Transformation of identities in international educational milieu of university in Sweden

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Örebro University

School of Humanities, Education and Social Sciences Sociology

Transformation of identities in

international educational milieu of

university in Sweden

Sociology, Second Cycle

Independent project, 30 credits, 2020 Author: Iva Picková

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Abstract

This thesis focuses on the transformation of identities of international master students attending Örebro University along with their perception of how this experience will affect their future. A qualitative content analysis of 10 semi-structured interviews was employed to explore the topic and answer the research questions. The thesis is guided by the theoretical background that stands on the synthesis of Jenkins’ perception of identity and the identity theory, supplemented by the understanding of international students as ‘student travellers’. The analysis of respondents’ narratives revealed that all aspects of their identity were affected. International students, throughout their stay abroad, live in a certain bubble as they distance themselves from the society on one hand and identify with the international students’ group on the other, affecting their social identity. However, before a new identity is formed and while the old one is being changed, the students experience a state of limbo during which uncertainty of roles emerges. Their person identity is influenced as well due to the international experience providing an opportunity to consciously alter some aspects of personality and, furthermore, to promote their independence, open-mindedness, and awareness of other cultures. Additionally, through contact with these other cultures, the international student develops into a person of two minds – international and of the country of their origin. In regards to the students’ perception of the future, the desire to stay international, to travel and live abroad is essential in creating something of a nomad life. Moreover, the respondents considered the international experience to have a positive impact on their career through an advantageous position over others along with the acquisition of an international network.

Keywords: international student, educational environment, social identity, person identity, role identity, student traveller, stranger, Sweden, meanings, symbolic interactionism

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Foreword

First and foremost I would like to thank my supervisor, Daniel Sjödin, for challenging my mind through stimulating and valuable comments and for perpetual support even during the trying times when discussions in person were not possible due to the pandemic situation. I also want to express my gratitude to the university, the teachers and the students from my master’s programme for all the interesting discussions, engaging seminars as well as all the times in between. I believe that these experiences helped me develop academically and presented a significant influence on the writing of this thesis.

Lastly, my gratefulness goes to the respondents that made the time for me even during the tight schedule of their own studies. All the interviews were fascinating and full of information that not only gave shape to this thesis but also created fond memories for me. Thank you.

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Introduction

The number of students participating in international mobility has risen from 2 million in 1998 to 5.3 million in 2017 in third-level education. (OECD, 2019, p. 230) Studying abroad introduces a specific set of experiences to the student that differs considerably from experiences gained during other forms of migration. Moreover, nowadays, international education is available to an increasingly bigger number of applicants, in comparison to the privileged few in the past. (Resnik, 2012, p. 298) Therefore, international student mobility has become an important contemporary phenomenon to be researched.

There are several reasons for students to participate in the sphere of international education, e.g. search for better quality education or education that is not available in their country, gaining the advantage of international experience in the demanding circumstances of a globalised world or obtaining a starting point for creating a life in a country with a value system more accordant with their belief and personality. Furthermore, international experience has numerous impacts on said students’ lives and worldviews. From the improvement of a foreign language, through becoming culturally competent, to gaining maturity, it is apparent that this international experience greatly influences a person’s perception of themselves. (Dwyer and Peters, 2004) This, consequently, leads to the topic at hand: the formation of a student’s identity or, as Resnik (2012, p. 306) calls it, the international educational milieu becoming a “real laboratory of new kinds of identities”.

During my studies abroad I started noticing changes in some of the other students’ behaviour, opinions, or perceptions of culture (Swedish or their original culture). It manifested itself in just small things that person would not normally notice or would not give much significance to. But in regards to my studies in sociology, it made me wonder about the nature and consequences of international experience for students. So how do the international students feel in the foreign environment? How does the stay abroad alter their identity? And what kind of effect does that have on the rest of their life? These were the questions that kept occurring in my mind. To understand how identity can alter in an international milieu, one has to consider different schemes such as the perception of international students by others, their perceptions of themselves as international students, their level of integration, and so on.

Thus, in this thesis, the field of study became international students, more specifically master students, at Örebro University in Sweden. The research was conducted in the year 2020 during my studies at said institution. The population of international master students in

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2 Örebro is very varied. There are students from several different continents, and it thus provides a great opportunity to study the phenomenon of identity transformation from the point of view of numerous cultural as well as ethnic backgrounds.

Research aim and questions

The aim of this study is to focus on the case of international students as a whole (without being limited to one ethnic or geographic group) in a non-English speaking university. The objective is to study not only how the students’ identities are altered by their experiences gained during the study abroad but also to consider their perception of how they think this international experience will change their future and what are their expectations stemming from the newly gained or altered identity.

Following the investigation of previous studies conducted on the topic of transformation of identities, two main research questions were established:

 How does the identity of international students change during their study abroad?

 How do they think this change will affect their future life? Structure of the thesis

The thesis is segmented into several parts. Chapter 1 commences with an overview of the concept of identity and the different theories and perceptions connected to it. Afterwards, the focus shifts towards Jenkins’s approach, the identity theory, and the synthesis of them that creates the theoretical basis of the study. This is followed by the introduction of a student traveller as an outcome of temporary mobility. In chapter 2, the previous researches conducted on the topic of identity transformation in the environment of international education are presented and the main themes are identified.

Chapter 3 is devoted to the examination of methodology. First, the research background is established, including the selection of respondents, the usage of semi-structured interviews, the method of qualitative content analysis, and the process of coding. This is followed by the contemplation of reflexivity, limitations of the study, and ethical considerations. Chapter 4, thereafter, presents the actual analysis and its results divided by the mechanisms identified. The last two parts of the thesis deal with the summarisation of results and the discussion of their implications, their generalisability, and the contribution to the researched area. It is concluded by the discussion of possible topics for future researches.

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1. Theoretical overview

This part of the thesis is focused on the theoretical approach used as a basis for the analysis of empirical data gained during the research. The section opens with a contemplation of the concept of identity and, subsequently, progresses to the aspect of mobility.

1.1. Who am I?

Identity, or the process of identification, is a phenomenon that has gained much popularity in the field of sociology, anthropology, and psychology (not to forget social psychology) throughout the time. One of its main allurements is the perception of it as something all-pervading that can be studied in many situations, from many different angles, and various perspectives. The study of identity can be applied to topics such as migration, sociology of religion, globalisation, gender formation, multiculturalism, and many more. Hence, this also means that there is an abundance of different theories. The term identity is, however, more often than not utilised in the context of a certain specific type, or part, of identity. There are numerous examples, such as gender identity, cultural identity, national identity, ethnic identity, social identity, personal identity, or self-identity. However, not to evoke the sense that we have to choose one type and leave out all the rest, identities overlap and, furthermore, each person consists of more than one identity. (Rummens, 2003, p. 9)

As was mentioned, several different theories of identities exist in the field of social sciences. Each theory has a slightly different approach towards what identity really is, how it is formed and, consequently, how to study it. There are diverse characteristics and distinctions among identity theories, however, for the purpose of this thesis, they can be divided into two categories based on the level of awareness and consciousness of one’s identity formation. 1.1.1. Subconscious approach

The first group represents more of a passive, automatic, and subconscious approach. It is mostly collective in its nature; the identity and its formation are influenced by social interactions. Mead and Berger and Luckmann recognise interaction with the ‘other’ as a focal point of identity. Although the concept of identity as such does not appear in Mead’s work, his classification is justified. He concentrates on situations of social interaction, which are mediated symbolically. According to Mead (1934), a man responds to people's gestures rather than just their behaviour. The self develops during the process of social interaction and the relationship of the individual with others plays an important role. Mead's self is composed of

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4 "I" and "Me". "I" is the ego of an individual, while "Me" is socially structured and formed from the expectations that others put in us. "Me", a socialised and self-reflective self, is constantly being formed and transformed on the basis of social interactions. Its formation is described by Mead in the theory of games, where the so-called generalised others play a great role. One can have several "Me" that overlap each other and come from different social roles (work, personal, etc.).

Similarly to Mead, Berger and Luckmann (1966), representatives of social constructivism, pursue identity in terms of its creation during the social process and through the meeting of the generalised, in this case significant, other. They perceive identity as a result of primary and secondary socialisation. Primary socialisation takes place in childhood and significantly affects secondary socialisation. In the phase of primary socialisation, a substantial influence of the so-called important others is present. The child perceives itself according to the attitude of the other towards them and, thus, adopts a coherent and credible identity. In the process of identifying with significant others, the individual subjectively acquires the identity that was objectively attributed to them. Secondary socialisation brings forth the internalisation of society, identity, and reality.

Tajfel and Turner (1979) also concentrated more on the perception of identity in a collective sense. According to them, people’s sense of their identity is influenced, mostly in an unconscious way, by their group memberships. Through our identification with a certain group (or groups) and its other members, we ascertain our sense of belonging and also negotiate our self-esteem. Usually, a person associates themselves with multiple groups, meaning that they also have several identities (or layers of identity) and, furthermore, their behaviour can vary, depending on the group they identify with at the moment. Through our group belonging, we segregate the world around into “us”, me and the other members of a certain group, also known as in-group and “them”, the out-group. (Tajfel and Turner, 1979)

1.1.2. In the middle

Erving Goffman’s (1956) theory can be seen as in-between conscious and unconscious. In his essay, identity is perceived as a set of distinctive characteristics and roles. On one hand, Goffman analyses how people play their role, or more cynically said manipulate, during the interaction to achieve the impression they want to make on other people. He talks about the ‘front’ that the actors of social drama consciously arrange for their performances, to create the most positive impression on the audience and to present

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5 themselves in the most ideal form possible. On the other hand, it is important to note that this process can also be done inadvertently, it all depends on the circumstances of the situation. When we come into contact with another person, we automatically, and sometimes unconsciously, create an impression. The impression of meeting another person is a set of information that helps to interpret the situation.

An important part of Goffman’s theory is the interactional regions, i.e. the places where a presentation of self, an interaction, takes place. Goffman talks about front-stage and backstage. The front-stage indicates the situation where the performance takes place. Here, as was already mentioned, individuals try to create a certain impression on the audience. The back-stage is the behind the scenes of a theatre, a place where actors can step out of their role, take off their masks, and be themselves. (Goffman, 1956)

1.1.3. Individual consciousness

The second category, as was already hinted at, emphasises will, agency, and individual consciousness. This approach can be encountered in the works of Bauman and Giddens. Bauman (1998, 2000) focuses on the identity in connection to the globalisation. According to Bauman, today's globalising world is characterized by a sense of insecurity during an era of liquid modernity. And it is these factors, generating the feeling of uncertainty, that causes personal identity to shatter. Bauman calls the current identity, which is formed very quickly but disappears just as fast, the identity of palimpsest. The contemporary process of creating and enforcing identity differs significantly from the former way. In fact, the creation of one's own identity is never finished, and it is a task that every person has to face.

Identity is closely linked to the process of individualisation. The present time is very unstable and people cannot easily place or categorise themselves. Nowadays, we often find ourselves, according to Bauman, in a state of lack of hope and purpose. And it is precisely the uncertainty and anxiety arising from this state that causes the crisis of identity. The problem of identity is due, among other things, to low control over one’s destiny, the uncertainty about the direction of one’s life, and the need to solve problems individually. (Bauman, 1998, 2000)

Similarly to Bauman, Giddens (1991) perceives identity as a topic of late modernity. He introduces the so-called ‘reflexive project of the self’ that shifts the focus from the inquiry about “Who I am?” towards the question of “What person I want to be?”. He does not see identity as something permanent or granted by society through categories such as gender,

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6 ethnicity, or social status. On the other hand, agency, choice, and reflexivity are key aspects of his theory. “The self is seen as a reflexive project, for which the individual is responsible […]. We are, not what we are, but what we make of ourselves.” (Giddens, 1991, p. 75) Therefore, each person can achieve self-understanding through the creation of a narrative or a biography, in which they reflexively evaluate what is happening. The narrative is not stable; on the other hand, it can be changed and revised with each new experience. This connects tightly to the concept of performativity. Previously, an individual's identity was thought to be a source of actions such as speech or gestures. Butler (1990) overturned this claim, arguing that speech and nonverbal communication, on the other hand, define an individual's identity while at the same time, they become the product of said identity, creating a constant process, analogous to the Giddens’ reflexive project.

1.2. Social identity

The definition of identity I will work with in this thesis is based mainly on Richard Jenkins (2008) and his book Social Identity. The attribute of social in the title is something that needs to be pointed out in the beginning. Jenkins, in his book, uses identity without any other specification, an example which I will follow in my thesis, for a simple reason. He believes that all identities we can ascribe an individual are, in fact, social ones due to their interactional character. “Identifying ourselves, or others, is a matter of meaning, and meaning always involves interaction”. (Jenkins, 2008, p. 17) Therefore it is possible to use only the term identity, as there is no need to add social to it.

But what is identity? Jenkins stresses identification as a more proper term to use as it encompasses the process of creating and maintaining one’s identification. He synthesises both views, individual consciousness and subconscious approach, or individual and collective identity, into one theory. The process of identification is, then, possible through comparison between two or more groups or persons. Two key aspects are involved: the similarity between them and also the difference. Contrary to many authors who emphasise only one of these, Jenkins stresses the importance of both as equally significant and more often than not happening at the same time. (Jenkins, 2008)

Therefore, individual and collective identity are both necessary to include. Individual identity (conscious) is more connected to the uniqueness, finding differences. Collective identity (subconscious), on the other hand, emphasises similarities. However, as opposed to the aforementioned theorists of identity, both are equally meaningful and are achievable at the

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7 same time. Thus, it can be argued, that the synthesis lies in the most important function of this theory, integration, which creates a sense of solidarity and belonging among the members of a community. It is based on the natural need of individuals to belong somewhere. Hence, it is the most significant part, through which we not only inspect similarities and differences, thus reflexively creating a sense of identity, but also negotiate the perception of ourselves with how the others identify us. Jenkins calls this the ‘internal-external dialectic model’.

It is the individual’s reflexive sense of her own particular identity, constituted vis-à-vis others in terms of similarity and difference, without which she would not know who she was and hence would not be able to act. That particular identity, in this model, is always a to-ing and fro-ing of how she sees herself and how others see her. (Jenkins, 2008, pp. 72-73)

This explains the differentiation between an individual’s self-image and the public image. The only difference between these is whether it is the individual that identifies the differences and similarities and, consequently, constructs the identity or if this is done by others, collectively.

Furthermore, Jenkins distinguishes three different, what he calls, ‘orders’. These I understood as distinctive levels of our world which we all recognise and participate in, to a degree. First is the individual order, representing “the human world as made up of embodied individuals and what-goes-on-in-their-heads” – the category of individual consciousness. (Jenkins, 2008, p. 39) Interactions and relationships, as vital aspects of identification, are part of the second, interaction order – the category of subconscious approach. And the final level is the institutional order which, as the name suggests, encompasses institutions - meaning norms, patterns, expectations, and established practices. (Jenkins, 2008) This, in my opinion, can be seen as something of an in-between category, depending on the norm it pertains to. Some norms, practices, etc. are so deeply embedded in the collective societal mind that they are part of the subconscious identity. Others need more agency and consciousness to ‘play along with’. However, it is important to emphasise here, that all three orders exist at the same time, intertwined and interacting among themselves.

1.2.1. Importance of meanings

Similar to Jenkins’s social identity is, to a certain degree, the identity theory first introduced by Stryker (1980) and later developed further by Burke and Stets (2009). The identity theory presents three ‘bases’ of identities that are relatable to the aforementioned

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8 orders. Those bases include person, group, and role, thus creating three types of identities: person identity, social identity, and role identity in that order. Person identities are founded on the uniqueness and distinctiveness of each individual, their difference from the rest. Every person can be characterised by some quality that they internalise into their own personality. This corresponds with Jenkins’s view of the individual order. The second category, social identities, stands on common ground with interaction order as it pertains to groups. A focal point lies in group membership and perceived similarities with other representatives. The last concept introduces role identities, tantamount to institutional order, which, as the name suggests, concerns “social structural positions” such as teacher, mother, student, etc. (Burke and Stets, 2009, p. 112)

Needless to say, the identity theory has other elements similar to Jenkins’s approach as well as features that differ from it. However, there is an aspect that needs to be mentioned and will be incorporated into Jenkins’s perception of identities for the purpose of this thesis and that is meaning. Jenkins mentions the concept of meanings only in passing and it does not play any major role in his book. On the other hand, as the identity theory has roots in symbolic interactionism, meaning is an important aspect of it. Meaning is in this context regarded as a “response to a stimulus or sign”. (Burke and Stets, 2009, p. 91) Therefore, if an individual’s selfhood would be utilised as a stimulus, it would be possible to observe their own meaning. Thus, identity does not only revolve around similarities and differences but also what meaning they hold. What does it mean to be…? (Burke and Stets, 2009, p. 93)

Hence, if we look, for instance, at the concept of role identities, then the basis of said identity is what meaning we give it. What does it mean to be a student? What does it mean for me? The meaning (or meanings) that we associate with a role leads to how we approach it and how we, incidentally, play it. As Burke and Stets (2009, p.114) state: “A role identity is the internalized meanings of a role that individuals apply to themselves.” Of course, the meanings of each role are not rigid and definitive; each person holds different meaning (or set of meanings) and behaves accordingly. Similarly, when a person identity is considered, it consists of meanings individuals ascribe to themselves that makes them singular, makes them an individuality. Furthermore, a sense of authenticity can be achieved (or reinforced) by verifying these meanings through the assessment of others during everyday interactions. (Burke and Stets, 2009, pp. 124-126)

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9 In summary, while writing this thesis, the synthesis of Jenkins’s approach and the identity theory will be used. Jenkins’s ‘internal-external dialectic model’ and the three-level division of identities evident in both approaches will be enhanced by the focus on meanings taken from the identity theory.

1.3. Identity during mobility

The term mobility is used in many different areas of sociology. The vital part, however, is the field in which the mobility occurs, thus, introducing, for instance, the social, the economical, the political, or the spatial mobility. The spatial mobility, which applies to the situation of international students, isn’t limited solely to the actual movement between two places, it is not something static and rigid. On the other hand, it is a fluid process without precise boundaries (emphasising flows in lieu of structures) that encompasses additional aspects like relationships, networks, and other social phenomena. In the end, the spatial movement doesn’t have to be an actual physical motion; it can be represented, for instance, by virtual travels or mobility through communication (emails, phone calls). (Urry, 2007, 2000)

This notion of mobility in a fluid late modern society brings us, once more, back to Bauman. The transformation of identity throughout the process of mobility has particular circumstances. Bauman introduces the concept of tourist as a person partaking in the mobility to seek new experiences. The tourist is never really part of the place they move into but, on the other hand, lives inside a bubble of a sort that gives them a sense of security. It is the tourist’s choice which parts of the outside world they let in. On one hand, the tourist can be, thus, protected from the obstacles and issues the host society has to face. On the other hand, as they don’t really belong in it, this can bring uncertainties in case of events beyond their control. The characteristic of the tourist is their independence and freedom, the ability to continuously move through life with ‘stopovers’ in between. Tourist’s home, in many cases, is not a particular place but a notion that distinguishes the here and there. (Bauman, 1996, 2011)

A concept connected with mobility this study works with is the idea of a person developing two minds in conditions of a “bi-cultural or multi-cultural situation”, discussed in the theory of marginal man. (Stonequist, 1935, p.1) A person of two minds is described as being initiated into two separate cultures and, thus, adopting aspects of both of them. However, the distinction of the marginal man is their inability to completely belong anywhere as well as their unwillingness to fully abandon either of their two connections. Jews,

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second-10 generations of immigrants, or mixed-bloods can be viewed as examples of the marginal man. (Park, 1928; Stonequist, 1935)

1.3.1. Student traveller

Most of the mobility theories are focused on the economical aspect in connection to unemployment or the vision of better income. Murphy-Lejeune’s (2002) approach, however, not only addresses the mobility of young students, which is somewhat underrepresented in the area of migration and mobility studies but does so with the emphasis on the feeling of belonging and the ‘social, cultural and symbolical status’ of said students. (ibid., p. 2) The focus is, thus, shifted from the perspective of the host country and the host institution or the community of immigrants to the experience of an individual.

The decision to leave, the arrival in a new space, the progressive appropriation of a linguistic and cultural environment, the new professional roles, the acquisition of social relations, the identity transformations required to adapt successfully, are part and parcel of each experience (Murphy-Lejeune, 2002, p. 3).

These youth are not viewed as migrants but more as ‘student travellers’. (Murphy-Lejeune, 2002, pp. 36-39) Thus, it is more appropriate to talk about mobility rather than migration. Migration represents the actual movement from one country to another, either for a long period of time or final. Mobility, on the other hand, emphasises change and the transition of the environment which usually has a more short-term character. Mobility is, in this case, not viewed as something born solely out of necessity anymore but as something that is freely chosen and made easier by the process of globalisation that brings along more accessible communication and travel possibilities in general (especially in the EU). (ibid., pp. 15-16)

The student traveller can also be characterised by the fact that their future is wide with options but mostly unknown. They are temporarily part of the international sphere but whether they continue in it or they choose a national route is undetermined. As Murphy-Lejeune (2002, p. 5) expresses it, they are ‘in between the tourist’s transient passage and the migrant’s long-term stay’, between the distressing situation of necessary integration and the feeling of a visitor with a definite return home. They usually try to achieve some integration to the host society, however, their stay is temporary and it often represents just an episode in life, building upon the sociology of stranger (as well as some aspects of Bauman’s tourist) of which Simmel’s concept was the groundwork.

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11 The stranger, as is defined, is not a person that “comes today and goes tomorrow” but rather an individual that is neither here nor there, someone who “comes today and stays tomorrow” with the potential of exiting their current state at any given time. (Simmel, 1971, p. 143) Although the stranger lingers in one spatial and social area (at a certain moment), their inclusion into it is uncertain. Being a stranger represents a peculiar form of interaction, they are close and remote at the same time, involved and indifferent, not belonging but objective and confidential in equal measure.

The life changes (spatial, cultural, social, etc.) the student travellers experience throughout their mobility and the need to adapt to new conditions more often than not result in a personal crisis of a sort which contributes to the alteration of at least some aspects of person’s identity. The travellers undergo the challenge of their own identity through the initial sense of strangeness generating a period of limbo or suspension before new identities (or aspects of identity) can be negotiated. This whole process might last a short while, have a long duration, or even remain indefinitely. (Murphy-Lejeune, 2002, pp. 27-29)

Consequently, the change in the identity of a student traveller holds the possibility to permeate all three orders of the identity. Coming into contact with new institutions such as a university or a government influences the institutional order. Student travellers, thus, have to discern what their role is and what is expected of them. The interaction order can be altered by the creation of new social relations, which are, as opposed to an immigrant, not really necessitated by the need to permanently integrate into society. Regarding the individual order, a person defines themselves not only through their individual perception but also during ongoing interactions. Therefore, as the basis for interactions shifts as a result of the temporary mobility, the person identity acquires the potential to alter as well.

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2. Research review

This part of the thesis aims to present a research review of literature related to the topic of identity transformation among international students. After an initial scoping search was conducted, to become better acquainted with knowledge produced in the researched area, a database Sociological Abstracts (SOCAB) was chosen to conduct the final search. The following string was applied:

((chang* OR adjust* OR new OR negotiat* OR format*) NEAR identit*) AND ("international student*" OR "international educat*" OR "foreign student*")

This search generated 95 results. An additional search with the same string was conducted in an Applied Social Sciences Index (ASSIA) database. This search, however, yielded only 20 hits (17 without duplicates) of which 10 overlapped. 7 articles were added to the outcome of the first database. Unfortunately, none of them was relevant enough to be included in the final number of articles used as empirical material for the analysis. Inclusion and exclusion criteria were as follows:

Inclusion criteria:

 Peer-reviewed articles

 Written in English Exclusion criteria:

 Studies that focus exclusively on psychological aspects of identity transformation such as self-efficacy or emotion regulation

 Studies that focus on international students participating in only short stays abroad (less than a year), which excludes exchange students, summer schools, etc.

During the exclusion process 7 articles met all the criteria. Due to the qualitative character of most of the studies (n=6) and to vast differences between studies mainly in chosen samples and concepts used, a narrative synthesis was the method used for presenting the results. (Petticrew and Roberts, 2006, pp. 164-165) To better capture the differences and similarities between articles, the topic of this research review was sectioned into three parts. Those are the parts (or aspects) that vary greatly across the studies and, consequently, the way they are defined and used has considerable influence on the results of each study. The concept of transformation, the usage of the term identity, and the portrayal of the context of the study are areas covered in the following paragraphs.

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13 2.1. Transformation of identities in the international educational milieu

Let us first focus on the aspect of transformation. The way this process is envisaged differs from study to study but can be sorted into three broader themes: the quest for belonging, the search for meanings, and the way of looking back. All three themes are somewhat included in most of the studies, however, the studies are sorted according to the theme that dominates in their analysis.

Transformation of identity as a quest for belonging

The topic of belonging is central to three studies. (Fincher, 2011; Oikonomidoy and Williams, 2013; Amiot, Doucerain, Zhou and Ryde, 2017) Fincher (2011) and Oikonomidoy and Williams (2013) connect this to the concept of cosmopolitanism. The former of these articles views being cosmopolitan as being “engaged in cross-cultural interaction” (Fincher, 2011, p. 911). Thus, the quest for belonging takes the form of socialising and the subsequent acquisition of one of three ‘identity positions’. The first position is connected to the expectations of a university as an institution that has an influence on international students’ lives during their time of mobility. The university wishes students to embrace the multicultural life and interact with the international as well as local students. The second and third position comes from the identification with the expectations of local churches and religious gatherings. Those are organised in a way to promote interactions and a sense of belonging among international students, especially between co-nationals or people from ethnically close countries in either active (second position) or more passive (third position) way. (Fincher, 2011) Okonomidoy and Williams (2013, p. 381), on the other hand, endorses the view of cosmopolitanism as a “creation of an expanded worldview”. Belonging, therefore, is not achieved through socialisation but more due to the adaptation and social integration into the country of residence or the international environment, thus broadening one's worldview.

Amiot, Doucerain, Zhou and Ryde (2017) concentrate on the influence of the sense of belonging in the form of perceived discrimination and need satisfaction on changes in identities of international students over time. The belonging varies from the affinity towards the country of origin, the identification with the country of residence, to the integration of both places (or cultures) into one's identity. However, this study is restricted solely to the incorporation of two specific social factors (i.e. need satisfaction and discrimination) without the possibilities of other influences and, thus, its results and applicability are rather limited.

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Transformation of identity as a search for meanings

The process of transition to a new place and culture creates new experiences and meanings. Migrants, international students, in this case, attempt to make a sense of such a new situation and, through this, they negotiate the shift in their identity to adjust to this change in their life. Velez-Gomez and Bell (2018) talk about a certain self-definition. The negotiation or association of meanings in the everyday life of international students is connected to the endeavour to achieve a balance between old viewpoints and new ones. They give meanings to their experiences and positions in life and they mediate their new (or changed) identity through this. Concepts such as independence, family, home, or nationality have different meanings in the context of the country of origin and the country of residence. The contrast between these meanings creates tension that has to be solved through the incorporation of one or both meanings into one's identity (e.g. combining the concept of I as independent vs I as part of the family). (ibid., 2018)

New meaning systems are often acquired through differences between cultures. Bilecen (2013) uses the idea of differences as a central concept in the topic of international students’ identities. As was already discussed, differences induce new meanings which are then incorporated into lives; for example meanings of ‘the Others’ as well as meanings of international students themselves as ‘the Others’. This process is continuous, each new meaning influences the identity which is not final but can be ever-changing. (ibid., 2013)

As opposed to the previous two articles, Ye and Edwards (2017) move from the comparison of cultures into the field of self-realisation. Authors see the acquisition of new meanings as a way to personal development in the form of accumulation of cultural capital, international experiences, and self-actualisation. However, from the critical point of view, the study is overly focused on the disproof of the portrayal of Chinese students as a homogenous and problematic group, which is mentioned after every thought presented, and to which the whole reasoning is somewhat conformed. For example, one part of the study is devoted to the dispersion of the idea of “the difficulties experienced by Chinese students in making the transition from teacher-led to autonomous learning”. (ibid., p. 871) Authors then proceed to refute this by describing one of the students as an autonomous learner, independent and reflexive through a quote that begins with: “Indeed, I spent half a year to adapt to the new way of learning” (ibid., p. 871) which, in my opinion, means that the student indeed experienced such difficulties.

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Transformation of identities as a way of looking back

Comparison is a process that at some level pervades all transformations of international students’ identities, be it through finding a difference or negotiating where one belongs to. When we get into a new context, it is only natural to look back at our old experiences and compare them with new ones. However, Zhang (2017) focuses solely on the opinion of the country of origin of Chinese international students. The author is trying to identify the change in their national identity through the students’ reflection of their home country and their experiences in the country of residence (New Zealand). The results of this study are, that those students either identify with the country of their origin or they criticise it or they avoid talking about it. From my perspective, the last option, however, is somewhat lacking in the connection to national identity. Some of the respondents mention that they don’t want to talk about politics and religion and are sorted into the category that avoids talking about their country on the premises that they “are neither standing with the side of China nor criticising it but have their own belief system”. (ibid., p. 2683) However, that does not tell us much about their national identity. The fact that they don’t want to discuss politics and religion (as whole topics, not just in connection to China) doesn’t rule out the possibility that they still identify with their Chinese nationality. I feel that this aspect of the study is somewhat lacking and could be improved by further research.

2.2. Transformation of identities in the international educational milieu

As was mentioned before, identity is a concept with a very multi-aspectual nature. Thus, it should come as no surprise, that the many various definitions in reviewed articles create something of an issue. Most of the articles (n=5) lack in the definition of the concept of identity or the concrete part/type of identity they refer to when studying this phenomenon. (cf. Fincher, 2011; Oikonomidoy and Williams, 2013; Velez-Gomez and Bell, 2018; Bilecen, 2013; Amiot, Doucerain, Zhou and Ryde, 2017) This shortcoming in the theoretical frame results in readers’ confusion about why the authors decided to incorporate that particular type of identity. It also leads to several types of identity being interchanged. The alternation between cultural and national identity can serve as an example (cf. Velez-Gomez and Bell, 2018). Only two articles contain a clear theoretical definition. Zhang (2017) talks about both identity as a whole and national identity as a concept that is used in the ensuing analysis. Ye and Edwards (2017), on the other hand, explain the meaning of self-identity as a continuous reflection of the self.

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16 2.3. Transformation of identities in the international educational milieu

This last aspect is tightly connected to each study’s context and the chosen sample of the population. When looked at the place in which the reviewed studies were conducted, almost all came from English speaking countries: Australia (Fincher, 2011), USA (Oikonomidoy and Williams, 2013; Velez-Gomez and Bell, 2018), New Zealand (Zhang, 2017), UK (Ye and Edwards, 2017) and Canada (Amiot, Doucerain, Zhou and Ryde, 2017), although the last mentioned was introduced as a bilingual environment. However, only two of them mention the aspect of knowing the language of the resident country as a factor that could have an influence on international students’ experience. Ye and Edwards (2017) discuss in connection to this their respondents’ perception of becoming bilingual and how that shapes their interaction with British students. Amiot, Doucerain, Zhou and Ryde (2017) situated their study into bilingual Montréal in Canada. More than half of the respondents actually indicated their native language to be French, which is also the official language of this area. Authors briefly mention that this could lead to French-speaking international students acquiring different experiences than others. Moreover, such students encounter fewer challenges and the perceived discrimination towards them does not have such a significant effect. However, the study leaves out the effect of choosing between two possible identities. Authors mention that there is a possibility to choose but not how it influences the respondents to come into contact with two different cultures. This could be a topic of further analysis.

Only one study comes from a non-English speaking country. Bilecen (2013) conducted the research in Germany, partly in reaction to the fact that most of the previous studies “almost exclusively considered the experiences of international students at English-speaking universities” (ibid., p. 673), making it the only article where language differences play an important role.

From the point of view of the chosen sample, the studies are slightly more diverse but still mostly focused on one part of the world. The majority of the studies focused on students coming from Asia: Southeast Asia (Fincher, 2011), Japan (Oikonomidoy and Williams, 2013), and China (Zhang 2017; Ye and Edwards, 2017). One study (Velez-Gomez and Bell, 2018) was conducted on respondents from Colombia and two studies (Bilecen, 2013; Amiot, Doucerain, Zhou and Ryde, 2017) used international students in general as a research sample. However, only one article discussing students from a single country mention any limitations that such a specific sample brings about. Velez-Gomez and Bell (2018) conducted their

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17 research solely on Colombian students, however, they are well aware of the limitation of their research and that the results are not applicable to neither all international students from Colombia nor from Latin America.

Ye and Edwards (2017), whose population was represented by 4 doctoral Chinese students, on the other hand, are confident that: “Although this study is based on the experiences of Chinese students in the UK, its findings have clear implications for host institutions both here and in a range of other destinations.” (ibid., p. 873) It is important, however, to be aware of possible limitations of one's study as well as the influence that the chosen sample can have on results. For example, let us look at Fincher’s (2011) study which focused on socialisation with either international as well as local people or just co-nationals. The studied sample was made of 20 respondents from Southeast Asia; however, it can be argued that if different ethnics were included (for example the ones perceived to be more individualistic) the data and therefore the results could be altered. (Fincher, 2011)

2.4. Conclusion

The results of this analysis show that the transformation of identities in the international educational milieu can adopt different forms in all the aspects of the researched area. However, there are still gaps in knowledge that could be filled through further studies. Thus, my thesis focuses more on the influence of the context. As became apparent, the cases of non-English speaking universities and international students (without the focus on one ethnic group) are underrepresented. I believe that the studied area could benefit from information gained via researches done in the aforementioned context with the integration of the country of residence as well as the cultural aspects of the country of origin of students as important factors that affect the experiences gained from the international mobility.

Furthermore, the research presented in this thesis includes the perception of the future, in other words how the change of identity of international students further influences their lives. Some of the studies (e.g. Oikonomidoy and Williams, 2013; Velez-Gomez and Bell, 2016) touch upon the topic of whether international experiences of students, gained during their mobility, change their view of their country of origin in the connection to whether they want to return there in the future or continue living abroad. However, I believe that important information not considered before could be gained from turning the attention toward a better understanding of not only how the identity transformation was achieved but also how such a change influences international students’ expectations of their future.

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18

3. Methodology

Firstly, this part of the thesis deals with a short introduction of the research background, the research questions, and also the semi-structured interviews as the method used for the gathering of information from respondents. Afterwards, I will discuss the method of analysis and the analysis tool chosen for the purpose of this research. It will be followed by a reflexive part about the objectivity, role of the researcher, assumptions, and sociological perspective which can influence the process as well as the results of the analysis. This chapter will be concluded by the examination of limitations and ethical considerations.

3.1. Research background and method

As was mentioned before, this research was conducted in the year 2020 during my yearlong study at Örebro University in Sweden. This university is relatively new, being officially established in 1999 (it was a branch of Uppsala University and Örebro University College before that) and, thus, in the process of establishing its own reputation and position. Through the creation of campuses, the production of items and clothing with the university logo, and the focus on strengthening the alumni network, the university negotiates its identity and academic brand as well. Moreover, in the last years, an emphasis was put on the goal of internationalisation. The number of international fee-paying students (excluding exchange students) rose from 39 in 2017 to 88 in 2019. (Örebro Universitet Årsredovisning 2019, 2020, p.22) It is important to stress that as the university reports only the quantity of fee-paying international students, this number does not include ‘free-moving’ students. The university is currently (for the autumn semester of 2020) offering 9 master programmes in English. The internationalisation goals include an increase of international mobility, international partnerships, international research, or incorporation of teachers from outside of Sweden. (International Strategy 2015–2020, 2015)

The population of the research was after some consideration narrowed from the broader group of international students to a smaller part of international master students. People are in different stages of their lives in each phase of their educational career and it is, therefore, imperative not to cluster together students from different educational levels. International experiences and reactions to the change in environment would most probably vary between students in their bachelor’s degree and doctorates. If international students as a whole group would be used, independently from what degree they are studying, the information gathered and subsequently the results of the analysis could be quite inconsistent.

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19 Students from a shorter period of study abroad (exchange students, Erasmus students, etc.) were not considered due to their stay being too brief and with a heavier emphasis on temporality. Owing to the fact that I was an international master student myself at the time of this research, I had easier access to the field and the empirical material.

3.1.1. Interviews and interviewees

For the purpose of this thesis, 10 interviews with international master students were conducted, ranging in length from 23 minutes to 1 hour and 28 minutes. Most of the interviews were in the range of 40 to 50 minutes with the notable exception of the shortest interview and also three interviews that lasted more than an hour. It is my belief that the length of the interview was influenced by the respondents’ willingness to examine their own feelings and experiences as well as their awareness of them. The shortest interview was conducted with one of the male respondents who had trouble expressing his thoughts, giving short answers even after prompting. However, it would be incorrect to connect this behaviour with gender as I had the opportunity to interview only two male students and the second one’s narrative was well within the average length. On the other hand, the three longest interviews were conducted with respondents who acknowledge that they thought about the circumstances and the influence of the international experience on them even before the interviews, thus, showing a great deal of reflexivity and being able to give more thorough answers.

The aim was to choose respondents from different cultural backgrounds to fully encompass the whole international span of the university as opposed to the usual focus on students from one geographical area. I was thus able to include a student from Brazil, Ghana, Austria, Portugal, Pakistan, Spain, Romania, Iran, and two from Germany. The sample, however, does not have the gender ratio I was striving for; it consists of 8 female and 2 male respondents. As a direct effect of the current global situation with the pandemic of coronavirus, it was increasingly difficult to acquire interviews needed for this study, due to people either practicing social distancing or leaving Sweden altogether. Thus, some of my confirmed respondents were suddenly unavailable and, therefore, I could not abide by the gender balance set at the beginning of my research. Furthermore, other limitations stem from the situation. In the end, two of the interviews could not be done face-to-face, as was the rest, but were conducted through a telephone. As Vogl (2013) mentions, interviews managed by the means of a telephone can become less personal as well as enhance the feeling of anonymity. The reduction in intimacy that comes with telephone interviews correlates with

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20 the length of the interview and the ‘completeness of data’. (Jäckle, Roberts and Lynn, 2006, p. 48) Due to the lack of personal contact with the researcher, respondents tend to shorten their narratives and feel less compelled to answer difficult or sensitive inquiries. (Jäckle, Roberts and Lynn, 2006) However, due to the circumstance of having a friendly relationship with all the respondents, most of these effects were significantly lessened. Both interviews were of an average length (41 and 45 minutes) and as a result of telephone communication being quite a common occurrence between us, I believe that the level of anonymity was not considerably altered. Thus, these interviews were utilised in the same manner in regard to the analysis. However, needless to say, the researcher can never be absolutely certain of the validity and reliability of the gathered data and neither can I be positive that all respondents (be it face-to-face or telephone interviews) were unquestionably truthful.

The reason for implementing a semi-structured interview instead of a structured one was primarily the fact that the topic and concepts included are of an abstract nature, such as identity, integration, expectations, etc. Asking follow-up questions, prompting for specific areas of a topic, or changing the order of the questions was, therefore, a necessary part of the interviewing process. (Adams, 2015)

For the purpose of the semi-structured interview, a protocol with central questions was created, to aid with covering all topics during the interview itself. (cf. Given, 2008) The interview protocol consisted of specific questions, formulated on the basis of the theoretical background, divided into seven clusters according to the topic: motivation to study abroad, expectations and differences, experiences, socialisation in Sweden, perception of oneself, connection with home, and future and consequences.

One of the other reasons why I opted for a face-to-face semi-structured interview was the fact that because of the diversity of respondents' nationalities, the interviews had to be conducted in English, making it harder for respondents to express themselves than if they would be using their native language. Thus, there was always the possibility of rephrasing a question or asking for clarification.

As a consequence of being part of the designed population and resulting from the fact that the population was smaller to begin with, I was acquainted with all the respondents during our stay in Örebro and developed a friendship with most of them. This may, subsequently, positively or negatively influence the interview. One of the upsides of knowing the respondents is the already developed relationship of trust and confidentiality that is

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21 usually stated as one of the disadvantages of face-to-face interviews. “Respondents need to be able to develop trust in the interviewer in order to disclose sensitive information.” (Lavrakas, 2008, p. 259) Personal topics related to identity could be the type of sensitive information that respondents feel uncomfortable discussing with a stranger.

3.1.2. Qualitative Content Analysis

Qualitative Content Analysis can be characterised by three key aspects. It is systematic, flexible and it helps reduce the amount of data present. Coding is a core part of the analysis. Through the development of the coding frame, the researcher is able to group the data into categories thus decreasing the extent of the material. The number of categories and subcategories can vary, depending on aspects and themes found in the data, however, in the end, the final amount should always be limited to how much the researcher is able to manage. (Flick, 2014, p. 170)

Qualitative content analysis is a highly systematic method, in the sense that the researcher has to inspect all of the chosen material in its entirety and devise a coding frame. For the process to be more methodical and efficient double coding is performed for much of the material. Either two researchers sort the data into previously devised categories independently of each other, or one researcher goes through this process twice but with a time period in between. (Flick, 2014, p. 171)

The last aspect of this analysis, mentioned before, is its flexibility. The method works with both concept-driven categories as well as those data-driven. This ensures the coding is suitable for the material studied. In other words “[q]ualitative content analysis is therefore flexible in that the coding frame should always be matched to the material.” (Flick, 2014, p. 171)

3.1.3. Coding: the road to categories

The analysis of the collected empirical material plays, of course, an important part in the research process. From my personal standpoint, it is essential during the analysis to not let the theory dictate the interpretation in the sense that the empirical data are ‘forced’ into the theory. During the process of interpretation and evaluation theory and data should influence each other in equal measure. As Alvesson and Sköldberg (2009, p. 273) reason: “Ideally, the researcher allows the empirical material to inspire, develop and reshape theoretical ideas.” What does it mean for the analysis itself? The approach towards the interpretation is on one

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22 hand guided by the theoretical framework to scrutinise the data and uncover relations. On the other hand, however, the theory is not rigid in nature and the study of empirical data enables us to promote or refine the theoretical background with additional interpretations.

An NVivo (NVivo, n.d.) computer software, a qualitative data analysis tool created by QSR International, was used for the coding procedure. It enables the researcher to ‘attach’ categories or nodes, as they are called in this tool, to parts of interviews and then allows them to examine all the quotes ascribed to a certain category in a very clear manner.

The creation of codes, or the coding procedure, was divided into several steps and included three main readings of the available empirical material. The process commenced with the first reading throughout which the coding frame was created. Codes, or key terms, were allocated to sections of transcripts by the means of a combination of a concept-driven and a data-driven approach. The involvement of a concept-driven approach is imperative for the categories and the consequent interpretations to be relevant to the chosen theoretical background or a threat of derivation from established research questions and the whole course of the study arises. On the other hand, this method benefits from the inclusion of a data-driven approach as well, in order to exhaust all the relevant sections of the material, thus not leaving any significant data uncoded. Furthermore, this helps ensure that the researcher will not be guided solely by the theory and promotes the creation of new interpretations and the reciprocal dialogue between empirical material and theoretical background. (Flick, 2014, pp. 175-176; Alvesson and Kärreman, 2011, pp. 12-16) Concept-driven themes in this analysis are, for example, identification with the international group or staying abroad. Topics that were data-driven include language barrier or ties to home.

The codes were, subsequently, created through the identification of similarities between the individual narratives as well as their differences from each other. When all the transcriptions were divided into categories, each code was then ‘opened’ (quite literally, in the NVivo software codes can be opened and all the allocated text segments inspected at the same time) and analysed to verify its representation of one theme. All data segments that were found not to fit the code were relocated to an existing category or a new one was developed. When the empirical material was completely codified and no new phenomenon found, the second reading ensued to further evaluate and, if needed, modify the coding frame. The third reading, following the same protocol, occurred with a period of one week in between, to ensure a ‘fresh look’ at the material. Ultimately, all codes were analysed and sorted into

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23 overall themes they were related to, and, as a result, interpretations of detected phenomena were possible.

3.2. Into the reflexivity

Reflexivity in research is one of the most important aspects. As Stöckelová explains, it means “adoption of positions or distance, awareness of one's role, articulation of the position and perspective, and the interpretative nature of all social relationships.1” (Stöckelová, 2013, p. 19) The contemplation of the researcher’s position and distance is especially relevant in this case as I, as a researcher, have been intensely involved in the surveyed field and was part of the targeted group. Throughout the stay in Örebro, which represented at the time of interviewing more than half a year, I have participated in the social life of the respondents, thus, making it harder to objectively represent the knowledge gained from them without interference or bias. I was going through the same, or at least similar, experiences and with similar intensity. In terms of looking at the data obtained from interviews, I have tried to ensure as much objectivity by not only distancing myself from the information, I was analysing, but also by distancing in terms of timeframe. I started with the actual analysis of the empirical data after I returned from Sweden with an almost month time distance from most of the interviews. Furthermore, the distancing and the aspiration for as much objectivity as possible were reinforced by the methodologically and theoretically informed nature of the study. The application of a systematic method and theoretical background can facilitate a reduction of the risk of bias.

3.2.1. Research language

Another factor that needs to be considered is the nature of the language used as the main research language (for interviews, analysis, etc.). How accurate and authentic can the empirical data be when it is not acquired through a more credible and reliable native tongue? As Hofstede (2001, p. 21) surmises “[l]anguage is not a neutral vehicle. Our thinking is affected by the categories and words available in our language.” Thus, what we would say and how we would explain ourselves can differ from one language to another. It is not just a matter of proficiency; it also depends on the vocabulary of the language and the meaning of each expression. In simple terms, a word in Swedish does not have to have exactly the same meaning as its English counterpart even though it was translated correctly. Furthermore, there are always words that exist in one language but cannot be found in another. (Hofstede, 2001,

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24 p. 21) This can create discrepancies, especially in regard to explaining abstract concepts such as identity. Therefore, it is imperative to mention, that it is quite possible that respondents might have expressed themselves easier or at least more accurately in their native tongue. On the other hand, as the whole study is conducted in one language, no translations or interpreters were needed making the process more straightforward and less prone to translation mistakes.

Using different languages means not just translating the words in one’s head; it also indicates “having to adopt someone else’s frame of reference”. (Hofstede, 2001, p. 425) The words we use can evoke different feelings and memories in distinct languages. What we are able to communicate in English does not mean it is equivalent to what we want to express or what we are thinking. Thus, English being the language of interviews could have a negative effect on the authenticity and accuracy of respondents’ statements. Welch and Piekkari (2006, p. 428) mention in their article on the use of the native or non-native tongue in research that some authors felt if they allow respondents “the opportunity to express themselves in their native language [it] produces more authentic answers that exhibit “more subtle nuances”.” Others stated that it enabled the interviewees to share more complex emotional states. On the other hand, the level of accuracy can be increased (or at least not be decreased) by the decision to forgo the native tongue in several instances. The first instance being when the researcher is not proficient enough in the respondent’s native language. The second reason is to evade the errors caused by translation or the use of interpreters. The aforementioned authenticity issues can be, and were in this case, counteracted on one hand by the possibility of asking questions for clarification and on the other by the fact that the respondents were accustomed to everyday application of English and therefore relaxed in the use of it during interviews. (Welch and Piekkari, 2006, pp. 428-429)

Conducting interviews in the native tongue can also be a “powerful means of establishing rapport and a sense of connection” between the researcher and respondent, creating a relationship of trust and understanding. (Welch and Piekkari, 2006, p. 430) However, the use of English, if it is not a native tongue for either the interviewer or the interviewee, could be seen as a kind of middle ground, a neutral state where they can talk without being over-focused on national differences. Representing more an equalising than a dividing agent. (Welch and Piekkari, 2006, p. 431) In the case of this thesis, the researcher and the respondents were all part of one international group of which English was the ‘official’ language. Even though the sampled respondents had varying English language skills, all of them were very proficient in the tongue. Furthermore, as the experiences and

Transformation of identities in international educational milieu of university in Sweden