Do you care,
men?
Examining the factors that influence men’s attitude
towards natural personal care products in Germany and
attitude’s impact on purchase intention.
MASTER THESIS WITHIN: Business Administration NUMBER OF CREDITS: 15 ECTS
PROGRAMME OF STUDY: International Marketing AUTHORS: Isabel Ambaum & Zeynep Demir TUTOR: Adele Berndt
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Master Thesis in Business Administration
Title: Do you care, men? Examining the factors that influence men’s
attitude towards natural personal care products in Germany and attitude’s impact on purchase intention.
Authors: Isabel Ambaum & Zeynep Demir
Tutor: Adele Berndt
Date: 2020-05-18
Key terms: Natural personal care products, male consumers, German market,
attitude, purchase intention
Acknowledgement
We, as the authors of this study, are using this opportunity to express our special appreciation and gratitude to everyone who supported us throughout the process of writing this Master Thesis.
We especially want to thank our supervisor Adele Berndt who guided us in the right direction and provided us with helpful advice and constructive criticism.
Furthermore, we would like to thank Maximilian Genrich and Robert Genrich for their valuable and inspiring feedback during the seminars.
Lastly, we would like to thank all respondents for filling out the online questionnaire as they made the conduction of this study possible.
Thank you very much.
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Abstract
Background: The growing consciousness of consumers towards buying products that contain mainly natural ingredients and do not harm the health and the environment drives the growth of the natural personal care market. Additionally, men nowadays care more about their image and self-presentation which lead to an increase of the natural personal care products offered for men. As the drug store market in Germany is highly competitive, marketers need to understand the factors influencing men’s purchase decision.
Purpose: The attitude of consumers is an elemental influence factor on purchase intention that could lead to the actual behaviour as it predicts the intention to purchase a product. Therefore, this thesis investigates the factors influencing men’s attitude towards natural personal care products and attitude’s impact on purchase intention, particularly in the German market. This has been done through the development of an own theoretical model whereas the main idea was taken from the TPB model. Afterwards, it was extended by factors that influence attitude which were identified through literature review.
Method: To meet the purpose of this study, data were collected through a quantitative online survey which generated 207 valuable responses. In order to analyse the relationships between the different variables, descriptive statistics, factor analyses, Pearson correlation analyses as well as linear and multiple regression analyses were used.
Conclusion: The findings of this study provide new insights about the predictors of attitude: German male consumers’ attitude towards natural personal care products is mainly predicted by their consciousness about the environment and subjective norms whereas health consciousness and product knowledge were identified to be no predictors. Moreover, the study confirmed attitude as a strong predictor for intention which is supported by the idea of the TPB model and findings in previous literature. The respondents of this study are environmentally conscious and are influenceable by others. Furthermore, they have an overall positive attitude towards natural personal care products and intent to some extent to purchase these products in the future. The study’s results provide a variety of theoretical and managerial implications as well as opportunities for future research.
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Table of Contents
1. Introduction ... 1
1.1 Background ... 1
1.2 Problem Definition and Purpose ... 2
1.3 Research Questions ... 3
1.4 Delimitations of the Study ... 3
1.5 Key Terms ... 4
1.5.1 Personal Care Products (PCPs) ... 4
1.5.2 Natural PCPs ... 4
1.5.3 Organic Products ... 4
1.5.4 Green Products ... 4
2. Literature Review ... 5
2.1 Personal Care Products (PCPs) ... 5
2.2 Natural PCPs ... 6
2.3 Certified Natural PCPs ... 7
2.4 Distribution in Germany ... 7
2.5 Attitudes ... 8
2.5.1 The Components of Attitudes ... 9
2.5.2 The Functions of Attitudes ... 9
2.5.3 The Attitude-Intention Relationship ... 10
2.6 Previous Research on Attitudes Towards PCPs ... 10
2.7 Components ... 14
2.7.1 Consumer Values ... 14
2.7.1.1 Health Consciousness (HC) ... 15
2.7.1.2 Environmental Consciousness (EC) ... 16
2.7.2 Subjective Norms (SN) ... 16 2.7.3 Product Knowledge (PK) ... 17 2.7.4 Attitude ... 18 2.7.5 Intention ... 18 2.8 Theoretical Framework ... 19
3. Methodology ... 21
3.1 Research Philosophy ... 22 3.2 Research Approach ... 22 3.3 Research Methodology ... 23 3.4 Research Purpose ... 24iv
3.5 Research Strategy ... 24
3.6 Time Horizons ... 25
3.7 Measurement Instrument ... 25
3.8 Population and Sampling ... 28
3.9 Data Analysis ... 29 3.10 Limitations of Methodology ... 30 3.11 Reliability ... 30 3.12 Validity ... 31 3.13 Pilot Testing ... 31 3.14 Ethical Considerations ... 31
4. Findings ... 33
4.1 Response Rate ... 334.2 Profile of the Respondents ... 33
4.3 Reliability Analysis ... 34
4.4 Descriptive Statistics ... 35
4.4.1 Health Consciousness (HC) ... 36
4.4.2 Environmental Consciousness (EC) ... 36
4.4.3 Subjective Norms (SN) ... 37
4.4.4 Product Knowledge (PK) ... 38
4.4.5 Attitude ... 39
4.4.6 Intention ... 40
4.4.7 Summary ... 40
4.5 Factor Analysis of Consumer Values ... 41
4.6 Hypotheses Testing ... 45
4.6.1 Correlation Analysis ... 45
4.6.2 Multiple Regression Analysis ... 46
4.6.3 Linear Regression Analysis ... 50
5. Discussion ... 52
5.1 Evaluation of the Theoretical Framework ... 52
5.2 The Relationships Between the Variables ... 53
5.2.1 The Relationship Between HC and Attitude ... 53
5.2.2 The Relationship Between EC and Attitude ... 54
5.2.3 The Relationship Between SN and Attitude ... 54
5.2.4 The Relationship Between PK and Attitude ... 55
5.2.5 The Relationship Between Attitude and Intention ... 56
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6. Conclusion ... 58
6.1 Research Purpose and Research Questions ... 58
6.2 Theoretical Implications ... 59 6.3 Managerial Implications ... 59 6.4 Societal Implications ... 60 6.5 Limitations ... 61 6.6 Future Research ... 62
References ... 64
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Figures
Figure 1. Types of Cosmetics ... 5
Figure 2. The Cognitive Hierarchy Model of Human Behaviour ... 14
Figure 3. Theoretical Framework ... 19
Figure 4. The Research Onion ... 21
Figure 5. Theoretical Framework ... 45
Figure 6. Theoretical Framework ... 52
Figure 7. Revised Theoretical Framework ... 57
Tables
Table 1. Previous Research on Attitude Towards PCPs ... 12Table 2. Summary of Hypotheses ... 20
Table 3. Measurement Items ... 27
Table 4. Excluded Responses ... 33
Table 5. Respondents Profile ... 34
Table 6. Reliability of the Scales after Deleted Item ... 35
Table 7. Descriptive Statistics of Health Consciousness ... 36
Table 8. Descriptive Statistics of Environmental Consciousness ... 37
Table 9. Descriptive Statistics of Subjective Norms ... 38
Table 10. Descriptive Statistics of Product Knowledge ... 39
Table 11. Descriptive Statistics of Attitude ... 39
Table 12. Descriptive Statistics of Intention ... 40
Table 13. Summarising Descriptive Statistics of the Constructs ... 41
Table 14. KMO and Bartlett's Test ... 42
Table 15. Rotated Component Matrix of Consumer Values ... 43
Table 16. Pearson Correlation Analysis for HC ... 44
Table 17. Pearson Correlation Analysis for the Constructs ... 46
Table 18. Pearson Correlation Analysis for the Independent Variables ... 47
Table 19. Collinearity Statistics ... 47
Table 20. Model Summary ... 48
Table 21. Multiple Regression Analysis ... 49
Table 22. Summary of H1a, H1b, H2, and H3 ... 49
Table 23. Linear Regression Analysis ... 50
Table 24. Summary of H4 ... 50
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Appendix
Appendix 1. Survey in English ... 71
Appendix 2. Survey in German ... 78
Appendix 3. Geographical Distribution ... 85
Appendix 4. Frequency Tables of Constructs ... 86
Appendix 5. Pearson Correlation Matrix for Consumer Values ... 97
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1. Introduction
The introduction provides significant background information about the German personal care market, the rising trend for natural personal care products, and the importance of men within this segment. Having reviewed the most relevant aspects, the
problem and purpose of this study are defined. Furthermore, this section includes the
research questions, delimitations, and the definition of the most commonly used key terms.
1.1 Background
External appearance and body shape are important factors for people’s self-identity which can be seen in the increase in beauty product consumption (Shilling, 2007). Shilling (2007) indicates that, in addition to this development, consumers are becoming more concerned with the negative impact of industries on the physical environment. The growing consciousness of consumers towards buying products that contain mainly natural ingredients and do not harm the health and the environment is a key factor that drives the growth of the natural personal care market (Research and Markets, 2018).
Additionally, factors such as technological advancement, globalisation, and consumers’ increased purchasing power lead to a growth of the market for personal care products (in the following PCPs) (Mordor Intelligence, 2019). An annually market growth by 11.1 % is expected on a global scale until 2026, thus, the trend continues (Research and Markets, 2018).
The market for natural PCPs in Germany becomes especially interesting as the country has the biggest market in Europe and the second biggest in the world after the US (KOSMETIK international, 2019). Over the last decade, the revenue of the German natural PCP market has more than doubled to 1.26 bn € in 2018 (Redaktion FWHK, 2019). This development is supported by PCP manufacturers as well, as they responded to the market demand by offering natural PCPs. The German drug store dm, as an example, adapted early to the trend and offers affordable natural PCPs under their own exclusive private label alverde. Today, alverde is the best-selling certified natural PCP brand in Germany (dm-drogerie markt, n.d).
However, as there are no standardised criteria for the term “natural” related to PCPs in Europe, it gets difficult for consumers to understand the credibility of a product and understand the differences regarding the ingredients compared to conventional PCPs
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(European Commission, 2015; GfaW, 2017). Therefore, certification labels become important for consumers to rely on (haut.de, 2020). The leading certification labels in Germany are NATRUE, BDIH, ECOCERT, and Demeter (Ökolandbau, 2019).
Male consumers today are more conscious about beauty and hygiene products and make their own shopping decisions when purchasing personal care and styling products (Mordor Intelligence, 2019; Statista, 2017). Previously, women purchased PCPs for men as well while buying their own care products (Alreck & Settle, 2002). As men care more about their image and self-presentation, the demand for PCPs for men is growing. In Germany, the range of PCPs offered for men has increased making the market more competitive and offering space to businesses for future growth (Köneke, 2019). Private labels in Germany try to target especially men by offering natural PCP lines adapted to men’s needs (dm-drogerie markt, n.d.).
The attitude of consumers is an elemental influential factor on intention that could then lead to behaviour because it predicts the intention to purchase a product (Ghazali, Soon, Mutum, & Nguyen, 2017). As companies adapt their marketing strategies to consumer choices, it becomes important to understand which factors could lead to the development of a positive attitude towards natural PCPs for men in Germany. Therefore, the identification of these factors becomes substantial.
1.2 Problem Definition and Purpose
Companies can feel the impact of changing consumption attitudes of their consumers. Therefore, it becomes relevant to consider the important factors affecting the market (Wagner, 1997). Consequently, the products’ ingredients become crucial to the consumers (Deutsches Verpackungsinstitut, 2018). This trend inter alia applies for the category PCPs as well. Therefore, natural PCPs are, for instance, a reply to the increased awareness of consumption as the ingredients differ from conventional PCPs.
The trend towards consuming natural, organic, and green products – these terms repeatedly appear in the context of changing consumption and are often used as synonyms – actually started within the food industry. Consumer behaviour within this industry is already explored quite well by several studies (Al Mamun, Mohamad, Yaacob, & Mohiuddin, 2018; Connor & Douglas, 2001; Vermeir & Verbeke, 2006). However, with the growing demand for PCPs, more researchers started to investigate the purchase
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intention of consumers regarding organic skin care products. Thereby, the focus was mainly on female consumers in Asian countries or the United States (Chin, Jiang, Mufidah, & Noer, 2018; Hsu, Chang, & Yansritakul, 2017; Ma, Rau, & Guo, 2018; Yeon Kim & Chung, 2011). Taking particularly the analysis of the attitude and a male target group into account, Konrad and Polziehn (2016) suggested that positive attitudes towards natural PCPs among men exist. Thereby, a positive attitude has the most important impact on the intention to purchase a product (Ghazali et al., 2017; Yeon Kim & Chung, 2011). As former literature lacks knowledge regarding the intention to purchase PCPs, the factors which drive attitude play a crucial role and are the main focus of this research. So far, the natural PCP market in Germany, especially for male consumers, has not been investigated although previous studies have shown that men are getting more conscious about their image and self-presentation and that the categories beauty and hygiene become more relevant (Mordor Intelligence, 2019). Thus, men become more selective regarding PCPs which increased the market for PCPs for men (Euromonitor, 2019; Köneke, 2019; Mordor Intelligence, 2019; Statista, 2017). Moreover, the German PCP market is the biggest in Europe and still fast-growing but was not considered in past research (KOSMETIK international, 2019).
This thesis aims to fill the identified gap by investigating the factors that influence men’s attitude towards natural PCPs and attitude’s impact on purchase intention, particularly in the German market.
1.3 Research Questions
RQ1: Which factors influence the attitude of German male consumers concerning natural PCPs in Germany?
RQ2: To which extent does the attitude impact the purchase intention of German male consumers concerning natural PCPs?
1.4 Delimitations of the Study
The delimitations of this study need to be considered. As the focus lies on the examination of the effects of various factors on attitude when purchasing natural PCPs, the actual behaviour of the consumers will not be covered. Additionally, the target group is male consumers living in Germany. Other target groups as well as care products, e.g. decorative
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cosmetics for women, are omitted. The authors will focus on specific product groups in the personal care segment, namely hair care and toiletries.
1.5 Key Terms
1.5.1 Personal Care Products (PCPs)
PCPs are also known under the term cosmetics. They include hair care, skin care, decorative cosmetics, toiletries, sun care, and fragrances (Global Insight, 2007).
1.5.2 Natural PCPs
The term “natural” in the case of PCPs is not protected in contrast to the products which are certified and labelled (GfaW, 2017). The most important labels used in the German market are NATRUE, BDIH, ECOCERT, and Demeter (Schreier, 2018). The label indicates that the product does not contain synthetic fats, e.g. silicones, paraffins, fragrances, and dyes, and was developed without genetic technology and animal testing (Ökolandbau, 2019). In addition, the ecological compatibility of each product plays an important role (Ökolandbau, 2019). In this study, the focus will be on the certified natural PCPs.
1.5.3 Organic Products
Organic products only contain organic ingredients (Ökolandbau, 2019). 1.5.4 Green Products
The focus of green products is on the environment as they benefit the environment in every sense (Simons, 2018). The term green indicates that the product is safe for the health, the environment, or eco-friendly (Kim, 2017; Sparks & Shepherd, 1992; Varshneya, Pandey & Das, 2017).
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2. Literature Review
The purpose of this chapter is to review the existing literature and theories which examined the attitude towards PCPs. After a definition of natural PCPs, a discussion of
certification labels and the distribution of PCPs in Germany is presented.Then, the focus
is on the theoretical background of attitudes and previous research on attitude towards PCPs. Based on that, the theoretical framework for this thesis is developed. It emphasises the influencing factors on men’s attitude towards natural PCPs and attitude’s impact on intention.
2.1 Personal Care Products (PCPs)
Europe has the largest market for PCPs, also known under the term “cosmetics”, whereby Germany has the biggest national market (Cosmetics Europe, 2019). PCPs are used by consumers on a daily basis and provide them with functional as well as emotional benefits (Cosmetics Europe, 2019). The industry can be divided into six major segments, namely skin care, hair care, fragrances, sun care, toiletries, and decorative cosmetics (Global Insight, 2007). In this study, only the selected product categories hair care and toiletries will be covered as highlighted in Figure 1.
Figure 1. Types of Cosmetics
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Male consumers today are more dynamic, curious, and care more about their image and self- presentation (Mordor Intelligence, 2019). Additionally, a higher purchasing power has led to more consciousness regarding hygiene and beauty (Mordor Intelligence, 2019). The largest market for PCPs for men is the US, yet, the PCP industry for men is booming globally for several product segments (Mordor Intelligence, 2019).
The most used product categories by men besides showering products are aftershave, shaving gel, or foam which are part of the product segment toiletries (IfD Allensbach, 2019). Additionally, men demand more beard care products as having a beard became more popular in the past years (Euromonitor, 2019). Therefore, as presented in Figure 1, this study will only include the most used product categories by men in Germany, namely products of the segments hair care and toiletries, omitting the product categories foot care and oral hygiene.
2.2 Natural PCPs
As an important exporter of cosmetics globally, the EU regulates the production of PCPs to ensure consumer health and environmental safety (European Commission, n.d). One major instrument is the regulation (EC) No 1907/2006 which concerns the registration, evaluation, authorisation, and restriction of chemicals, also known as REACH (European Parliament, 2006). According to this regulation, a natural substance is “unprocessed or processed only by manual, mechanical, or gravitational means, by dissolution in water, by flotation, by extraction with water, by steam distillation or by heating solely to remove water, or which is extracted from air by any means” (European Parliament, 2006, p. 61). For this study, the term natural will be used related to PCPs; natural PCPs contain mainly natural ingredients and no silicones, synthetic fats, petroleum-based raw materials, oils as well as colours and fragrances (GfaW, 2017).
However, authors of current literature use various terms to describe natural products whereby especially the terms organic and green are present. The term green is often used when referring to consumers who purchase organically produced products that are safe for the health, the environment, or eco-friendly (Kim, 2017; Sparks & Shepherd, 1992; Varshneya, Pandey & Das, 2017; Wagner, 2002; Yang, 2017). However, studies refer to organic products as green products as well, using the term interchangeably (Varshneya, Pandey & Das, 2017; Wagner, 2002). The term green indicates that the ingredients of the products are organic and natural without the use of synthetics (Hsu, Chang & Yansritakul,
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2017; Wagner, 2002). After evaluating past literature, it became clear that the terms organic, green, and natural refer to similar contexts. As a result, the authors decided to use only the term natural for this study.
2.3 Certified Natural PCPs
There are no standardised criteria for natural cosmetics in Europe in general (European Commission, 2015). Thus, consumers in Germany get confused with the number of different labels and terms which makes reliable certificates for consumers essential (haut.de, 2020). In Germany, four natural cosmetic labels are commonly used that guarantee the authenticity of a product and are a reliable source of information (Ökolandbau, 2019). They are NATRUE, BDIH, ECOCERT, and Demeter (haut.de, 2020). These labels indicate that the product does not contain synthetic fats, e.g. silicones, paraffins, fragrances, and dyes, and was developed without genetic technology and animal testing (Ökolandbau, 2019). In addition, the ecological compatibility of each product, e.g. environmentally friendly and resource-saving manufacturing processes, the optimal degradability of raw materials, and the economical use of recyclable packaging materials play an important role (Ökolandbau, 2019).
In summary, in this thesis, natural PCPs refer to products of the umbrella segments hair care and toiletries that contain mainly natural substances whereby in the segment toiletries foot care and oral hygiene will be omitted (see Figure 1). Thereby, the terms organic, green, and natural carry the same meaning in the context of PCPs. As previously discussed, the focus will be on certified products only.
2.4 Distribution in Germany
PCPs in Germany are distributed through various channels: Almost 80 % are sold in drug stores and the remaining share is sold through perfume stores, supermarkets, department stores, and grocery retail (IRI, 2019). The largest drug store chains in Germany are also owned by German companies, namely, Rossmann, dm, Müller, and Budnikowsy (Retail-Index, 2018).
Conventional PCPs are offered by brands like NIVEA MEN, L’ORÉAL MEN EXPERT, Balea MEN, and Florena Men which were the most popular brands for male consumers in 2018 (VuMA, 2018). Among these brands, Balea MEN is the only private label that is available exclusively at the drug store dm. Thus, the popularity ranking shows
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that there is a demand for private, affordable labels in Germany as well besides global mass brands for conventional PCPs like NIVEA and L’ORÉAL (VuMA, 2018). Conventional product lines for men, owned by private labels, are already heavily present, however, the demand for natural PCPs increased. The certified natural PCP brand alverde, for example, started the product line alverde MEN, addressing and focussing specifically on male consumers who care about natural ingredients of the products they use daily (dm-drogerie markt, n.d).
Prior studies examined the lack of action of consumers although they had a positive attitude towards green products and considered price and availability of the product to be possible influencing factors (Joshi & Rahman, 2015; Moser, 2015). As Germany has the largest national market for PCPs in Europe, it is assumed that consumers do not avoid the products due to lack of availability (Cosmetics Europe, 2019). Additionally, private labels are popular consumer choices that offer a good price-quality ratio making natural PCPs affordable as well (Ökolandbau, 2019). Therefore, it assumed that natural PCPs are available and affordable for everyone. Thus, the factors price and availability will not be covered as influencing factors of attitude in this study.
2.5 Attitudes
Ajzen (1991) defines an attitude as a “degree to which a person has a favourable or unfavourable evaluation or appraisal of the behavior in question.” (p. 188). This means that beliefs about an object are formed by associations with particular attributes and that each belief then links the behaviour to this attribute (Fishbein, 1975). The more positive the evaluation, the more likely the consumer will perform the behaviour (Ajzen, 1991). Zhang, Fishback, and Dhar (2007) generalise the definition of attitudes as the lasting and general evaluation of oneself, other people, objects, advertisements, or issues.
Moreover, attitudes are not only linked to the evaluation but also to possible consequences that can occur when performing the behaviour (Ajzen, 2002). Attitudes can be formed through classical conditioning, instrumental conditioning or complex cognitive processes (Solomon, Bamossy, Askegaard, & Hogg, 2013).
Concerning the intention to purchase a product, attitude is the most important predictor (Ghazali et al., 2017). The purchase intention as the outcome of the attitude should then
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result in the behaviour, the actual purchase of the product (Ajzen, 1991). Therefore, it is necessary to investigate attitudes in more detail.
2.5.1 The Components of Attitudes
Attitudes are a complex system existing of beliefs, feelings, and actions towards an object (Ajzen, 1980). Therefore, most researchers identified three components of attitudes, also known as the ABC model of attitudes: Affect, behaviour, and cognition (Solomon et al., 2013). The affect component links to the feelings of the consumer towards an object whereas the behaviour component is related to the intention to perform a certain behaviour. Further, the cognition component refers to the consumers’ beliefs and what they think (Rosenberg & Hovland, 1960, as cited in Konrad & Polziehn, 2016). It must be taken into account that the importance of each component varies depending on the context, the object as well as on the motivation of the person (Solomon et al., 2013). Based on the three components, the hierarchy of effects model was developed to explain the relative impact of the components (Solomon et al., 2013). Thereby, three different routes occur: The cognitive information processing is the standard route where the cognitive component is followed by the affect leading into behaviour. The behavioural learning process is also described as the low involvement route because here, the consumer performs a certain behaviour first and feels and thinks about it afterwards. The last route is the hedonic or experiential one in which the feelings of the consumer occur first, followed by the cognitive component which then results in the behaviour (Solomon et al., 2013).
2.5.2 The Functions of Attitudes
The functions of attitudes were developed by the psychologist Daniel Katz to explain the reason of why people hold particular attitudes (Katz, 1960). Following his approach, attitudes serve as a function for consumers and can explain their social behaviour. It is important to note that two people can have the same attitude because of different reasons (Solomon et al., 2013).
Katz (1960) identified four different functions in total whereas more than one can be served but mostly one is dominant. First, the utilitarian function is based on the principle of reward and punishment. A consumer develops a positive attitude towards a product if this consumer likes it (Solomon et al., 2013). The second function is the value-express
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function which often applies to lifestyle products. The attitudes are thereby not based on the objective benefits but on the symbolic values and what the product says about the person (Solomon et al., 2013). Third, the ego-defensive function describes the formation of attitudes to protect the person from external threats or internal feelings (Solomon et al., 2013). The knowledge function applies when attitudes are formed because there is a need to organise and structure information. This often applies when consumers buy new or unknown products (Solomon et al., 2013).
2.5.3 The Attitude-Intention Relationship
Following Ajzen (1980), the intention to perform a behaviour is inter alia determined by the attitude towards the behaviour. In turn, the intention leads to the actual behaviour afterwards whereby the intention has as a mediating role between attitude and behaviour (Ajzen, 1980). These relationships are presented in the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) which was developed by Ajzen in 1991. It suggests that an attitude towards a behaviour, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control together form the intention towards a behaviour which then leads to the actual behaviour. The TPB model is often used when analysing the influencing factors on consumer behaviour and consumption patterns (Castellanos Lozano & Minkova, 2019; Ghazali et al., 2017; Kleine Stüve & Strauß, 2016; Sukato & Elsey, 2009; Yadav & Pathak, 2016; Yeon Kim & Chung, 2011).
Former literature states that the attitude towards a particular behaviour is the strongest predictor of intention compared to subjective norms and perceived behavioural control (Ajzen, 1991; Ghazali et al., 2017). However, a positive attitude does not always and necessarily result in behavioural intention (Ajzen, 1980; Vermeir & Verbeke, 2006). Against this background, it is necessary to investigate attitude in more detail by examining the influencing factors on it. Afterwards, its influence on purchase intention can be drawn.
2.6 Previous Research on Attitude Towards PCPs
In order to investigate what drives consumers’ attitude, concretely, what drives men’s attitude towards natural PCPs, previous research in this context was reviewed. Thereby, it was important to choose studies which examined the different factors influencing the
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attitude with regard to conventional, organic, green, or natural PCPs. Qualitative as well as quantitative studies were considered.
The authors needed to find factors that are identified to be influencing factors on attitude to create the theoretical framework afterwards. It is important to filter the factors impacting the attitude for every study and to consider whether they in fact drive the attitude. Afterwards, the authors categorised the predicting factors in order to find out which categories are most commonly used.
In total, twelve studies were chosen to serve for the theoretical framework in this study as shown in Table 1. Information on each study concerning the theoretical framework, the factors that drive the attitude, and the findings are given. The results are presented and discussed afterwards.
12 Table 1. Previous Research on Attitude Towards PCPs
Author(s) and Year
Theoretical
Framework Factors Influencing Attitude Findings
Castellanos & Minkova (2019) Combination of Tarkiainen and Sundqvist’s model and modified TPB by Yeon Kim & Chung Health consciousness Environmental consciousness Appearance consciousness Subjective norms
Despite the positive overall attitude (all influencing factors are positive) and intention of the sample towards such products, the general lack of awareness associated with the ethical makeup is evidenced; key influences are store environment, availability, and brand loyalty.
Chan (2001) Modified TPB Man-nature orientation Collectivism Ecological knowledge Ecological affect
Man-nature orientation, collectivism and ecological affect have a significant influence on attitude.
Ghazali et al. (2017) Extension of TPB by including perceived value dimensions as the antecedents of attitude
Health value Safety value Social value Hedonic value Environmental value
Product knowledge value
Besides the social value, all other value constructs (health, safety, hedonic and environmental) predict the attitude towards rebuying organic PCPs. Also, better product knowledge about organic PCPs would lead to more positive attitudes. Jaiswal & Kant (2018) Model is based on ‘attitude-intention-behaviour’ and analysed by using structural equation modelling (SEM) Environmental concern Perceived consumer effectiveness Perceived environmental knowledge
Green purchase intention was significantly and directly driven by the attitude towards green products,
environmental concern, and perceived consumer effectiveness. Perceived environmental knowledge was found to have an insignificant effect on attitude and intention in this study.
Kim & Seock (2009) Influencing factors on females’ attitude towards purchase of natural beauty products Environmental consciousness Health consciousness Beauty products shopping behaviours Perceived self-competence in purchase decisions
The results showed that health and environmental consciousness significantly influenced the importance placed on beauty product attributes.
Kleine Stüve & Strauß (2016) Modified TPB model by Yeon Kim & Chung
Health consciousness Environmental consciousness Appearance consciousness
The consumer value environmental consciousness, as well as trust, as an aspect of perceived behavioural control, influence the intention towards buying organic shampoo; the consumer values health and appearance consciousness, as well as the factors price and availability, do not show a significant influence.
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Author(s) and Year
Theoretical
Framework Factors Influencing Attitude Findings
Konrad & Polziehn (2016) Own framework: Variables as influencing factors on attitude Personal variable Socio-cultural variable Marketing variable
In conclusion, the combination of the socio-cultural and personal variable increases the likelihood of positive attitudes towards natural care products among men of Generation Y. Lee (2009) Effects of various factors on green purchasing behaviour Environmental concern Perceived seriousness of environmental problems Perceived environmental
responsibility Peer influence
Self-identity in
environmental protection
The top three predictors of green purchasing behaviour among Hong Kong male adolescent consumers were peer influence, environmental concern and self-identity in environmental protection. Mostafa (2009) Effects of psychographic and cognitive factors on green consumption Altruism Environmental concern Environmental knowledge Scepticism towards environmental claims Environmental attitudes
Green consumption is correlated with altruistic values, environmental concern, environmental knowledge, favourable attitudes and positive intentions to buy green products. Sukato & Elsey (2009) Extended TRA approach Beliefs in product attributes
Self-image Beliefs in products and self-image influence men's attitude regarding buying skin care products.
Yadav & Pathak (2016) Extended TPB model Subjective norms Perceived behavioural control Environmental concern Environmental knowledge
Attitude, subjective norms and perceived behavioural control are significantly related to purchase intention. Environmental concern and environmental knowledge significantly influence attitude as well as intention.
Yeon Kim & Chung (2011) Extended TPB model Health consciousness Environmental consciousness Appearance consciousness
The results indicate that environmental consciousness and appearance consciousness positively influence attitude towards buying organic PCPs whereas health
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2.7 Components
When investigating the factors that drive consumers’ attitude towards PCPs as shown in Table 1, the factors Health Consciousness (HC), Environmental Consciousness (EC), Subjective Norms (SN), and Product Knowledge (PK) are used the most often (Castellanos Lozano & Minkova, 2019; Chan, 2001; Ghazali et al., 2017; Jaiswal & Kant, 2018; Kim & Seock, 2009; Kleine Stüve & Strauß, 2016; Konrad & Polziehn, 2016; Lee, 2009; Mostafa, 2009; Sukato & Elsey, 2009; Yadav & Pathak, 2016; Yeon Kim & Chung, 2011). Thus, it is already shown that these factors predict the attitude of all consumers towards PCPs. Therefore, and in order to include the most commonly used predictors of attitude into the theoretical framework, the authors decided to consider these four factors as the influencing factors for men’s attitude towards natural PCPs. They are explained in more detail in the following.
2.7.1 Consumer Values
Consumer values play a crucial role in marketing (Holbrook, 1999). Holbrook (1999) defines consumer values as the evaluation of an object, e.g. a product, by some subject, e.g. a consumer, using single, stable beliefs (Rokeach, 1973, as cited in Vaske & Donnelly, 1999). This process and the importance of values in marketing are shown in the hierarchy model of human behaviour in Figure 2 which was developed by Fulton, Manfredo, and Lipscomb in 1996.
Figure 2. The Cognitive Hierarchy Model of Human Behaviour
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According to this model, a small number of values create the basis for numerous behaviours through different steps. First, the values lead to basic beliefs which help to create value orientations (Vaske & Donnelly, 1999). Second, the value orientations result in attitudes and norms which then lead to behavioural intention. In the last step, the actual behaviour is reached. With every step, the situation gets more specific and the consumer’s opinion is more likely to change (Vaske & Donnelly, 1999). Considering the different steps reflected in the hierarchy of effects model, the model strongly corresponds with the idea of other studies (Ajzen, 1991; Fauzi & Abdullah Hashim, 2015; Yeon Kim & Chung, 2011).
The importance of consumer values on attitudes is reflected in past research by considering different dimensions of the values. Ghazali et al. (2017), for instance, name the values health, safety, social, hedonic, environmental, and product knowledge whereas Yeon Kim and Chung (2011) identify appearance, health, and environmental consciousness as the three fundamental values that serve as prerequisites for a positive attitude. As reviewed in Table 1, the consumer values that are most frequently used in the context of consumers’ attitude towards PCPs are health consciousness and environmental consciousness. Thus, this study applies both values as influencing factors on men’s attitude towards natural PCPs and investigates whether they in fact influence the attitude. Both values are explained in the following sections.
2.7.1.1 Health Consciousness (HC)
HC refers to the degree of readiness to undertake health actions which means that it engages people to behave healthily (Becker, Maiman, Kirscht, Haefner, & Drachman, 1977; Schifferstein & Oude Ophuis, 1998). Due to the increasing concern about health and environment in general, consumers become interested in what they put on their bodies and not just in (Kim & Seock, 2009). Thereby, the ingredients of PCPs have become crucial when considering whether a product is safe and healthy for the skin and body (Johri & Sahasakmontri, 1998). For natural PCPs, this means that the products do not contain synthetic fats such as silicones and paraffins, fragrances, and dyes and were developed without genetic technology (Ökolandbau, 2019).
Former studies already showed that HC has an impact on attitude towards organic PCPs (Ghazali et al., 2017) and natural beauty products (Kim & Seock, 2009). For men care, health is one of the main factors that drive the consumption of these products (Sturrock
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& Pioch, 1998). However, no former research investigated the impact of HC on the attitude of men towards natural PCPs in Germany. Therefore, the first hypothesis arouses. H1a: Health Consciousness (HC) positively impacts German men’s attitude towards natural PCPs.
2.7.1.2 Environmental Consciousness (EC)
Environmental problems have become an important issue and the global current state of the environment is seen critically (Haytko & Matulich, 2008; Umweltbundesamt, 2019). Further, the environment is closely linked to consumers’ consumption which raises the consciousness about purchase behaviour to improve the environment (Fontenelle, 2013; Moisander, 2007). This fact is reflected in a study by the German Federal Environment Agency in 2019: Two of three people think that it is essential to protect the environment (Umweltbundesamt, 2019).
Moreover, the consciousness about human health caused by environmental problems increases (Haytko & Matulich, 2008). Certified natural PCPs try to contribute to this consciousness by promising the ecological compatibility of each product concerning the manufacturing process, the used resources, and the packaging (Ökolandbau, 2019). Hence, the consciousness about the environment has an impact on consumers’ attitude towards organic PCPs which is already examined in several studies (Ghazali et al., 2017; Kim & Seock, 2009; Yadav & Pathak, 2016; Yeon Kim & Chung, 2011). Yadav and Pathak (2016) and Mostafa (2009) have furthermore shown that consciousness, as well as the knowledge of environmental issues, impact the attitude. Given this background, the impact of EC, as part of the consumer values, on men’s attitude towards natural PCPs in Germany will be examined in the present study.
H1b: Environmental Consciousness (EC) positively impacts German men’s attitude towards natural PCPs.
2.7.2 Subjective Norms (SN)
Besides the consumer values, SN also impact consumers’ attitude. SN are related to the social pressure that the consumer experiences when choosing to perform or not to perform a certain behaviour (Ajzen, 1991). The decision-making is influenced by the consumer’s perception of what people who are important to the consumer like friends and family, want the consumer to do or not to do (Ajzen, 1980, 2002; Park, 2000). The perception
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may reflect the opinion of the important others but not necessarily (Ajzen, 1980). In this context, a man would have a positive attitude towards natural PCPs if he thinks that a friend or family member wants him to buy these products. The purchase thereby reflects the actual behaviour.
Previous research has shown that SN can impact different things, e.g. the TPB model suggests that it can directly affect intentions (Ajzen, 1991). The literature, that was considered by the authors in this study concerning PCPs, mainly states that SN do not directly influence the purchase intention rather than the attitude towards a behaviour. According to Chan (2001), SN influence the attitude towards green product purchasing. Moreover, it also influences the attitude towards natural care products for men (Konrad & Polziehn, 2016), ethical make-up (Castellanos Lozano & Minkova, 2019), and organic PCPs (Ghazali et al., 2017). No former study examined the impact of SN on men’s attitude towards natural PCPs in Germany which leads to the second hypothesis.
H2: Subjective Norms (SN) positively impact German men’s attitude towards natural PCPs.
2.7.3 Product Knowledge (PK)
Ghazali et al. (2017) found out that PK is the main driver for attitude towards organic PCPs. Ajzen (1980) already confirmed that previous knowledge impacts the attitude towards a certain behaviour. Thus, the authors decided to include PK as an influencing factor on German men’s attitude towards natural PCPs.
The difference between high and low PK is that “Consumers who have high product knowledge rely on intrinsic product characteristics to judge product quality and function” (Wang & Hwang, 2001, as cited in Ghazali et al., 2017, p. 156). In contrast, for consumers with low PK, the extrinsic cues, e.g. price and brand, are more important (Wang & Hwang, 2001, as cited in Ghazali et al., 2017). There exist three types of PK: Subjective knowledge, objective knowledge, and experienced-based knowledge (Park, Feick, & Mothersbaugh, 1992). Subjective knowledge refers to the self-perception of what the consumer knows. It is not about the objective knowledge the consumer has about a product but about what the consumer thinks he knows about the product. This type of knowledge can serve as a motivational factor to search for product information (Park et al., 1992). In contrast, objective knowledge is seen as the ability factor to increase the
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efficiency in product research. This type of knowledge is related to the objective measure of factual memory content (Park et al., 1992). In the context of PK of natural PCPs, this means that the subjective knowledge refers to the knowledge the consumer thinks he has about natural PCPs whereas the objective knowledge is the actual knowledge he has about natural PCPs, e.g. ingredients and production. The third type of PK is the experience-based one where the knowledge lies in previous product experiences, for instance, the product usage or the search for a product (Park et al., 1992).
In the present case, the authors refer to the subjective and experienced-based knowledge when taking PK into account. The reason is that the objective knowledge cannot be measured in this study using a quantitative approach. Hence, the third hypothesis arouses. H3: Product Knowledge (PK) positively impacts German men’s attitude towards natural PCPs.
2.7.4 Attitude
As already mentioned above, purchase intention is based on the attitude and therefore important to investigate (Ajzen, 1991). Previous research states that a positive relationship between attitude and purchase intention for organic PCPs (Ghazali et al., 2017; Yeon Kim & Chung, 2011) and for the consumption of green products exists (Jaiswal & Kant, 2018; Mostafa, 2009).
However, a positive attitude does not necessarily result in a positive intention (Carrington, Neville, & Whitwell, 2010). Therefore, this study examines the factors influencing men’s attitude towards natural PCPs and attitude’s impact on purchase intention.
H4: A positive attitude towards buying natural PCPs leads to a positive intention for German men.
2.7.5 Intention
As stated in 2.5.3 The Attitude-Intention Relationship and following past research, the intention to perform a certain behaviour is strongly predicted by attitude. Thereby, intention is defined as the willingness to perform this behaviour (Ajzen, 2002). Following the idea of the TPB, the intention results in performing the actual behaviour (Ajzen, 2002).
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In this study, the behavioural intention is viewed as men’s intention to buy natural PCPs. It is investigated which factors impact men’s attitude towards natural PCPs concerning their willingness to buy these products. This is important in order to draw a relationship between attitude and intention.
2.8 Theoretical Framework
The four predicting factors for attitude are identified after considering previous research and were discussed in detail in section 2.7 Components as well as the term attitude and intention and their connection. Thus, the described components lead to the following theoretical framework which will serve as the basis for this study.
Figure 3. Theoretical Framework
Source: Own figure
For convenience reasons all hypotheses that were constructed in this chapter are summarised in Table 2.
20 Table 2. Summary of Hypotheses
Hypotheses
H1a Health Consciousness (HC) positively impacts German men’s attitude towards natural PCPs.
H1b Environmental Consciousness (EC) positively impacts German men’s attitude towards natural PCPs.
H2 Subjective Norms (SN) positively impact German men’s attitude towards natural PCPs.
H3 Product Knowledge (PK) positively impacts German men’s attitude towards natural PCPs.
H4 A positive attitude towards buying natural PCPs leads to a positive intention for German men.
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3. Methodology
The purpose of this chapter is to provide the reader with information about the research process and the belonging decisions which were taken. Therefore, the onion model was chosen as it presents a good overview of the different components of research methodology and how it is approached in social research. In particular, the decision on the research philosophy, approach, and methodology as well as on the particular strategy suitable for the present study, is identified. Moreover, data collection and data analysis are explained in more detail.
Figure 4. The Research Onion
Source: Saunders, Lewis, & Thornhill, 2016, p. 124
According to Saunders et al. (2016), the research onion model builds a solid foundation of research and defines the process clearly. Further, it guides the authors on how to collect data and how to choose the right technique and analysis procedures in order to answer the research questions (Saunders et al., 2016).
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3.1 Research Philosophy
The first layer of the model is used to define the research philosophy. The philosophical approach helps to understand why research is conducted and refers to “a system of beliefs and assumptions about the development of knowledge” (Saunders et al., 2016, p. 124). Furthermore, it impacts the following steps of the methodology such as the research approach, methodological choice, and strategy (Saunders et al., 2016).
The five major philosophies are positivism, critical realism, interpretivism, postmodernism, and pragmatism which all differ in terms of the assumptions ontology, epistemology, and axiology (Saunders et al., 2016). Ontology describes how researchers see the nature of the research topic whereas epistemology refers to knowledge and what can be considered as legitimate knowledge. The values of the researcher and study respondents are reflected in axiology assumptions (Saunders et al., 2016).
The nature of positivism is highly related to scientific quantitative research methods (Burns, 2008). It assumes that human surroundings are objective and that their social reality is observable (Burns, 2008; Saunders et al., 2016). Thus, positivism focuses on scientific empirical data analysis unimpacted by human interpretation (Saunders et al., 2016). Scientific research methods are characterised through control, operational definitions, replication, and hypotheses testing (Burns, 2008). Positivist researchers might use secondary data and theoretical frameworks of past research to form hypotheses. Moreover, positivism is used to produce generalisations out of the findings (Saunders et al., 2016), therefore, it is the best fitting approach.
As this study investigates German men’s attitude towards natural PCPs, the authors developed their own model by considering several influencing factors which were used in previous research as reviewed in chapter 2. Literature Review. Thus, the formulated hypotheses derived from the authors’ own model and should subsequently be verified or falsified. Verifying or falsifying a model is also a characteristic of positivism (Leavy, Spencer, Pryce, & Walsh, 2014).
3.2 Research Approach
The second layer consists of the three research approaches deduction, induction, and abduction. Deduction indicates that theory and research are related to each other (Bryman, 2015). In contrast, induction describes forming a theory based on collected and analysed
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data (Saunders et al., 2016). When combining the two mentioned approaches, the third approach, abduction, arises. Within this approach, data are collected first to build a framework. Afterwards, the framework is again tested through a second round of data collection (Saunders et al., 2016).
For this study, the deductive approach is applied for several reasons. First, due to its characteristics, positivism is most likely to consist of a deductive method (Saunders et al., 2016). Second, theoretical concepts are tested through hypotheses derived from the chosen theoretical background of the research (Bryman, 2015; Robson, 2011). Therefore, data are collected to evaluate the theoretical concept by verifying or falsifying the hypotheses (Saunders et al., 2016). Moreover, large samples are needed to generalise the results of the correlations between the variables which is another characteristic of the deductive approach (Saunders et al., 2016).
This research developed a theoretical framework first and collected data based on it afterwards. Thus, a deductive approach applies. Another reason is that the hypotheses, which derived from the framework, are tested to examine the relationship between the influencing factors on men’s attitude and their actual attitude towards natural PCPs. Further, the relationship between attitude and purchase intention is investigated as well.
3.3 Research Methodology
The third layer of the onion model implies six methodologies (Saunders et al., 2016). They arise out of either quantitative or qualitative methodologies in combination with single, combined, or mixed methods (Saunders et al., 2016). Qualitative methodology is typically applied for researches with an interpretivism philosophy and inductive approach. Thereby, non-numerical data are collected (Saunders et al., 2016). In contrast, for research with a quantitative nature, numerical data are collected. Quantitative methods are frequently applied within the positivism philosophy with a deductive approach as in the case for the present study (Bryman, 2015). This methodology further allows the measurement and analysis of possible causal relationships between variables from an objective point of view (Welman, 2005). Moreover, a quantitative analysis consults a larger number of potentially valuable respondents whereas qualitative research relies on a small sample of participants (Morgan, 2017).
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As the purpose of the thesis is to draw relationships between the influencing factors on men’s attitude towards natural PCPs and their attitude, as well as between their attitude and their purchase intention, a quantitative methodology is the suitable choice. The aim is to build upon the gained knowledge of other researchers and to apply it to men’s attitude towards natural PCPs in the German market.
Concerning the data collection, a mono-method technique was chosen due to time constraints (Saunders et al., 2016).
3.4 Research Purpose
The purpose of the research goes along with the nature of the research. Saunders et al. (2016) identified four different research purposes, namely exploratory, descriptive, evaluative, and explanatory. The exploratory research usually applies within interpretivism philosophies and studies the nature of the problem by giving deep insights (Saunders et al., 2016). By contrast, the descriptive purpose focuses on the description of a certain problem. Besides, the effectiveness of a particular phenomenon such as a marketing campaign is examined by the evaluative purpose (Saunders et al., 2016). The explanatory purpose is used to investigate a problem by explaining the correlations between variables. As this study aims to explain the relationships between dependent and independent variables, which is discussed in more detail in 3.5 Research Strategy, the purpose of the research is consequently explanatory (Saunders et al., 2016).
3.5 Research Strategy
The fourth layer consists of different research strategies depending on which methodology was chosen. Literature refers to the research strategy also as the research method (Bryman, 2012). The choice of the strategy is guided by the research questions and links to the layers of the onion model which were discussed before (Saunders et al., 2016). In total, eight strategies exist from which the researcher can choose.
A survey was conducted, concretely a self-administered online questionnaire, to find answers to ‘what’ are the influencing factors on men’s attitude towards natural PCPs (Saunders et al., 2016). By this, the relationships between dependent and independent variables can be identified (Saunders et al., 2016). With regard to the variables in the present study, the factors HC, EC, SN, and PK are independent variables. These in turn possibly influence the dependent variables. In the present case, attitude is, for one thing,
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a dependent variable as it is influenced by the independent factors HC, EC, SN, and PK. On the other hand, attitude is the independent variable influencing the dependent variable purchase intention.
The self-administered online questionnaire was created with the online survey tool Qualtrics (see Appendix 1 & 2). Afterwards, the link was sent out by the authors via social media platforms, e-mail, and Whatsapp which means that the respondents completed the questionnaire on their own. Thus, the researchers are not involved in this process and cannot influence the respondents in any way (Saunders et al., 2016). Another advantage of an online questionnaire is that it is easy to customise and can be spread controlled because it is assumed that the chosen contacts read their messages regularly and also usually respond to them (Easterby-Smith, 2018; Saunders et al., 2016). The questionnaire was distributed online as the internet is commonplace and internet usage in Germany is especially high (Statista, 2020). Thus, it is assumed that everyone has access to the Internet (Easterby-Smith, 2018). Furthermore, many respondents can be reached over a large geographical distance and a large sample offers the authors the chance to generalise their results (Saunders et al., 2016). Moreover, the automated data input into the statistical program IBM SPSS saves time and reduces input errors (Easterby-Smith, 2018).
3.6 Time Horizons
Finally, the fifth layer implies two options concerning the time horizon of the data collection: The cross-sectional and the longitudinal (Saunders et al., 2016). On the one hand, by using a cross-sectional time horizon, the data is collected at a single point of time (Bryman, 2015). This is also known as the snapshot time horizon (Saunders et al., 2016). On the other hand, the measurement of changes and developments over a longer time period can be done by using a longitudinal time horizon (Bryman, 2015; Saunders et al., 2016).
As with most research projects, the present study is time-constrained. Therefore, the cross-sectional time horizon applies.
3.7 Measurement Instrument
The research purpose of this study is explanatory in order to be able to analyse the connection between the variables in the theoretical framework. Conducting self-completed questionnaires, known as surveys, are appropriate to use for descriptive or
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explanatory research (Saunders et al., 2016). Therefore, an online survey only available in German (see Appendix 2) was created and distributed via Qualtrics. It is important to ensure that the respondents perceive the survey as professional and trustworthy to get a higher response rate as well as truthful responses. Thus, the authors used a simple layout when designing the survey whereby the first page of the survey included an introduction page with the name of the university, a short description of the purpose of the survey as well as information regarding GDPR. Moreover, a picture of one natural PCP for men was integrated into the design.
The wording of the questions was kept simple, without the use of difficult terms, to ensure that it is comprehensive for the respondents (Buglear, 2012).
For a better overview of the survey, the authors structured the respective questions into eight parts. First, questions regarding the demographics were asked followed by two questions regarding the usage of PCPs in general. In this section respondents who were not male, who do not currently live in Germany or who have never lived in Germany were sorted out through the usage of filter questions. Additionally, not using PCPs or not purchasing them for oneself were questions that, when answered with no, led to a termination of the survey. Afterwards, the survey continued with the main constructs and their underlying items, namely PK, the consumer values HC and EC, SN, attitude, and intention. A detailed list of the constructs and the items that were used for the measurement of each construct can be found in Table 3. To ensure that the respondents understood the terms used in the survey, the authors provided definitions of the terms PCPs, certified natural PCPs, and environmentally friendly products. Additionally, only the main constructs and their underlying items had answer options ranging from “strongly agree (1)” to “strongly disagree (6)” on a 6-point Likert scale.
27 Table 3. Measurement Items
Construct Scale Item Cronbach’s
Alpha Source
Health
Consciousness (HC)
• I consider myself very health conscious.
• I think that I take health into account a lot in my life.
• I continually ask myself whether something is good for me. • I think that the use of natural
PCPs has a health-promoting effect.
• Natural PCPs and a health-conscious lifestyle match well.
0.83 Bauer et al., 2013; Schifferstein & Oude Ophuis, 1998 Environmental Consciousness (EC) • Natural PCPs are environmentally friendly products.
• Natural PCPs are better for the environment than conventional PCPs.
• Natural PCPs and
environmentalism match well. • Natural PCPs are manufactured
in an environmentally responsible way.
• Natural PCPs are manufactured in a sustainably responsible way.
0.94 Bauer et al., 2013; Ghazali et al., 2017
Subjective Norms (SN)
• My family members think it is a good idea for me to buy natural PCPs.
• Most people who are important to me think that I should buy natural PCPs.
• My friends think I should buy natural PCPs.
• Most people whose opinions I care about think I should use natural PCPs.
0.74 Chen, 2007; Hsu, Chang & Yansritakul, 2016
28 Product Knowledge
(PK)
• I am familiar with natural PCPs. • I know the benefits of natural
PCPs.
• I know the ingredients of natural PCPs.
• I do not know anything about natural PCPs.
• I have great purchasing experience with natural PCPs.
Not reported
Ghazali et al., 2017
Attitude • Buying natural PCPs is bad. • Buying natural PCPs is
beneficial.
• Buying natural PCPs is desirable.
• Buying natural PCPs is wise. • Buying natural PCPs is pleasant.
Not reported
Ghazali et al., 2017
Intention • I intend to buy natural PCPs in the future.
• Next time I shall need a PCP, I will buy a natural one.
• I intend to actively look for a natural PCP in a shop.
• I consider buying a natural PCP. • It is unlikely that I will purchase a natural PCP in the near future.
Not reported Ghazali et al., 2017; Kim and Chung, 2011; Kleine Stüve & Strauß, 2016
3.8 Population and Sampling
Ideally, a quantitative analysis should be done with probability sampling to gain representative and generalisable results of a target group (Saunders et al., 2016). However, due to the limited time period and financial resources, it was not feasible to distribute the survey among all male consumers in Germany.
Therefore, non-probability sampling, particularly self-selection sampling, was used to conduct the analysis and reach the target group whereby the respondents were taking part voluntarily (Saunders et al., 2016; Welman, 2005). Although the authors did not have control over the sample, they were able to complete the study through self-selection sampling. Both authors of this study are from Germany, thus, they tried to distribute the survey in their existing networks, first, mainly through family and friends, acquaintances,
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old colleagues, and existing networks at their previously attended universities. Respondents were also asked to distribute and share the online survey with their contacts which is known as snowball sampling (Saunders et al., 2016). The survey was sent out via email and distributed through social media channels including WhatsApp, Facebook, Instagram, and LinkedIn. This enabled the authors to recruit more respondents and made the snowball sampling more convenient for existing respondents as well (Cooper, 2011).
3.9 Data Analysis
Through the creation of the online survey with Qualtrics, the collected data could be stored digitally before being imported directly into SPSS for further analysis. The variables included in this research were dichotomous, nominal, and ordinal (Saunders et al., 2016).
First, to evaluate the generated data and to understand the characteristics of the scales, descriptive statistics such as frequencies, means and standard deviations were used. These statistics helped to understand the nature and distribution of the responses (Bryman, 2015). Responses with missing answers were at this point removed. Afterwards, the standard deviations, as well as the means of the items, were reviewed. As some underlying items of the constructs were phrased negatively to help to prevent response bias, they had to be recoded into a new variable with the correct scale to continue with the analysis (Pallant, 2016).
Further, a reliability analysis by means of Cronbach’s alpha was conducted to assess the internal consistency of the items within the constructs (George & Mallery, 2016). This helps to identify whether all items of the constructs HC, EC, SN, PK, attitude, and intention are homogenous and reflect the construct as they should. It measures the robustness of the scales, delivering consistent results (Cooper, 2011).
Afterwards, an explanatory factor analysis was carried out to analyse the factor loadings of the underlying items (Pallant, 2016): First, for the two constructs HC and EC that form the consumer values and second, for the remaining constructs SN, PK, attitude, and intention. The factor analysis should assure the intercorrelations between the items that measure the same factor (Burns, 2008). It was used to evaluate the scales and the underlying items before the conduction of a multiple regression analysis (Pallant, 2016).
