (nAff)
Effective in teams but generally not great leaders. The focus is on a supportive environment. Reflects a desire to interact socially with others; concerned about quality of interpersonal relationships
Table 2. McClelland’s Three Needs (McClelland, 1962) McClelland and Herzberg have some similarities in that people with high achievement motivation take higher interest in motivators while low achievement motivation concerns themselves with the environment (Hersey and Blanchard, 1982). Studies like Harrell’s (1981) have shown the dominant motivation for those of higher formal education or those with high skill jobs is nAch; nPow is dominant for management executives. Some studies have dealt with the term motivation profile, motivation pattern, or leadership motive pattern as employed by McClelland and Burnham (1976) and Boyatzis (1982). These studies dealt with effects of such profiles on manager
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been discussed using the three McClelland factors. The results of such studies show there are differences found in managers’ motivation profiles across organizations based on: (a) organizational differences leading to leadership differences, (b) choice of
profession, and (c) differing criteria for promoting people (Anderson, 2010). Limitations
Managers may have difficulty understanding the needs of their employees since some of them may not know their own needs or what they align to the most.
No direct relationship between needs and behaviour means needs may result in different individual behaviour and vice versa. Managers should be more objective and not simply look at fairness since decisions are situational. Public sector makes little use of the theory since employees in this sector are motivated more by job security, teamwork, service to society, while eschewing monetary rewards, prestige and the desire for challenge (Jurkiewicz, Massey & Brown, 1998).
Implications
Effective managers must know how to satisfy the needs of employees to motivate them to perform (Ferguson, 1987). Managers with a high nAff do not make good managers because their preference to be accepted may hamper objectivity. McClelland and his associates’ work offer strong support that effective leaders possess a strong need for Power. Therefore, the most efficient and successful managers are typically those in possession of power needs and are typically more determined for organizational goals and needs. This could lead to the assumption that middle managers would be motivated by dominance which is more extrinsic considering status falls into this category.
However, when looking at the dominant nAch, MMs would be considered more intrinsically motivated since the achievement motivation is intrinsic; other factors such as growth and recognition could relate well to achievement which would also support the assumption that intrinsic motivation leads.
2.2 Change Management
Many scholars and authors agree that organizational change is a central and important topic for organizations. According to Kotter, change requires creating a new system, which in turn always demands leadership (Kotter, 2007). Change can also be
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means potentially quick gains and disrupts performance during change; incremental means slow and less disruptive change but may cause tunnel vision (Bourne, 2016). From the late 1800s to the present, a dramatic turn has taken place in the approaches to organization and work. Such dramatic turns may include the concept of incorporating changes into daily or quarterly goals for further improvement of the company. To increase change management capacity, it is important to rely on individual middle managers to be engaged change agents (Buick, 2018). Change agents are employees who actively and willingly try to implement effectives change. Belasco (1990) speaks of the change agent as having not only the individual inertia to get things done, but also the sense of urgency to become involved because of one’s personal interests to take on the challenges suggested by change (Chrusciel, 2008). Change management, as a subset of OD, has been defined as “the process of continually renewing an organization's
direction, structure, and capabilities to serve the ever-changing needs of external and internal customers' ' (Moran, 2000).
Implications
Due to the importance of organizational change, its management is becoming a highly required managerial skill (Senior, 2002). Therefore, understanding management within organizational change also is something that is important for organizations. Having the basic understanding of the figure above is just the foundation for successful
organizational change. This alone will not equivocate to successful change, but it is a steppingstone for it. Thus, when looking at other theories for successful change management it is beneficial to have this figure in the back of one's head. Since this is simply a steppingstone it is important to know that this isn't how to implement it, but a guideline for the basic strategy to implement change successfully.
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2.3 Institutional Framework
Institutional framework determines necessary processes needed for relevant decisions and approvals from the correct authorities. The framework typically shapes
socioeconomic activity and behaviour through regulations, laws, and procedures. The efficiency and reliability of local institutions varies considerably and depends on a variety of factors, including the maturity of the jurisdiction, the quality and resourcing of relevant departments and so on. Poorly functioning, under-resourced or politically driven institutional structures have been known to create significant problems for projects. Furthermore, there may be a lack of clarity in terms of responsibility between different government departments and coordination may be seriously lacking. It is often found that countries with limited experience in certain sectors often lack suitable
institutional structures to manage the local development of the industry (Clews, 2016).
Market Economy: Type of Capitalism
Among the large OECD nations, six can be classified as liberal market economies (the USA, Britain, Australia, Canada, New Zealand, Ireland) and another ten as coordinated market economies (Germany, Japan, Switzerland, the Netherlands, Belgium, Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Finland, and Austria) leaving six in more ambiguous positions (France, Italy, Spain, Portugal, Greece, and Turkey) (Hall, 2001). To summarize according to the study, the US is a liberal market economy (LME) and Sweden is a coordinated market economy (CME). The fundamental dimension creating differences between the two is coordination; LMEs are based on market mechanisms while CMEs are achieved through non-market means.
Although liberal market economies (LMEs) may be characterized by short-term and adversarial relations, they also possess a high capacity for innovation (Oxford). This statement is also supported by Hall and Soskice (2001) where they state the institutional framework of LMEs provides companies with better capacities to specialize in radical innovation compared to a CME which provides superior capacities for incremental innovation. Liberal market-based economies (e.g. US) specialize in activities where fast adaptation and good industry-university links matter: science, technology, and
mathematics fields; they also have a higher production and diffusion of Information and Communication Technologies (ICT). Meanwhile, social-democratic countries (e.g. Sweden) have a comparative advantage in health-related activities as well as industries
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linked to natural resources and are highly specific to patterns of diffusion (Amable, 2003). CMEs should be better at supporting the incremental innovation because of the emphasis put on relational requirements to company endeavours. The two different economies will cause firms to develop strategies to take advantage of institutional support in their available economy. The prominence of the practice of licensing helps to explain the presence of venture-capital firms in liberal market economies: one success at standard-setting can pay for many failed investments (Borrus, 1997). Therefore, it can be said that the IT industry is more accepted in the liberal capitalism model as it leads more to quick adapting changes and innovation.
The differences in institutional framework of political economies is also important and affects how markets and companies’ function. Firms in a typical LME respond
differently to shock than those in a typical CME; institutional arrangements tend to push firms towards certain corporate strategies especially with their assets. CMEs provide more support for interactions requiring realization of value of co-specific assets (assets that cannot be turned to another purpose and dependent on active cooperation of others). The more fluid LMEs tend to provide those involved economically with greater
opportunities to move resources and encourage the acquisition of switchable assets such as multi-purpose technologies. Furthering these ideas, the US is also characterized by lower product-markets regulation meaning greater sensitivity to competition. The market economy relationships with their governments are important to consider; LMEs are likely to pressure governments for deregulation and governments of CMEs to be less sympathetic to the same idea in fear of threatening the nation’s comparative institutional advantages (Hall, 2001).
Hierarchy of institutions is another important consideration; hierarchy defines how rules are determined. This idea would place constitutions at the top and work its way down through other laws and regulations. Following this idea, institutions at the top require less change but challenge those below to adapt. Institutional hierarchy is mostly
determined by the governing political body. A similar idea is applied to the definition of hierarchy within firms; typically known as corporate hierarchy, this term refers to the organization of individuals through the levels of power, status, and job function. Hierarchy in Sweden is almost non-existent in comparison to the US; the more prominent one is a flat organization where input from all is welcome (Fritjofsson,
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2015). In flatter cultures (e.g. Sweden), responsibility is spread more equally thus meaning feedback does not play as important a role as in hierarchical top-down
managed cultures (Fey, 2005). A Swedish company will have more open conversations. In the US, you will have a CEO who is expected to present a framework and be the sole person responsible for forming it.
Developed economies have also brought along a consideration for analysis, specifically for five possible domains or models of contemporary capitalism. These five domains include: (a)Product Markets, (b)Wage-Labour Nexus, (c)Financial Systems, (d)Social Protection, and (e)Education. In order to follow through with this comparison, the LME United States will also be defined as market-based and the CME Sweden defined as social-democratic. Data for this analysis is pulled from the OECD (Nicoletti, Scarpetta, and Bouylaud 2000) and is summarized as follows according to figures found in
Amable’s (2003) work.
United States Sweden
Product-Market is the most
fundamental in separating capitalism in the area concerning competition intensity at the aggregate level
The US is characterized by low product-market regulations, sensitive to competition, and coordination is mostly achieved through price channels.
Sweden is then
characterized by a middle ground of values with slightly more public involvement in product-market regulation compared to the US.
The Wage-Labour Nexus gives context for diversity of labour markets, driven by flexibility,
and contains several dimensions but the chosen three are numbered below
I. Employment Protection
concerns labour-market
flexibility or rigidity; takes into account fixed-term contracts and ease of temporary employment
The US is present in a cluster showing lower values than average where tenure seems significantly low and reflects a high flexibility.
Sweden presents more employment protection in general in a cluster characterized by the rigid presence of employment relationships.
II. Industrial Relation is often
considered crucial in the relation between LM and macroeconomic performance. Some concerns include
wage-Least ‘corporatist’; pluralism where there are short-term objectives and strong power
Union membership is high; neo-corporatism-type 2 which has
long-20 bargaining coordination,
centralization, and relations between managers and employees
term objectives and strong power
III. Employment Policy looks
at the extent countries commit to the intervention of LM and what programmes are favoured
Limited employment policies in every dimension
Active Employment policies, includes handicapped-persons’ programmes
Financial Systems portray
features in comparative analysis. The aspects of
finance-industry relationship go beyond opposition of FMB and BBF.
Financial sectors are
characterized by the importance of institutional investors, stock market with high capitalization relative to GNP, venture-capital system, and low concentration of ownership; reliant on particular type of corporate governance
Bank-based but banks have passive role where bonds and securities represent majority of bank assets; GNP ratio is significantly low; control of firms is concentrated
Social Protection (Welfare
systems) is characterized by risk coverage and extent of which they are covered; results of long-term conflict and country-specific
Limited Public-welfare system; private system; taxes on
property give large share of tax revenues but taxes on goods and consumption are low
Well developed-welfare system; high public social expenditure relative to GDP; tax revenue has equivalent percentage of GDP
Education is country-specific
because of historical development; only some
dimensions can differentiate the system
Lack of standardization caused by variations i.e. instructional effectiveness and school resources leads to the belief employment decisions are weakly related to secondary-level qualification; public financing share is low
No apprenticeship and employers responsible for company- or industry- specific training; high level of public
expenditure, delivering high quality of education
*LM= labour market; FMB=financial-markets-based; BBF=bank-based finance Table 3. Institutional Comparison. Amable (2003) Implications
From the analysis of domains and the type of economy, the motivation will differ for middle managers in each country. The United States MMs experience greater possibility for radical innovation and specialize more in fields which include the IT industry. This may lead to increased motivation in the intrinsic aspect since the work, possibility for
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recognition, achievements, and advancements may be valued more by both the MMs and their superiors. Hierarchy is more present which may also contrast the intrinsic motivation and focus on extrinsic supervision or status in a way of competing for a position in the hierarchy. The previous analysis of domains experienced concludes the greater sensitivity to competition and achievement through monetary ways; however, it also shows that the welfare system is subpar, presents limited employment policies and protection, and has greater education variations. All this may lead to a mix of
motivations the managers experience in their institutions making it increasingly difficult to pinpoint the motivators prior to individual conversations.
Swedish MMs might experience more incremental innovation and also have a greater focus on different industries. This may lead to a more extrinsic motivation since the mindset is on long term objectives through the incremental innovations; managers in this regard may value their status, relationships, or even company policies because of their longer-term positions in the company. Swedes do not encounter hierarchy as much, especially in their organizations, which may also lead them to contract the
extrinsic motivation to focus on responsibility. The domain analysis concluded a greater employment protection and policies, well developed welfare system, and focus on employers providing training while also delivering high quality education. These conclusions may lead to assumptions that MMs in Sweden to be extrinsically motivated since security and company policy may matter more than the actual work or
advancement opportunities.
Cultural Dimension: National vs. Organizational
National culture generates a unique and personal identity through a collective planning of values, beliefs and attitudes. Many contributions were made presenting dimensions of national culture by Trompenaars, GLOBE, Schwartz, Inglehart, and most notably
Hofstede. In most cases, Hofstede’s work can be seen as the author of a practical cultural model, at least until recent criticisms of an increasing change to multinational cultures. Hofstede (1980) argued Maslow’s needs theory was not universally applicable due to the differences in national cultures. This research was then further agreed upon by other studies such as Blunt and Jones (1992) and Kanungo and Mendonca (1994), rejecting that Maslow’s hierarchy can be applied universally. Collecting evidence from the mentioned authors, there can be a focus on power distances/hierarchies in society,
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indulgence, uncertainty avoidance, egalitarianism, and autonomy. Significant differences can be observed with national cultures and may lead to MM in those countries to be more motivated in certain areas because of it.
The Swedish people are honest in their abilities when being interviewed for positions; the most common phrase may be “I have never done that, but I am eager to learn”. In the US, however, there is a constant competition and people claiming to have abilities that they later prove to not possess. The US social system also leads to a fear of being fired from a lack of job security.
There is another difference in how to treat the business and the timeline of it. Americans will most likely strike conversation and look for value in their meetings unlike Swedes; US companies will likely not take business personal to a personal level like they do in Sweden. The second half of this difference comes in with the power needed for US companies where competition is fierce, requires a lot of planning, and may be both exhilarating and scary.
Obtaining a more thorough understanding of the degree to which different factors motivate people in different countries is especially critical now as it becomes more common that companies operate in multiple countries (Fey, 2005).
Another perspective of the culture dimension may come from within the company itself and may be identified as a concept of organizational culture: pattern of values, norms, beliefs, attitudes and assumptions followed by organizational form (Scott, 2014). Unlike national cultures, people are conscious of organizational cultures and they learn about this later in their workplace (Hofstede, 2005). The concept both increased focus and gained acceptance as a way of understanding human systems. Business leaders typically believe it leads to success, yet the term seems like a mystery that only a few know how to control. The question of “does culture drive performance” can be answered with yes; a study in 2013 told one focus group their work on analysing medical images would be discarded while the other focus group was told the objects were of high interest. The latter group spent more time and produced a higher quality of work meaning if worker motives are reshaped then the result is better performance. Such motives for work included: work, purpose/identity, potential, emotional pressure, salary, and inertia/work done just to be done (McGregor and Doshi, 2015). This relates to MM because the organizational culture may either unite or alienate individuals, and as the role of MM,
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they can either be motivated simply by the culture at their work or may try to embody it as a way of creating further purpose and intrinsically motivate. As believed by Sempane et al. (2002), people are key factors for competitiveness and organizations can
demonstrate highly complex social structures because of cultural strength. Therefore, it can be said organizational culture will most likely impact the motivation of MM and it can also be assumed MM will play an important role in any change projects to occur. Implications
Swedish middle managers are likely to be less extrinsically motivated by monetary means, especially given Swede focus on adequate rest to better life/ work quality. This leads to the observation that Swedes are likely to be motivated by higher needs; for example, Swedes may be more satisfied with a guaranteed salary and easier work experience rather than monetary incentives (Fey, 2005). Meanwhile, US middle
managers are likely to be motivated by incentives, especially cash/bonuses. The United States looks towards money and is extrinsically motivated to do good for their
company.
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3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
This chapter will refer to the many layers of the research ‘onion’ which consists of principle philosophy, approaches, strategies and choices of collection techniques, and analysis procedures.
3.1 Research Philosophy
The research is based on an understanding of middle management’s role in change management and previous motivating factors either specific to the industry or general motivation for employees. The aim is therefore to understand what motivates IT middle managers relative to their location since not all contexts are built equally.
Three epistemologies are present and constitute of: positivism, realism, and
interpretivism. Positivism focuses on a philosophical stance of natural scientists. It is frequently advocated that the positivist researcher will be likely to use a highly
structured methodology to facilitate replication (Gill and Johnson, 2002) and a focus on quantifiable observations will lead to use of statistical analysis. On the other hand, realism comes in two types and can be summarized as a similarity to positivism in that it assumes scientific approach to developing knowledge (Saunders, 2009).
Interpretivism is a softer and more subjective way to interpret data, relating most to the constructivist epistemology (Ntgrty blog, 2016). Interpretivism philosophy usually consists of small samples and qualitative data as data collection techniques most often used (Saunders, 2009).
The most applicable philosophy, therefore, will be interpretivism for the research. The primary focus of research undertaken within this paradigm is the way we as humans attempt to make sense of the world around us (Saunders, 2018). For the purpose of this research, interpretivism was chosen because it allows for qualitative research areas to be studied at a greater level of depth and primary data generated might have higher levels of validity because the data tends to be honest and trustworthy. Furthermore, this epistemology was chosen since it has a focus on managers in organizations (Bryman and Bell, 2019).
3.2 Research Approach
Typically, the methodological approaches are deductive or inductive. To summarize these approaches, a deductive study which looks for theory and then identifies
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beginning is a study of a situation and then seeks to generate theory (Greener, 2008). For many researchers, there will be a combination of the two since that is simply how we as humans reach conclusions. In this research, there was a gap of understanding found in linking concepts and, therefore, there was opportunity to contribute with knowledge. The study, however, is not large enough to create a new theory which is a characteristic of inductive studies.
First, a theoretical framework was constructed through a literature review in order to investigate known knowledge in the separate fields of motivation and change
management to understand the role of middle management. A literature review being a description and critical analysis of what other authors have written [(Jankowicz, 2005)
from Sanders, 2009]. From this, we switched back and forth from the known knowledge
in the literature review to the collected empirical data. Therefore, the methodological approach here will be inductive since this approach emphasizes flexibility to permit changes, understanding research context, and understanding meanings that humans attach to events (Saunders, 2009).
3.3 Research Strategy
To first define the purpose, we will explore the three types of studies possible: exploratory, descriptive and explanatory research. Descriptive research will seek to portray accurate profiles and may provide clear pictures through data. Explanatory research will establish causal relationships between variables (Saunders, 2009). Exploratory will value finding ‘what is happening; to seek new insights; to ask questions and to assess phenomena in a new light’(Robson, 2002). Therefore, the exploratory design will be used as the overall connection of conceptual research problems to the empirical research. The reason to use exploratory here is because it applies to a project that has levels of uncertainty and ignorance, which is what was found through literature review. There will be both a mix of generating primary data through several interviews that we conduct and also comparing what we gather to the current analysed data (van Wyk, 2018).
The type of logic will by hypothetico-deductive which will: Identify broad problem area ( middle management level in organizational change management of the IT industry); Define problem statement and develop hypothesis which is testable; Measure theoretical framework; Collection of data based on and qualitative; Analysis to check if hypotheses
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were supported; Interpret data for finding out the meaning of our results (Tariq, 2015). The validity, advantages, and disadvantages used to conduct the research will be discussed in the following section.
3.4 Research Method
Descriptive data can be defined as describing or summarizing basic features of data in a study. It is used to present quantitative data in a simpler way. This use allows us to present some key points from previously done studies and keep this in mind when comparing our own results later. While there is a look at descriptive data, the analysis of the method used and variables affecting motivation for middle management will be possible through a qualitative study.
Qualitative research focuses on understanding research in a humanistic approach and is best for interpreting, describing, contextualizing, and furthering insight into concepts. The approach allows for the researcher to deepen understanding of interviewee answers. The focus will later be on relating data to theories. A benefit to its use is gaining
increased attention and ability to add new dimensions not attainable through measurable variables alone (Gibson, 2004). The qualitative findings provide flexible but rich data. However, this method is often criticized because of disadvantages that lessen
comprehension on how conclusions were reached. To avoid such limitations, there is a clear explanation of how the study is conducted in the methodology and keeping limitations in mind.
3.5 Sampling
The aim of the study was to collect qualitative data while looking at descriptive data from previous studies. To further the understanding of individuals in middle
management positions with experience in the IT industry with change management, we conducted interviews to later compare results to existing descriptive data. The sampling approach used was purposive sampling, which is defined as a non-probability sampling technique relying on researcher judgment. Due to limited scope and time, we find this to be the most suitable method for collecting data. The criteria for interviewees were established as follows:
• Minimum of three years’ experience with organizational change • Professional experience within the industry
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First contacts for Swedish companies were established face-to-face through a business fair in the university. The organizations were then contacted through email and
interviews scheduled. The US contacts were only established through email as it was not possible for face-to-face contact. The choice to conduct 8 in-depth interviews, 4 from each country, was based on the limitation of time but the collected data from these organizations seemed to be satisfactory for a starting point for others to build off.
3.6 Data Collection
Due to a qualitative method choice, this led to conducted interviews as a source of primary data. Here, the primary data collected consisted of 8 interviews, 4 from Swedish individuals and 4 from US individuals.
Interviews are one of the easiest methods to collect honest answers, and since we did not want to affect the thoughts of the managers, this method of qualitative collection was chosen. The interviewees were selected based on previously established criteria:
• Minimum of three years’ experience with organizational change • Professional experience within the industry
• Managed at least 3 change related projects.
However, as with any study, there are limitations with interviews. Our main limitation for the interviews was the lack of time to reach wide and gain a large sample size to gather our data from the interviewees. Since we had a time limitation on the study, there was only an allowance of 8 interviews but, Bryman and Bell (2019) note that quality is ranked above quantity in interviews. Since we are unable to meet face-to-face with our interviewees, we avoid unwanted non-verbal and visual communication that could sway our participants' answers or limit their responses based on our reactions.
One other interview was conducted with a previous manager prior to the others to gain their insight and later compare to published information and current collected data. Three types of interviews are present for qualitative research: unstructured, semi-structured, and structured. Flexibility and detailed answers are part of the qualitative interviewing process (Bryman and Bell, 2011). This thesis will use the semi-structured approach to conduct the interviews. For the process to begin, we reached out with an email and questions to consider (Appendix 1) and further questions outside those listed in the interview guide may have been asked depending on the conversation.
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3.7 Data Analysis
There are multiple ways to analyse data and vary based on the type of data collection methods chosen. Braun and Clarke (2006) argue thematic analysis provides core skills for conducting forms of qualitative analysis and should be a foundational method. The analysis of qualitative research will take place via thematic analysis, meaning there is identification and organization of themes within data sets. Advantages of using this method of analysis may include flexibility and useful for examining perspectives and summarizing key features in collected data. However, it is important to note some disadvantages or limitations. Such limitations include flexibility which leads to inconsistency and lack of coherence (Holloway & Todres, 2003)
3.8 Research Validity & Reliability
Reducing the possibility of getting the answer wrong means attention must be paid to two emphases on research design: reliability and validity (Saunders, 2009). Therefore, these two concepts must lay high on the list of considerations. Research and results must be trustworthy and honest to be able to contribute findings to the chosen subject.
Validity
Validity is concerned with whether findings are really about what they appear to be about (Saunders, 2009). Validity, is therefore, also about researchers studying what is stated to be studied (Bryman and Bell, 2019) and the integrity of conclusions based on research and data collection techniques (Bryman and Bell, 2011). Main types of research validity include content validity, criterion-related validity, construct validity, internal validity, external validity, concurrent validity and face validity (Cohen et al, 2007).
One measure to ensure validity, appropriate time scale and appropriate methodology must be chosen. Due to time limitations, however, research was limited to a small number of individuals interviewed which resulted in limited validity. The appropriate methodology was not much of an issue since it took consideration when being
constructed to fit the type of research that we decided to use.
Reliability
As a requirement of research studies, reliability focuses on consistency in findings through chosen techniques and procedures. Robson (2002) asserts there may be four
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threats to reliability: subject or participant error, subject or participant bias, observer error, and observer bias.
The first consists of participants wanting to present the best versions of themselves or distorting responses because of a negative experience. To minimize this, anonymity may be used so participants reveal truthful information.
The second threat should cause awareness of the possibility that interviewees may say what superiors want them to say, almost like a prepared speech. Minimizing this should be simple in the sense that anonymity is present and under consideration that all the interviewees answers are honest.
Third, observer error may consist of different individuals interviewing and have the possibility to ask questions in different ways. Structure to interviews, therefore, minimizes the threat and will be considered when building an interview guide. Finally, observer bias consists of data interpretations. Here there is a little more consideration to be had because it is a partner effort in looking at data. Hopefully the types of questions and plan of what to look for will mitigate bias here.
3.9 Ethical Considerations
When writing our thesis we have four underlying ethical principles that we are aiming to uphold, and they are the following: whether there is deception, whether there is harm to participants, whether there is a lack of informed consent and whether there is any invasion of privacy (Bell, 2011). Without maintaining these ethical considerations, we will discredit our research and potentially sever our relationship with our interview participants. Below we will discuss each of these ethical considerations and how we will set out to prevent breaking any of these considerations. Our ambition is that we will be able to provide the most ethical experience for our interviewees and to best protect our participants by sustaining the previously stated ethical principles.
Deception is where the researchers represent the study as something different than it truly is, lying about the purpose or the exact nature of what the study contains. We will strive to, from the start, give a clear description to our interviewees what our research is about and why we are researching it. This is to ensure that we inform our participants and in no way deceive them. Our second ethical consideration is whether we cause harm to participants. We will ensure that there is no harm to our interviewees by leaving their
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name, company, location, and other personal identifiers out of our research. We will keep their anonymity by only providing their responses to our interview questions. By doing so we will prevent any harm coming from their employers and thus preventing any future problems from arising from their participation in our research. The third ethical consideration we attempt to vindicate is whether there is a lack of informed consent, or that the interviewees don’t understand who we (the researchers) are. Our solution to that is shown in Appendix 1 which is what our initial email is to the participants. Clearly, we show who we are, why we are doing the research, and what their answers will be used for in our research. By doing so we are giving our
participants the information they need to understand all our motivation. Additionally, they will be allowed to ask us any questions regarding our research, and we will also ask afterwards that they understand what their answers will be used for and ask for their consent to use it for the second time. The last ethical consideration is whether there is an invasion of privacy. We can only try our best at asking questions that will not require our participants to say no due to an invasion of privacy. Regardless, we will strive to protect every participant and uphold a strong and trustworthy relationship with our interviewees, so that we can get as much information regarding our research as possible.
3.10 Limitations
Several limitations occurred in this study with time and resources. Interviews were unable to be conducted face-to-face and limited the number of interviews possible. The study conducted 8 interviews from 2 different countries in a span of seven weeks, meaning some generalization took place. As the interviewees are in different countries, the time differences also limited the consistency of collecting data in batches and analysing. Despite this, the collected data was more than satisfactory for us. It would have been interesting to continue the research in a longer time frame, collecting more information from different individuals in the same company for comparison.
