The Human Non-Human Boundary in 'Dune'  – An Ontological Reading through a Comparative Nietzschean and Transhuman Framework

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An Ontological Reading through a Compara5ve Nietzschean and

Transhuman Framework

Ki5 Misha

English Studies, English III, Literary option-VT20 Bachelor of Arts with a major in English Studies 30 credits

Spring 2020

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Abstract

In Frank Herbert’s Dune Saga, we find a transhumanist and Nietzschean argument about the evolution of humans achieved as a result of the triggering effect of the Butlerian Jihad against thinking machines. I claim that the metamorphoses of the selected characters reflect the central tenants of the transformation of Nietzsche’s overhuman, or transhumanism’s

posthuman. By extending these metamorphoses to include the standpoint of a fictional

counterpart such as Dune’s Kwisatz Haderach, this study claims that in Science Fiction we find a possible ground for conceptualizing difficult problems that deal with the future of humanity. This investigation into the need to overcome the human condition will be held in order to see what drives human enhancement, what triggers the need for change, and how this enhancement is realised. Moreover, I claim that the Dune Saga dramatizes a future scenario that furthers the discussion on what is human by questioning the boundary between human and nonhuman

Keywords: Frank Herbert, Dune, the Dune Saga, Science Fiction, Nietzsche, Overhuman, Posthuman, Transhuman, Transhumanism, Human, Nonhuman

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If we have made our way from worm to man, there still remains much within us that is worm, and although we were once apes man is now more of an ape than any ape. The superhuman is to be our new hope, the lightning and madness that emerges out of the dark cloud of man and in which man can find his purification

- FRIEDRICH NIETZSCHE, Thus Spoke Zarathustra

1. Introduction

This study focuses on the human non-human boundary as expressed in Frank Herbert’s Dune Saga. My argument is that Dune is a series of novels of many conceptual layers where the author constantly tries to disprove political or ethic absolutisms. He achieves this by showing the result extremes have on the society of Dune. The metamorphoses of Paul Atreides and Leto II reflect the central tenants of the transformation of Nietzsche’s overhuman, or

transhumanism’s posthuman. In a seminal manner, the Dune Saga posits that the changes of Dune are triggered by technology which serves as a catalyst for the metamorphoses

happening in the novels. Technology is seen as a means of enhancing the human condition by transhumanism, and at the same time it plays an important role in Nietzsche’s writing. This makes Dune a perfect study case to discuss and analyse what is human through the 1

framework of Nietzsche, transhumanism, and the influence of technology. In order to present this in an explanative manner I will progress in the following way. First, I will compare and contrast the definitions and concepts of the posthuman to that of Nietzsche’s overhuman. After that, I will contextualise the overhuman and the posthuman in Herbert’s Kwisatz

Haderach, so that the similarities between the three will open up the possibility for debating

the human nonhuman boundary in the Dune novels.

In this study “Dune” refers both to Frank Herbert’s ﬁrst novel of the saga, as well as the name of the planet

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By constructing an unfamiliar scenario where we can lay down our preconceptions, Dune opens up “pathways discredited or even invisible to the ‘common sense’” (Wagner-Lawlor 12). In Dune’s past history, humankind stagnated and became overly dependent on technology. As a result, they were enslaved by their own “thinking machines” (Dune 564). It was this episode that triggered the need to enhance human abilities in Dune, and made their society move away from reliance on technology. In my view, the evolution of human

enhancement in Dune is necessary to highlighting the existence of a philosophical connection between transhumanism’s reinvented conception of the self and the overhuman found in the writings of Nietzsche. This is noted in the presence of the similarities between the overhuman and the posthuman, and the Kwisatz Haderach. The scholars and philosophers who form the basis of the transhuman thinking, such as the original creators Max More and Nick Bostrom, believe it is imperative to evolve and enhance our abilities in order not to be in the hands of chance but own our future. The transhumanist philosophy stands for genetic engineering in order to rid humanity of sickness, prolong lifespan, and increase our intelligence. It is

believed the ultimate result of this process will be the posthuman, and that we as humans can enter into a transhuman phase in order to achieve it. However, the genetic engineering present in the selected works differs from one philosophy to the other. As it will be further discussed below, transhumanism advocates liberal eugenics where the individual has the full right to either agree or disagree with the process. While the genetic breeding of Dune is reminiscent of a difficult time in European history where “purity” was valued above the rights of the individual. This is one of the instances in Dune were Herbert warns the reader against the dangers of absolutism, be them ethical or political.

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The metamorphoses that Paul Atreides and Leto II go through are comparable to the transhuman road to posthuman, as understood by transhumanism. This transformation is evocative of Nietzsche’s claim that his protagonist “Zarathustra is only a transitional figure on the way to his ultimate goal of creating the superhuman” (Loeb 85). There are similarities between Zarathustra's transformation and that of Paul who seems to come into existence in order to facilitate the coming of Leto II, or the seemingly real overhuman of Dune. In both instances we get a majority of the population that would qualify as human, a selected few that reminds us of the transhuman, and in rare cases we see the emergence of the equivalent of a posthuman.

When an evolved human appears in Dune, his existence causes an equal amount of awe and fear. This is noticed in many instances when we see “factions” that are so different from what we consider human as to defy certain categorisation. Because of these similarities, I believe that Transhumanism is the most apt grid of analysis to investigate Dune. However, in light of the warning against absolutes that seems to be a constant theme in the Dune books, all the selected concepts should be taken not as such, but as definitions that open a ground for discussing the evolution from human to posthuman, and the investigation of the human nonhuman boundary within the selected works.

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2. What is human?

The investigation into the transhuman, overhuman and posthuman, should be examined in relation to definitions on what a human is. This serves to ease the discussion into the

posthuman and overhuman. During the history of humanity there have been many attempts to define what is human, starting from religious ones that state that man was made in the image of god, to “man is a tool using animal” (Carlyle), or as Aristotle would state “man is a political animal” (The Little Book of Philosophy 32). A human is foremost someone who belongs to the Homo Sapiens category with every biological aspect that this entails. In the first novel of the Dune Saga we read a dialogue between Paul Atreides, the future Messiah, and the Reverend Mother of the Bene Gesserit about the meaning of what it is to be human. The Reverend Mother makes Paul go through a test that induces excruciating pain to his hand. If he takes the hand away, he will prove to her that he has let himself be ruled by animal instincts, hence is not human because “a human can override any nerves in the body” (Dune 11). The Bene Gesserit’s definition of human contrasts with Nietzsche’s argument that “the essence of pain is to run away from it” (TSZ 280). However, in light of Nietzsche’s concept that humans are ruled by drives and that “willing should be understood in terms of the operation of drives” (Katsanas 744), both the Bene Gesserit and Nietzsche would think similarly about humans as creatures ruled by the will to act.

More recent definitions expand the concept of what a human being is, such as Marilyn Gwaltney who states that a human, and, as a result the “self is an individual consciousness that is aware of itself being as a whole” . This definition does not agree with those stated 2

earlier in that it considers consciousness as something metaphysical, however, it helps

Marilyn Gwaltney, Androids as a Device for Reflection and Personhood, pp.35

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delineate the difficulty in encompassing an exact definition of what is human and shows the fluidity of this concept. From these arguments we notice that the starting point of the

transformation from human to posthuman, or what is human, remains an unsolvable puzzle for most philosophies who try to address this. We are aware of the neurophysiological

processes that propel us, however, the inner intricacies of what makes us human are still unsolved. The similarities between the selected theoretical background and Dune are not so much in how they view humans, as in how they propose to enhance the human condition.

 

Moreover, the Dune saga presents different instances where trying to define what is human comes as a result of what it is not. Space Guildsmen, who are described as “vaguely humanoid” (Dune Messiah 8) stretch the definition of what is human and lean towards the non-human, as do Face Dancers who “had muscles and nerve linkages the other didn’t even possess plus a special quality of sympatico, a mimic’s insight with which he could put out the psyche of another as well as other’s appearance” (10). Other instances of “nonhumans” can be seen in Duncan Idaho’s reincarnation as a Ghola, a being resulting from cloning the flesh of a human and reawakening his psyche through psychological conditioning, and Alia Atreides deemed as an Abomination because of her inability to control the multitude of personalities within herself. The “non-human” factions and characters in Dune seem to reinforce the “humanity” of other characters who share more human-like attributes. Applying definitions of what is human to characters in Dune seems difficult, since the novels seem to focus more on the overcoming of the human than in trying to define what one is. Hence, the focus of this study will stay on Nietzsche’s statement that “Man is something to be

surpassed” (TSZ 13) as something that, in my view, better represents the changes happening in Dune, and as such offers a possible outcome of the evolution from human to overhuman.

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2.1. Three types of posthuman

In my opinion, the representation of the concept of the posthuman as seen through aspects of different philosophies and fiction, can serve as a comparative ground that will allow to further theorise the discussion into the human non-human boundary. In Dune the transformation of the selected characters is brought on by genetic manipulation and enhancement of psychic abilities. However, inside transhumanism there are disagreements about the specificities of the methods that will result in the posthuman, and there is an ongoing discussion about Nietzsche’s influence in the philosophy. Further investigating the key concepts used in this study and the discussion around them will ease the understanding of the metamorphoses and evolution happening in the Dune Saga.

2.2. The Kwisatz Haderach

The first type of evolved/changed human this study wants to investigate is the Kwisatz

Haderach, or “the one who can be many places at once” (Dune 14). However, to understand

the concept of the Kwisatz Haderach, a short introductory summary to the story of Dune is in order. The Dune series is set in the distant future in a universe that has gone through radical changes after the Butlerian Jihad that left the world forever fearful of technology, and made 3

it regress to a feudal state where warring nobles contend over power and the new substance Melange, which influences every aspect of the Dune universe from commerce to human enhancement and interstellar travel. After being enslaved by machines, the society of Dune

Herbert defines the Butlerian Jihad as “two generations of chaos. (where) The god of machine-logic

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was overthrown among the masses and a new concept was raised: ‘Man may not be replaced’” (Dune 544). In Dune we see the Butlerian Jihad often mentioned as a warning and a dark stage in the history of the Dune Universe about the importance of the Butlerian Jihad and on defining what is human.

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rebuilt itself focusing on the enhancement of human abilities. The society of Dune is “filled with relationships and relationships within relationships” (Dune 534) that encompass philosophical aspects of the novel, as well as human ones. Some factions stand out in ruling the Dune universe: the secular power which is represented through the Emperor and the “agnostic ruling class” (542), the esoteric organisation of the Bene Gesserit, and the Ixians who tinker in the last remnants of technology and who border on heresy. The Dune universe is ruled by one commandment: “Thou shalt not make a machine to counterfeit a human mind” (12). This belief, which was a result of the Butlerian Jihad, together with “the Bene Gesserit influence [over] human evolution though a eugenic breeding program. [And] their goal…to create the Kwisatz Haderach, an ubermensch , with unparalleled powers who they could control as the universes messiah” (Booth 2) are the two main themes around which the story of Dune unfolds, and that will influence the development of the plot, as well as the issues investigated in this study. The full investigation of the concept of the Kwisatz

Haderach and how it compares and contrasts to the overhuman and posthuman, and what this

means for the discussion of the non-human, will further be continued in the first chapter where Paul’s transformation from human to posthuman will be examined, and the second chapter where the road from posthuman to non-human will be analysed.

2.3. Transhuman’s posthuman

A posthuman is a conceptual definition that represents the end point of the transhumanist philosophies. All the different definitions of transhumanism converge in the notion of the posthuman as the culmination of humanity’s evolution. Bradley Onishi argues that transhumanism “promotes the radical alteration of human minds and bodies in order to

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develop a new posthuman species” . This statement is agreed on by the major transhumanist 4

thinkers whose definitions of the philosophy seem to all agree on the enhancement of human capacities. For M.F. Esfanduary a “posthuman is both the post-biological or technological being that inhabits science- fiction stories and the subsequent reconceptualization of what it means to be human” (156). We see another definition in Transhumanist Values, where one of the main voices of transhumanism Nick Bostrom argues that “‘Posthumans’ is the term for the very much more advanced beings that humans may one day design themselves into if we manage to upgrade our current human nature and radically extend our capacities” (2001), while the transhumans are the middle step in this evolution. From these definitions of the posthuman we see that transhumanism advocates the enhancement of human potential in order to overcome our limitations. In transhumanism, transcending the human is generally thought of as something that would be achieved by technology, genetics, education, and various enhancements of human abilities. The definitions mentioned above are important in forming a grid of analysis through which Dune’s posthuman can be studied.

2.4. Nietzsche’s overhuman

The Dune Saga is influenced by Nietzsche and by the philosophical connection presented in his works and concepts through the similarities of experiences and transformations shared by Zarathustra and Paul Atreides. B.W.R. Pearson states the similarities between Dune and Nietzsche’s work by arguing that “Herbert sets Paul up as the tight-rope walker—the Kwisatz Haderach—in a manner that recalls Zarathustra.” . In my view, Thus Spoke Zarathustra is a 5

philosophical novel about an individual who evolves to transhuman in order to aid the

Bradley Onishi, Information, Bodies, and Heidegger: Tracing Visions, pp 103

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B.W.R Pearson, Dune and Philosophy pp 331

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emergence of the posthuman, and that is reminiscent of evolution to posthuman propagated by the transhumanist philosophies. Even if some transhumanists agree with part of the philosophies of Nietzsche, many find him a point of contention. In Thus Spoke Zarathustra Nietzsche presents his idea that man is something to be surpassed and how he thought this would come to pass. Through Zarathustra, he narrates his philosophy of man breaking with past limitations, of the higher man that is necessary in order to produce the overman, and what this will mean for humanity. In my view, Nietzsche’s concept of overhuman seems to be similar to the transhumanist’s posthuman, and to Herbert’s Kwisatz Haderach. For Nietzsche “man is a rope stretched between animal and overman (overhuman) - a rope over an

abyss” (TSZ 13), and the middle step between the two is the higher human. Sorgner argues that “Nietzsche’s concept of higher humans and the overhuman is very similar to

Esfanduary’s concepts of the transhuman and the posthuman… [and that] the overhuman has a significantly different potential from that of higher humans” (317). This is further discussed by B.W.R. Pearson in his claims that “the Nietzschean notions of Superman, Ultimate Man, and eternal recurrence are woven throughout the grand tapestry of the Dune saga” (314), which is a view supported by this thesis.

In reading Thus Spoke Zarathustra we see that Nietzsche does not focus so much on a concrete definition of what a human is, as much as on its limitations and how they should be surpassed. In Dune the focus is set on the evolution of humanity instead of trying to define what is human. Sorgner connects the transhumanist movement to Nietzsche’s philosophy by stating that “in transhumanist thought, Nietzsche’s overhuman is being referred to as

‘posthuman’” (19). However, this view is not shared by all transhumanists. Max More, states that the philosophies of the overhuman and posthuman as more than “merely parallels:

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transhumanist ideas were directly influenced by Nietzsche” (The Overhuman in the Transhuman 28). While for Nick Bostrom Transhumanism shares only “surface-level similarities with the Nietzschean vision” (Sorgner 15). Through tracing these opposing visions of Nietzsche’s philosophy we get a broader understanding of all the complexities of the posthuman and overhuman which seem mirrored in the existence of the Kwisatz

Haderach of Dune. The positions of Nietzsche and some stances of transhumanism differ in

concern of how they see human nature, enhancements or other catalysts that will lead to the posthuman/overhuman such as technology and evolution. The revaluation of values is another similarity between Nietzsche’s contempt of Christian values, and Dune’s need to break with the 'dark' period of its history. The contested opposing visions of Nietzsche’s overhuman seem to converge on three main points that are analysed below.

2.4.1. Nietzsche, Transhumanism: Transvaluation of Values

Nietzsche was one of the harshest critics of Christian morals that, according to him, led humanity to act contrary to its natural instincts. At the same time, he was an admirer of science and progress. All these aspects of Nietzsche’s philosophy resonate with the beliefs shared by transhumanists. However, the transhumanist’s Enlightenment roots contrast with Nietzsche’s overhuman. Nietzsche lays out one of the key themes of his philosophy: that our established Western past tradition undermines the idea of man and his progress. In my view, this theme echoes with the story of the Dune Saga where mankind developed its psychic muscles in order to take another route to progress and break its ties with the mistakes of the past which led to them being enslaved by thinking-machines.

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However, Michael Hauskeller argues that “transhumanists may want to revaluate certain aspects of our existence, but they certainly do not, as Nietzsche did, advocate the revaluation of all present values” (33). This view is supported by many in the transhumanist movement, nevertheless, Sorgner argues that “both Nietzsche and transhumanists have an outlook on the world, which diverges significantly from the traditional Christian one, or one which has inherited many Christian values” . One of the founders of Transhumanism, Max 6

More states that “the sole reason Bostrom gives for saying that Transhumanism has merely ‘some surface-level similarities with the Nietzschean vision’ is that transhumanism – thanks to its Enlightenment roots – has an emphasis on individual liberties and a ‘concern for the welfare of all humans’” . He further agrees with Nietzsche’s philosophy in arguing that “the 7

overhuman is supposed to represent the meaning-giving concept within Nietzsche’s

worldview which is supposed to replace the basically Christian worldview” (28). Hauskeller, in a reply to Sorgner, states the view of the transhumanists who oppose their philosophies being influenced by Nietzsche, saying that “transhumanists continue the logocentric tradition of Western philosophy” . This debate is important in establishing the views within 8

transhumanism regarding what influences them, and in establishing where in the bigger philosophical debate does Dune stand.

2.4.2. Nietzsche, Transhumanism: Enhancements and Genetics

As discussed earlier, not all transhumanists agree with Nietzsche wanting to advance

humankind by breaking with past traditions. However, all transhumanists agree with the need

Stefan Sorgner, Nietzsche, The Overhuman, and Transhumanism: Tracing Vision, pp. 17

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Max More, The Overhuman in the Transhuman, pp. 30

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Michael Hauskeller, Nietzsche the Overhuman and the Posthuman, pp. 2

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to evolve humanity, a belief that is a key component of Dune too. Zarathustra proclaims that he walks “among men as the fragments of the future… To redeem what is past, and to transform every ‘it was’” (131). The breaking up with every “it was” among transhumanists is an aspect of Nietzsche’s philosophy that is at the same time both agreed on and contested. For Bostrom, believing that humans should stay as they are constitutes a “choice that can have as devastating long-term consequences as a failed attempt to intervene” (2001). Both the stances quoted here are consistent with the plotline in Dune, where humans need to evolve and not repeat their past mistakes. Dune, in a way, offers a possibility of what could happen at a “failed attempt to intervene”.

When talking about evolution, it must be stressed that both Nietzsche and

transhumanism offer a speculative hypothesis on what might happen, and that similarly to Dune, we are faced with a hypothetical “what if” scenario, and not with concrete facts. Considering the speculative angle of this debate, we must also underline the differences in how this evolution to the posthuman might happen, and how Nietzsche’s work resonates within it. The agreed stance of transhumanism is that we need to enhance our human abilities, genetic engineer our short comings, and through the use of technology, or liberal eugenics which according to Sorgner is “a morally legitimate way of enhancing human beings” (22), reach the posthuman phase. Bostrom argues that “there is no special ethical merit in playing genetic roulette” . Sorgner agrees with Bostrom’s argument and further adds that 9

“transhumanism is in favour of technologies and other means which could be used for ‘enhancement of human intellectual, physical, and emotional capacities’ so that posthumans

Nick Bostrom, Transhumanist Values 2001

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could come into existence” (Sorgner 19). Transhumanism’s positivist approach to human enhancement is an element that reflects in conflicting ways inside the story of the Dune Saga.

Another connecting element is presented by Sorgner arguing the connection eugenics has between the selected philosophies, in claiming that “if genetic engineering, or liberal eugenics, can actually be seen as a special type of education, which is what transhumanists

seem to hold, then it is possible that this position would have been held by Nietzsche” (19). However, Sorgner clarifies Bostrom’s statement that “the eugenics movement, for example, is thoroughly discredited” (Bostrom 2001) by explaining that Bostrom here refers to state regulated eugenics, not the liberal autonomous eugenics advocated by transhumanism. If we could have the freedom to choose for ourselves if we want to undergo any sort of

enhancement neither Bostrom or the other transhumanists philosophers would argue against it, since liberal eugenics would be “a morally legitimate possibility…[and a] way of

enhancing human beings” (Sorgner 22). The discussion presented here about enhancing humans through genetic manipulation is a key component of Dune, and a theme that connects together Nietzsche’s work, transhumanism, and the Dune novels. However, the genetic manipulation present in Dune is not the liberal eugenics of transhumanism, but a manipulation by the people in power in order to propagate their views and achieve their wanted results.

2.4.3. Nietzsche, Transhumanism: Eternal Recurrence

Probably the most contested idea of Nietzsche within transhumanism is the notion of Eternal

Recurrence. One of the transhumanists contesters of this concept, Michael Hauskeller,

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recurrence, while the posthuman is not. This view is not shared by Paul S. Loeb who believes

that “eternal recurrence is thus like the myth of Sisyphus… Notice, however, that Sisyphus does indeed succeed in getting the stone up to the peak of the mountain, and indeed, that he succeeds in doing so over and over for all eternity” (89). In my view, this is an interesting concept that could describe some particular aspects of Dune which are difficult to analyse otherwise like the prophetic dreams of Zarathustra and Leto II. Furthermore, for Loeb “the superhuman animal will rise above the human animal through its additional recurrence-enabled mnemonic control of the past” . In his opinion, the notions of the overhuman and 10

eternal recurrence in Nietzsche’s philosophy cannot be divided as “eternal recurrence is actually required for there to be any transhumanist progress in the first place” (94). This describes what Zarathustra proposes as the way to achieving the overhuman. Only after Zarathustra realised time was circular and he left messages to his past self in order to help him realise the way to the overhuman, did he truly fulfil his philosophy. Loeb’s description of eternal recurrence as “the eternally recurring life and death of a protagonist who is able to remember and foresee the details of his life’s repeating iterations” (87) is a useful concept in analysing the role of the ancestral memories in Paul and Leto II. Through having access to the genetic memories of everyone in the past both characters can predict the future. Hence, in my view, even if eternal recurrence is seen as “a bizarre piece of metaphysics” (More 32) and might not be applicable to our reality, it still is a concept that could have a possible

manifestation in Dune.  

Paul S. Loeb, Nietzsche’s Transhumanism: Evolution and Eternal Recurrence, pp. 94

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3. From human to posthuman: Paul

The novels of the Dune series despite belonging to Science Fiction leave aside the

technological factor in order to focus on the human part of the discussion. The universe of Dune is guided by humanity’s deeply ingrained fear of thinking-machines, leading to a more uncommon treatment of technology than other works of science fiction. However, in my opinion, this episode in Dune serves only as a catalyst that sets off the need to enhance the human psyche in order not to risk humanity going extinct and falling in past mistakes. Furthermore, technology can be considered as a triggering aspect that brought on the

metamorphoses that will take place in Dune. It must be stressed that the technological aspect that is problematic for Dune is only pertinent to thinking-machines. Other technologies are still part of the daily life of Dune; however, they play only a background role.

Herbert brings up the topic of the Butlerian Jihad against technology since the start of the first novel in order to show what brought the need for change in the Dune universe. He does not focus on it more than is necessary for the reader to have a plausible starting point on why the need to evolve happens. A particularity of Dune is the extreme division the author does between humans and machines, and a need to evolve the human independently from technology. Humans experience immense growth not influenced by the technological

surrounding but by a more internal evolution. As such, in my view, Dune is a perfect case for studying the specificities of human evolution.

3.1. Paul as the starting point from human to posthuman

In my view, the story in the first four books of Dune offers a gradual build up on defining what is human, only soon to surpass any attempt of defining humanity and instead opening

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the discussion to humanity’s boundary, to what is the non-human. We start by reading about characters who have human semblances, but from the beginning it seems clear that they possess abilities that go beyond definitions of what a human is. The progression of the changes happening to Paul and to Leto II remind us of the evolution to overhuman seen both in transhumanism and in Nietzsche’s work. Similarly, Paul starts his journey as a human, he passes his tests and is admitted into the ranks of the “transhumans”, and finally after various hardships he starts his road to become posthuman. In the metamorphoses of Dune, we see Nietzsche’s influence in Herbert’s work when the main themes of Thus Spoke Zarathustra are mirrored in the structure of the Dune novels in order to build a reverse-hero myth in Paul and Leto II. Both these characters are not the typical heroes, neither are they antiheroes, their role resembles more backstage machinery which Herbert uses to problematize different issues, not to offer a heroic solution to them. In Dune Genesis Herbert states that “beneath the hero's facade you will find a human being who makes human mistakes” (2) which is an important insight in humanising characters who seem to surpass what is human. It is these weaknesses seen in Dune’s heroes that reminds us that they are human even when they surpass the definition of what a human is.

Furthermore, in my view, Herbert’s heroes resonate the main themes of Thus Spoke

Zarathustra: transvaluation, the need to break with the Christian past in order to advance

humanity, and the evolutionary passage to overhuman. These reasons lead to a threefold division of the society in the Dune universe which is reminiscent of the passage to

overhuman for Nietzsche: the animal-humans who could not pass the Gom Jabbar or who are not deemed important enough to administer the test to, the “real” humans who possess superior abilities that distinguish them from the rest of the population, and the superior

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humans like the Kwisatz Haderach. I believe that the animal in Nietzsche’s definition “man is

a rope stretched between animal and overman (overhuman)” (TSZ 13), in Dune would be the equivalent of the Bene Gesserit's human that has not proven himself to deserve being called 11

so. The Bene Gesserit often use terms like breeding and stock applied to people when usually these terms are used for animals. The Gom Jabbar test shows how they define humanity, and their need to “sift through people to look for human” (Dune 11). The Reverend Mother Mohiam says that the test kills animals. By that she means the test kills people who act on instinct and are deemed no better than animals. The starting point of this philosophical connection between the selected theories and Dune starts with the Gom Jabbar test and establishing what is human.

3.2. The Gom Jabbar: testing to find humans

Taking into consideration the philosophical debate that prescribes the background for the discussion of the Kwisatz Haderach, Paul’s road to the posthuman starts with the test of the Gom Jabbar administered to him by the Revered Mother Mohiam. The Gom Jabbar should be understood in light of the Butlerian Jihad mentioned previously, because only the fear of being enslaved by thinking-machines pushed humanity to acknowledge the need to develop its potential. Paul has to prove to the Reverend Mother that he is a real human according to their definition. Through her we see the first instance in the books of the importance of the Butlerian Jihad, and why it is an important factor in defining what is human. The test Paul undergoes serves as an introduction to the complexities of Dune, the underlying philosophies

In the Terminology of the Imperium Herbert defines the Bene Gesserit as “the ancient school of

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mental and physical training established primarily for female students after the Butlerian Jihad destroyed the so-called ‘thinking machines’ and robots” (Dune 567). They are the first organisation to start the selective breeding program in Dune.

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that rule in the post Butlerian Jihad universe, and, finally, it serves as a starting point for explaining the need of evolving the human psyche. The test is pretty simple in its

formulation: you put your hand in a box while the person giving the test points a poisoned needle in your neck. The person taking it is not to panic and act on the instinct to escape but is to hold his ground and prove he is human, because as human, he can reason past the immediacy of the pain. The logic behind the test opens a whole discussion about what is human, how the Bene Gesserit believe they can prove humanness, and the need to evolve to Dune’s equivalent of the posthuman/ overhuman.

The reasons behind this test, in my view, are partly reminiscent of Nietzsche’s concept of eternal recurrence. The unbroken line of past lives living within the memories of the Bene Gesserit, and later with Paul and Leto II, are similar to this concept: reliving one’s life over and over. The Bene Gesserit believe that for humanity to continue there is a “need of a thread of continuity in human affairs… [and that] there could be no such continuity without

separating human stock from animal stock - for breeding purposes” (Dune 13). This continuity for the Bene Gesserit is presented in the form of the ancestral memories, or an unbroken line of genetic memories of all their female predecessors. By applying the Gom Jabbar, the Bene Gesserit are looking for humans who would have the potential to access these memories, as well for a male who could access the part not available to females. Only by remembering past mistakes would they not err again. This belief is the most important element for understanding many aspects of Dune, such as the genetic breeding program to create the Kwisatz Haderach: the male Bene Gesserit who would possess both male and female lines of the genetic memories. The access to past history and knowledge by drawing

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on the memories of their predecessors, in my view, reminds of Zarathustra’s messages to his other self being echoed over and over in order to find the way to overhuman.

The Gom Jabbar should distinguish humans from animals and determine if the candidate taking it is worth being called a human. Behind “the death-alternative test of human awareness” (Dune 563) stand thousands of years of Dune’s history, and the belief of the Bene Gesserit that humans need to evolve their mental abilities by genetically breeding desired traits, instead of relying on technology. However, in order to understand the

importance of the Gom Jabbar in the creation of the Kwisatz Haderach, and in finding “humans among people” first one must understand the background of Paul Atreides. Paul, future Muad’Dib , a part of the breeding program of the Bene Gesserit, and a possible 12

candidate for becoming the Kwisatz Haderach, “was the son of Duke Leto, a man who’s bloodline had been watched carefully for more than a thousand years” (Dune 551), and of Jessica who’s background “carried gene-markers whose supreme importance to the breeding programme was known for almost two thousand years” (551). The union of these two important gene-markers would have the highest “probability of a Kwisatz Haderach [being produced]” (552). As the son of a duke and a Bene Gesserit, Paul was trained from an early age in the computer-like logic of the Mentats and the psychic and physical training 13

programs of the Bene Gesserit. We can see the influence of his training since the start of Dune when Paul tries to calm himself after agitated by the presence of the Reverend Mother Mohiam. We read hisstream of consciousness in the following passage:

Muad’Dib is the term the Fremen in Dune ascribe to their awaited prophet, and liberator.

12

In the ‘Terminology of the Imperium they are described as “that class of Imperial Citizens trained

13

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Focusing the consciousness…aortal dilatation…avoiding unfocused mechanism of consciousness…to be conscious by choice…blood enriched…and swift-flooding of the overload regions…one does not obtain food-safety-freedom by instinct alone… animal consciousness does not extend beyond the given moment nor the idea that its victims may become extinct…the animal destroys and does not produce… animal pleasures remain close to the sensation levels and avoid the

perceptual…the human requires a background grid through which to see his universe…focused consciousness by choice, this grid forms your grid…bodily integrity follows nerve-blood flow according to the deepest awareness of its cell needs…all things/ cells/ beings are impermanent…strive for flow-permanence within… (Herbert 5) 14

Apart from the computer-like way of expression Paul uses here, what stands out is the distinction he makes between animal and human. I believe this distinction introduces the reigning definition of what is human in Dune. An animal cannot go past the sensation level. It does not produce, only destroys. On the other hand, a human does not act on instinct alone, but as the Reverend Mother Mohiam later tells Paul “a human would remain in the trap, feigning death that he might kill the trapper and remove a threat to his kind” (9). When Paul asks why he is being tested, she replies that she is doing this in order to determine if he is human, and that the Bene Gesserit “sift people to find humans” (11). This leads to an understanding of what the Reverend Mother means by human. A human, in Dune, would be

Frank Herbert, Dune 5

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distinguished by how he reacts to threats; an animal would chew off a leg to escape a trap, while a human would endure pain and suppress his instinct to flee in order to serve mankind.

3.3. Arrakis: Catalysts of change

The Gom Jabbar gave a definition of what a human is according to philosophy of the Bene Gesserit. This serves as a starting point where Herbert establishes the ruling philosophical debate in Dune, and from where we can see the advancements of Paul’s transformation. Paul had shown signs of changing since before taking the test. We saw how his internal thinking made him not the typical human, but a possessor of superior abilities which from the very beginning distinguished him from most humans in the book. However, the Gom Jabbar denotes a turning point in Paul’s life, opening him to the notion of Kwisatz Haderach, and the possibility of what he may become. The presence of superior abilities would make Paul the equivalent to a transhuman, or Nietzsche’s higher human. However, his true road to become posthuman starts after he goes to Arrakis, also known as Dune.

Arrakis will offer all the necessary catalysts for Paul’s metamorphoses into a posthuman. As discussed in the introduction, the usual transhuman stance for achieving human enhancement is believed to be a consequence of technological advancements. Peter Moon summarises the transhumanist philosophy by quoting Nick Bostrom’s statement that "transhumanism, collectively, encompasses the “technologies to eliminate aging and to greatly enhance human intellectual, physical, and psychological capacities.” . In Dune, 15

however, the fear of being enslaved by thinking-machines triggered a human-centric

evolution of human abilities instead of an evolution aided by technology. In regard of this, I

Peter Moon, Transhumanism, Transcendence, Superintelligence, and the Singularity: Agreement

15

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believe that the evolutionary factor of Dune was a direct consequence of the dangers of thinking-machines that pushed humans to develop their psychic powers. Here we see a possible road to the posthuman that takes a different route from the transhumanist one.

Another catalyst for Dune’s road to the posthuman is presented by the change in environment. In a similar manner to Zarathustra who goes to meditate in the mountains and comes back as a higher human, Paul’s going to Arrakis will offer him all the necessary ingredients for the completion of his metamorphoses. In Arrakis he comes in contact with Melange, or the “‘spice of spices’, the crop for which Arrakis is the unique source. The spice, chiefly noted for its geriatric qualities” (Dune 566) and which is the source of the prophetic visions of Paul, Leto II, the Space Guildmen, and the truth-saying abilities of the Bene 16

Gesserit. Melange was present in everything in Dune from food, to water, coffee, etc. Without it, Paul would have never completely woken up to his abilities. It is interesting to see a

biological component as an alternative to the transhuman’s belief that human abilities will enhance through the aid of technology. All these catalysts will interact together in the process of Paul’s transformation, which will be furthered by the coup orchestrated by the rival family of the Harkonnen. After having his genetic particularity awakened by the Melange and the Gom Jabbar, the last triggering factor in the metamorphoses of Paul is losing everything he knows during the offensive launched by Harkonnens.

Truth Saying is the sought-after ability of the Bene Gesserit to enter a narcotic trance by the use of Melange

16

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3.4. Arrakis: The Desert and reflections on the posthuman condition

After escaping the Harkonnen, Paul and Jessica find themselves fleeing for their lives in the desert. Here we see the first obvious changes taking place in Paul, and a representation of a possible transformation from transhuman to posthuman in Dune. The desert has the same purpose for Paul’s transformation, as the mountain he retreated in had for Zarathustra. Both would be forever changed by introspections and their realisations achieved in their respective retreats. Princess Irulan states that “people need hard time and oppression to develop psychic muscles” (Dune 174). This seems to be the case for Paul. Here we see the need for

something to break the status quo in order for an individual to change. Furthermore, the description of the first signs of transformation in Paul is also an indicator of how a human and an enhanced human differ from each other.

The first change Paul notices in himself is his inability to grieve for his dead father and his friends, and he reflects that “he felt the inability to grieve as a terrible flaw” (Dune 207). It is almost as if he himself is realising he has lost part of his humanity, because grief is thought to be an integral part of being human. After that we notice the shocking precision of his

thinking, the rationality of which makes him seem almost non-human. He is able to focus his awareness into seeing “computation of most probable futures…as though his mind dipped into timeless stratum and sampled the winds of future” (208). This is the beginning of the prescient vision which will change the fate of the whole universe, but which scares Paul into thinking he is a monster and a freak, showing signs of an identity crisis that comes with the change of status from human to transhuman to posthuman. This is also the time when his ancestral memories are awakened, and to the question of Jessica if he is the Kwisatz

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Haderach, he responds that he is not that, he is something unexpected born ahead of his time,

he is the seed that will lead to the true Kwisatz Haderach.

The Gom Jabbar test made Paul chose between being enslaved by his animalistic desires or overcoming them and proving he was a human. However, no test or preparation he had undergone could present him with help in choosing if he was human or the Kwisatz

Haderach. The Butlerian Jihad freed “human minds to develop” and made possible for the 17

superior abilities some people have in Dune, and which are partially shared by the rest of the population, to be developed. Paul notes that “they (the Fremen) have a little of the talent… But they suppress it because it terrifies” (388). From this we can understand Paul’s fear in realising he is different from the rest: a posthuman living in a human universe, or a hybrid being “in the state of always becoming rather than ever being” (Gordon 125). The shift between different grades of humanness, and the ever-changing processes happening to Paul are intimidating. Hence, it is no surprise that it will take him time to retract his previous statement, and finally, by the end of the first novel when he comes to term with his state of being, he admits he is indeed the Kwisatz Haderach, or Dune’s posthuman/ overhuman.  

Frank Herbert, Dune pp. 12

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4. From Posthuman to Non-human: The Worm

In Dune we see that evolution goes in proportion to the need that drives it. The goalposts of the transformations change according to the motivation behind it. The bigger the end

objective, the higher the change the person is willing to go through. When the wanted result of human enhancement is to save humanity from extinction, the characters of Dune are willing to go through great lengths to achieve that. In Paul we found a possible outcome of the transformation from human to posthuman. His enhancement leaned towards psychic abilities rather than bodily transformation, presenting a combination of “the metamorphic imagery since Darwin [that] has a distinct evolutionary stance” and of the influence of the 18

time the book was written, when practices of yoga, psychotherapy, meditation and psychic drugs were possible suggestions of human enhancement. The training methods of the Bene Gesserit, as well as the way Paul surpassed his human status, are achieved in a similar manner. It is only with the emergence of Leto II that we are faced with a conceptual shift of metamorphoses: a narrative “of bodily transformation [that] depicts in various figures the restless transformation of the human” achieved not through the enhancement of inherent 19

human abilities, but through an evolutionary morphological change that crosses between species. This aspect changes the outlook of the discussion presenting questions on the status of the posthuman, if it is one unique evolution, or a process that can have many end results different from each other.

Bruce Clarke, Posthuman Metamorphoses: Narrative and Systems 1

18

Ibid 2

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4.1. An introduction to the non-human?

It is only after Leto II is born that the opportunity to compare and contrast two different forms of posthuman embodiment in Dune is offered, and the discussion into the non-human is presented in the series. The difficulties arising in each instance the Bene Gesserit achieve a new level of human enhancement, further distinguish the characters from definitions of humanity that exist in the Dune universe, as was seen in Paul’s crisis in the desert. These evolved characters live in a world of humans and higher humans, and as a result, dealing with defining their changed psychic and morphological selves while trying to keep a grasp on their fleeing humanity proves to be mostly catastrophic for them, and their universe. We start noticing the negative side of becoming posthuman, or overhuman, which is not really discussed in Nietzsche since he focuses only on the evolution to overhuman; while transhumanism being a positive philosophy seems to assume that humans will only go through enhancements that are positive for them and the rest of the society.

The negative consequences of the transformations become more obvious when analysing Leto II, where “the series’ critique of humankind’s reliance on heroes and gods” (Simkins 131) starts to be more noticeable and problematic. With the progression of the story, we notice the problems that absolutes create in Dune. The goal of all factions in the Dune universe is to safeguard humanity and better it, however time after time we see that this goal leads to crisis of various kinds like the consequences of Paul’s Jihad, Leto’s tyrannical regime, or the Bene Gesserit’s manipulations.

While the enhanced humans work for their goals, the rest of humanity suffers the consequences of war and conflict that are a result of the way the chosen characters assumed they would help their universe. For all these factions, being part of the natural progress of the

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universe was not enough, but similarly to Nietzsche’s overhuman they had to simultaneously be “the composer, and riddle-reader, and redeemer of chance” (TSZ 113), while still trying to maintain the human factor that was a key component of the humanistic individual created by the Enlightenment and continued by transhumanism. The break with the natural order is especially noticeable in Leto II who takes on himself a nearly immortal existence in order to prevent humanity’s stagnation.

4.2. Leto’s “ecological” metamorphoses

Within Leto II we see how the choices of one person can affect everything surrounding him, and Herbert’s admonishments to the dangers of absolutism. Furthermore, we can distinguish a new type of evolution that crosses between species, the outcome of which offers different problems in defining not only what is human, but also posthuman. The scope of saving humanity is too big for humans and transhumans alike. This is achieved only by Leto’s extreme transformation from “pre-born” to posthuman, and the formulation of the Golden Path through his prescience and prophetic dream which also remind us of Zarathustra’s eternal recurrence. All this leads to a morphological transformation that opens the non-human debate. Leto II gained consciousness since before birth, and surpassed Paul's abilities by the time he was nine. He left his humanity behind partly by choice and as a result of the torture he endured when his grandmother, the Bene Gesserit Jessica, decided that forced repeated submergence in Melange was the only way to bring forth Leto's transformation. This was done in order to save humanity, which is a persisting pattern behind the motivations that lead to human enhancements in Dune.

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Leto’s metamorphosis highlights a problematic aspect in defining what is human, how to talk about the posthuman, and the complexities of the non-human. Bruno Latour argued that “the human form is as unknown to us as the nonhuman… it is better to speak of

(x)-morphism instead of becoming indignant when humans are treated as nonhumans and vice

versa” . This argument modulates the analysis of Leto II and the non-human, when in 20

Children of Dune we get a glimpse in the inner complexities of a possible posthuman on his

road to further transformations, and how this divides him from the rest of humanity. In my view, if both the human and the nonhuman are equally indecipherable, then a comparative analysis between what in Dune stands for human and what is defined as not, could offer a possible way to further this debate in the idiom of fiction. Leto II describes himself as “not a child…This is a child’s body; no doubt of that. But I am not a child” (CoD 135). He had the experience and knowledge of countless individuals since the dawn of time that composed his genetic ancestral memories. Leto’s solution to the problem of the multitude of personalities that made up his ancestral memories was daring “to search within”(115) and ride with the flow of personalities sharing his consciousness rather than against them. Since “the past-within cannot be relegated to the unconscious” (136), he became an amalgam of every personality inside him. From these arguments we can infer how Leto II thought of himself: something more than human, however at this point still closer to human (at least

psychologically) than not.

When a metamorphosis takes place, not even the ones who originated it can predict the results. One type of metamorphosis is seen in Leto’s transformation, which was

influenced by the need to create the Golden Path for humanity's survival. The drastic changes

Bruce Clarke, Posthuman Metamorphoses: Narrative Systems 3

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he undertook are a result of him believing that “if you want immortality then deny form. Whatever has form has mortality. Beyond what is formless is the immortal” (GED 582). This opened the path for the final part of the transformation. The argument he presents resonates the belief of the Bene Gesserit for the continuation of the thread of humanity through making long term decisions that can exist across centuries. However, differently from them, Leto II tries to undertake the saving of humanity all on himself. His way of executing long term plans is achieved by becoming immortal and losing human form. In Children of Dune, we see Herbert narrating Leto’s transformation, which is one of the most extreme forms of

metamorphoses of the Dune series:

The reflexive and circular subjectivity of his visions had turned inward upon his ancestry, forcing him to relieve portions of his Terranic past, the comparing those portions with his changing self. Already he recognised how far he’d drifted from something recognisably human…the membrane that covered him was no longer sandtrout, just as he was no longer human. Cilia had crept into his flesh, forming a new creature which would seek its own metamorphoses in eons ahead . (Herbert 21

505)

The passage of Leto’s metamorphoses is really interesting in showing a possible overcoming of the transhuman, and arguably even the posthuman. In this transformation it is not guaranteed the human will survive. However, for Leto II “the power to destroy a thing is the absolute control over it” (CD 514) and his absolute control over his human form and the need to overcome it in order to create the Golden Path, led to his destroying what he was in order to overcome his limitations. It is interesting to note that in Leto II the act of overcoming

Frank Herbert, Children of Dune 505

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his human limitations is realised by merging with the sandtrouts, one of the animals in Arrakis that is of key importance to the ecosystem of the planet as well as the formation of the Melange. In my view, here we see a vicious circle where humanity in order to advance psychologically, in a way, regresses physiologically back to the animalistic.

4.3. From non-human to human

We can see the differences in scale of “humanness” between the two metamorphoses of Dune only by comparing Paul and Leto II. Because of the Bene Gesserit's search to find humans among people by testing one’s reaction to pain, it serves well to compare the two changed/ evolved characters of Dune in order to see how their reaction to it defines them in light of Dune’s reigning definition of what is human. On one hand, we have Paul’s reaction to the excruciating pain of Gom Jabbar:

He sensed that he was breathing in gasps, tried to slow his breath and couldn’t. Pain!

His world emptied of everything except that hand immersed in agony, the ancient face inches away staring at him.

His lips are so dry he had difficulty separating them.

The burning! The burning!

He thought he could feel his skin curling back on that agonised hand, the flesh crisping and dropping away until only charred bones remained. (Herbert 10) 22

Frank Herbert, Dune 10

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Here we notice a reaction to pain that is human. Furthermore, we see a physiological description of a human biological being. A contrasting view is offered by Leto’s reaction after water fell on him accidentally:

At first drenching swept in from behind the sandtrout overlappings, he stiffened and curled into a ball of agony. Separate drives of sandtrout and sandworm produced a new meaning for the world pain. He felt that he was being ripped apart. Sandtrout wanted to rush to the water and encapsulate it. Sandworm felt the drenching wash of death. Curls of blue smoke spurted from every place the rain touched him. The inner workings of his body began to manufacture the true spice-essence. (Herbert 486) 23

In this passage there is no trace of the human biological aspect characteristic of Homo Sapiens. These two examples show a clear distinction between a human of higher abilities or a posthuman as Paul, and a being embodying thousands upon thousands of ancestral

memories which he can access and relive, and the physiological typicality of a colony organism where worm, sandtrout, and human coexist in a new form of entity such as Leto II. In him, the debate of the evolution of human abilities seems to shift into a debate of what is human and what is non-human, although, because of the conceptual meanings behind each term it is difficult to phrase it as such and categorise a character as belonging in the latter. If what is human is defined from physiology, then Leto II certainly changes to something non-human. However, if “mind, or consciousness, is viewed as the function of the self” (Gwaltney 34) then Leto II is one of the most stable individuals psychologically since he is the only one able to come to terms with his condition. This definition perfectly summarises the

Frank Herbert, God Emperor of Dune 486

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complexities of Leto II who in Dune is the only one able not to succumb to the internal and external problems of his existence. In light of this definition of selfhood, we see a

problematic aspect in many of the characters of Dune who struggle to ground their personalities in the flux of their ancestral memories.

I believe, the mind-body dichotomy represents its full complexities in the existence of Leto II, and that the human non-human debate should not stop at the physiological but should also be defined by inner psychological components. In the Dune saga we see different ways in which the problems of delineating the self arise: Paul is described as “a theatre of

processes… [unable to] escape the fear that he had somehow overrun himself, lost his position in time” (Dune Messiah 410). Another character which faces serious problems in defining herself is Alia Atreides who since before birth instantly “awaked to consciousness, her memory instantly absorbing the uncounted other-lives” (60). She continuously tried but failed to “strengthen her own personality against the onslaught of all the others” (CoD 79), until she became an Abomination: someone’s whose consciousness is hijacked by the multitude of personalities residing inside their ancestral memories. Only Leto turned his “first-hand access to human mistakes” (GED 458) into his biggest strength. If a human is defined by psychological stability and similitudes to other humans then it becomes difficult to define Leto II as non-human, even if he does not resemble a human biologically anymore.

In my view, however, humans are defined also by their humanness, or taking

decisions that we consider as having human-like attributes. In God Emperor of Dune, Herbert states that “the closer [Leto] came to being a sandworm, the harder he found it to make decisions which others would call inhuman. Once, he had done it with ease. As his humanity

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slipped away, though, he found himself filled with more and more human concerns” (459), which further shows how what is human is a fluid concept really difficult to define. In Dune we see that categorisations of any kind become difficult because everything continuously surpasses the expectations of the reader. The mind-body dichotomy manifests in Leto’s transformation into a being described as having:

A faceted silver-grey body…the beginnings of a sandworms ribbed section…the small protuberances which had once been feet and legs, one of them somewhat

shorter than the other…well defined arms and hands…and finale the cowled face with its pink skin…a ridiculous extrusion on such a body. (Herbert 122) 24

Nevertheless, if seen from the angle of psychological stability he is the most human character in the book.

In “Philip K. Dick’s Androids”, Aaron Barlow states P.K. Dick’s question “what can we say is human, when things humans make act as ‘we’ humans do” (77). In Dune, this question can be applied to the enhanced humans, and the seemingly non-humanity of Leto’s transformation which can be seen as an accidental causation of the breeding program in Dune. If being human is defined by non-physiological attributes, but by the Bene Gesserit’s definition of humans as beings going past animal instincts in order to help humanity, what is human can take unconventional forms. Leto II sacrificed himself to create his Golden Path and safeguard the creation of a future for humanity. He consciously chose what Paul was too scared to do, dissolving his consciousness into vector worms for all eternity. If humanity is

Frank Herbert, God Emperor of Dune, pp 122

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measured by our sacrifices for our fellow humans, Leto II is the most human of all the characters in Dune, even if physiologically non-human.  

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5. Conclusion

Elements of truth are crucial in enriching the appeal of fiction. In order to find the truth behind the fiction and what influenced Frank Herbert in his writing, this study investigated modern metamorphoses by highlighting the differences and similarities between

Transhumanism, Nietzsche’s Thus Spoke Zarathustra, and Frank Herbert's Dune Saga. This comparative ground opened the road for the discussion of the non-human. All our definitions regarding enhanced forms of humans are based on discussions on what a human is. Using philosophy as a battleground helps us internalise arguments and opinions which give

meaning to the way we see ourselves and our future. The concepts of overhuman, posthuman, and Dune’s Kwisatz Haderach were discussed by having as a starting point of this study an outlook on what is human which later led to raising questions about the non-human. These definitions might appear like umbrella terms without any concrete real-life significance, but some problems in our society require complex discussions. These problems can find

resolutions in the fictive theoretical world of novels such as the Dune Saga. Herbert builds up a discussion platform where troubling issues like the boundary between human and non-human are posed, even if not fully solved. In literature we find that monsters, creations, and metamorphoses of the imagination offer a more appealing way to approach difficult subjects. Hence, if we think of the metamorphoses of Dune, and the various identity problems faced by the characters there, as conceptual metaphors of real-life issues, in literature we might find a place where to argue about taxing themes that need resolving.

When talking about science fiction in connection to real life it is important to go past specific case terminology. As a result, the only case specific term used in this study has been that of the Kwisatz Haderach which represents a particular form of overcoming the human

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condition. In Transhumanism and in Nietzsche’s works, we see a positive generalisation of the overhuman and posthuman. The scope of this thesis has been limited to the theoretical discussion and analysis of the human non-human boundary. However, it would have been interesting to see how the analysis of the three evolved/ changed humans could affect real life issues in our society where some people might struggle to define themselves psychologically or physiologically. The analysis presented here could serve as the theoretical starting point that would aid the self-realisation of any person or group while dealing with identity or bodily transformations. In the loop of the mind-body dilemma, we saw how the most inhuman looking character, and the one who underwent the most drastic bodily metamorphoses, resulted in being the most human inside.

Furthermore, Herbert’s warning against absolutisms and the structure of Dune’s society could serve as a deterrent against elitism, since transhumanism has often been criticised for being an elitist philosophy. The outcome of Dune’s posthumans and how they affected their universe could serve as a warning for the search to enhance humanity and make assumptions on what would be better for it as a whole. This leads to another interesting topic of research in the future: how the division of the society affects the production and circulation of ideas. In my view, analysing what is human and how to enhance our status as such offers the perfect starting point for various debates on politics, philosophy, and connecting literature to our society.

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