Information Technology for Learning and Acquiring of Work Knowledge among Production Workers

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Faculty of Arts and Sciences thesis 69

Information Technology for Learning and Acquiring of

Work Knowledge among Production Workers

by

Fredrik Ericsson

Submitted to the Faculty of Arts and Sciences at Linköping University in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Licentiate of Philosophy

Department of Computer and Information Science Linköpings universitet

SE-581 83 Linköping, Sweden Linköping 2003

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Department of Computer and Information Science Linköpings universitet

SE-581 83 Linköping, Sweden

Information Technology for Learning and Acquiring of

Work Knowledge among Production Workers

by

Fredrik Ericsson

November 2003 ISBN 91-7373-763-1 Faculty of Arts and Sciences 69

ISSN 1401-4637 ABSTRACT

This thesis is about information technology for learning and acquiring of work knowledge among production workers in a manufacturing company. Focus is on production or factory workers in workplaces where the job workers do have a routine character. The thesis builds upon a research project aiming at developing an information system for learning and acquiring of work knowledge among production workers. The system manages manufacturing related operational disturbances and production workers use the system to learn from operational disturbances in such a way that workers do the job grounded on knowledge of prior disturbances. The thesis covers intervention measures aiming at integrating learning and work by developing an information system. The thesis presents and elaborates on the process and outcome of such a development. The empirical work in this thesis is based on an action case study research approach.

The thesis proposes three interrelated aspects concerning use of information technology for learning and acquiring work knowledge among production workers. Such aspects are the (a) work practice, (b) learning and acquiring of work knowledge and (c) information systems. These aspects must be considered as a coherent whole to seek to integrate learning and work (i.e. to create a learning environment). The work practice sets the scope for workplace learning (to what extent learning takes place at work). The scope for learning is related to for example, machinery and equipment, management and the organizing principle of work. Learning and acquiring of work knowledge is related to in what ways workers learn about the job. Information systems must be in alignment with the practice and the ways workers learn and acquire work knowledge.

This work has been supported by the Knowledge Foundation’s programme for promoting research and advanced education in topics of IT at Sweden’s new universities and university collages.

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Foreword

Information systems development is a discipline within the faculty of arts and sciences at Linköping University. Information systems development is a discipline studying human work with developing and changing computer-based information systems in organisational settings. It includes theories, strategies, models, methods, co-working principles and tools concerning information systems development. Different development/change situations can be studied as planning, analysis, specification, design, implementation, deployment, evaluation, maintenance and redesign of information systems and its interplay with other forms of business development. The discipline also includes the study of prerequisites for and results from information systems development, as e.g. studies of usage and consequences of information systems.

This work, Information Technology for Learning and Acquiring of Work Knowledge among

Production Workers, is written by Fredrik Ericsson at Örebro University. He is also a member

of research group VITS. He presents this work as his licentiate thesis in information systems development, Department of Computer and Information Science, Linköping University.

Linköping, October 2003

Göran Goldkuhl Professor

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Doctoral dissertations in information systems development

1. Karin Axelsson (1998) Metodisk systemstrukturering - att skapa samstämmighet mellan informationssystemarkitektur och verksamhet

2. Stefan Cronholm (1998) Metodverktyg och användbarhet - en studie av datorstödd metodbaserad systemutveckling

3. Anders Avdic (1999) Användare och utvecklare - om anveckling med kalkylprogram

4. Owen Eriksson (2000) Kommunikationskvalitet hos informationssystem och affärsprocesser

5. Mikael Lind (2001) Från system till process – kriterier för processbestämning vid verksamhetsanalys

6. Ulf Melin (2002) Koordination och informationssystem i företag och nätverk

7. Pär J. Ågerfalk (2003) Information Systems Actability: Understanding Information Technology as a Tool for Business Action and Communication

8. Ulf Seigerroth (2003) Att förstå och förändra systemutvecklingsverksamheter – en taxonomi för metautveckling

Licentiate theses in information systems development

1. Owen Eriksson (1994) Informationssystem med verksamhetskvalitet - utvärdering baserat på ett verksamhetsinriktat och samskapande synsätt

2. Karin Pettersson (1994) Informationssystemstrukturering, ansvarsfördelning och användarinflytande - en komparativ studie med utgångspunkt i två informationssystem-strategier

3. Stefan Cronholm (1994) Varför CASE-verktyg i systemutveckling? - En motiv- och konsekvensstudie avseende arbetssätt och arbetsformer

4. Anders Avdic (1995) Arbetsintegrerad systemutveckling med kalkylprogram

5. Dan Fristedt (1995) Metoder i användning - mot förbättring av systemutveckling genom situationell metodkunskap och metodanalys

6. Malin Bergvall (1995) Systemförvaltning i praktiken - en kvalitativ studie avseende centrala begrepp, aktiviteter och ansvarsroller

7. Mikael Lind (1996) Affärsprocessinriktad förändringsanalys - utveckling och tillämpning av synsätt och metod

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9. Tommy Wedlund (1997) Att skapa en företagsanpassad systemutvecklingsmodell - genom rekonstruktion, värdering och vidareutveckling i T50-bolag inom ABB

10. Boris Karlsson (1997) Metodanalys för förståelse och utveckling av system-utvecklingsverksamhet - analys och värdering av systemutvecklingsmodeller och dess användning

11. Ulf Melin (1998) Informationssystem vid ökad affärs- och processorientering - egenskaper, strategier och utveckling

12. Marie-Therese Christiansson (1998) Inter-organisatorisk verksamhetsutveckling - metoder som stöd vid utveckling av partnerskap och informationssystem

13. Fredrik Öberg (1998) Object-oriented frameworks - a new strategy for CASE tool development

14. Ulf Seigerroth (1998) Integration av förändringsmetoder - en modell för välgrundad metodintegration

15. Bengt EW Andersson (1999) Samverkande informationssystem mellan aktörer i offentliga åtaganden - en teori om aktörsarenor i samverkan om utbyte av information

16. Pär J. Ågerfalk (1999) Pragmatization of information systems - a theoretical and methodological outline

17. Karin Hedström (2000) Kunskapsanvändning och kunskapsutveckling hos verksamhetskonsulter - erfarenheter från ett FoU-samarbete

18. Göran Hultgren (2000) Nätverksinriktad förändringsanalys - perspektiv och metoder som stöd för förståelse och utveckling av affärsrelationer och informationssystem

19. Ewa Braf (2000) Organisationers kunskapsverksamheter - en kritisk studie av "knowledge management"

20. Henrik Lindberg (2000) Webbaserade affärsprocesser - möjligheter och begränsningar 21. Benneth Christiansson (2000) Att komponentbasera informationssystem - Vad säger teori och praktik?

22. Per-Arne Segerkvist (2001) Webbaserade imaginära organisationers samverkansformer – Informationssystemarkitektur och aktörssamverkan som förutsättningar för affärsprocesser 23. Stefan Holgersson (2001) IT-system och filtrering av verksamhetskunskap – kvalitetsproblem vid analyser och beslutsfattande som bygger på uppgifter hämtade från polisens IT-system

24. Per Oscarson (2001) Informationssäkerhet i verksamheter - begrepp och modeller som stöd för förståelse av informationssäkerhet och dess hantering i verksamheter

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25. Johan Petersson (2002) Lokala elektroniska marknadsplatser – informationssystem för platsbundna affärer

26. Fredrik Karlsson (2002) Meta-method for Method Configuration – A Rational Unified Process Case

27. Lennart Ljung (2003) Utveckling av en projektivitetsmodell – om organisationers förmåga att tillämpa projektarbetsformen

28. Britt-Marie Johansson (2003) Kundkommunikation på distans – en studie om kommunikationsmediets betydelse i affärstransaktioner

29. Fredrik Ericsson (2003) Information Technology for Learning and Acquiring of Work Knowledge among Production Workers

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Acknowledgements

First and foremost I would like to thank my supervisors Prof. Göran Goldkuhl and Dr. Anders Avdic for thoughtful and constructive comments on this work.

I would also like to thank all personnel at Linde Maskiner AB for your contribution to this work.

I would also like to thank my colleagues at Örebro University. You make research fun!

Finally, I would like to thank Thomas who not only put up with me during this writing process but who also in the last minute took the time to read and comment on the final version.

Stockholm, October 2003

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Content

Part I Background... 1

1 Introduction ... 3

1.1 Background ... 3

1.1.1 Motivation ... 3

1.1.2 Characterizing Manufacturing Workplaces ... 5

1.2 Aim of Research and Object for Study ... 7

1.2.1 Aim of Research... 7

1.2.2 Learning Environments in Manufacturing Workplaces ... 8

1.3 Demarcations... 10

1.4 Stakeholders ... 10

1.5 Thesis Outline and Reading Instructions ... 10

2 Research Design... 13

2.1 Reviewing Aim of Research and Object for Study ... 13

2.2 Research Approach ... 13

2.3 Qualitative Research ... 14

2.4 Research Project... 14

2.5 The Case’s Relevancy ... 15

2.6 Research Method... 16

2.7 Action Case Study Research ... 16

2.8 Data Collection... 17

2.8.1 Focal Areas... 18

2.8.2 Method for Data Collection... 19

2.9 Data Analysis ... 24

3 Central Concepts ... 27

3.1 The Notion of Work Practice ... 27

3.2 The Notion of Knowledge... 29

3.3 The Notion of Learning... 31

3.4 The Notion of Information Technology based Information Systems ... 34

3.5 Chapter Summary... 36

Part II The Manufacturing Workplace... 37

4 The Manufacturing Workplace ... 39

4.1 The Company ... 39

4.2 Production Workers’ Situation of Work ... 39

4.3 The Production ... 40

4.3.1 Setters and Operators ... 43

5 Learning and Acquiring Work Knowledge... 47

5.1 Work tasks (activities) and Machinery and Equipment ... 47

5.2 Objects for Learning... 50

5.3 Learning and Acquiring of Work Knowledge... 51

6 Information Technology for Learning and Acquiring Work Knowledge ... 55

6.1 Objects for Explicit Learning Support ... 55

6.2 Errors in Manufacturing ... 58

6.3 Systematic Support to Handle Errors in Manufacturing ... 60

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IV

6.3.2 Classifying Errors... 61

6.3.3 Valuing Errors (Processing and Distributing Errors)... 62

6.3.4 Error Assessment and Handling Situations... 65

6.4 Developing Information System Support for Errors in Manufacturing ... 66

6.4.1 Development Approach... 66 6.4.2 Development Process ... 67 6.4.3 Development Tracks ... 68 6.5 The System... 78 6.5.1 User Groups... 78 6.5.2 Registering Errors ... 80 6.5.3 Prioritizing Errors... 81

6.5.4 Searching and Retrieving Errors ... 81

Part III Learning and Acquiring Work Knowledge in Context ... 87

7 Manufacturing Work Practices... 89

7.1 Manufacturing- and Learning Activities ... 89

7.2 The Manufacturing Work Practice and Learning... 89

8 Production Workers’ Learning at Work... 95

8.1 Variants of Workplace Learning ... 95

8.1.1 Workplace Learning on an Overall Level ... 96

8.1.2 Workplace Learning on an Error Experiencing Level ... 98

8.2 The Routine Character of Work vs. Learning ... 100

8.3 Learning and Work Knowledge Acquiring Activities ... 102

8.3.1 Learning by Working ... 102

8.3.2 The Outcome of Learning ... 105

8.3.3 Acquiring, Experiencing and Handling Errors... 106

9 Information Technology for Production Workers’ Learning at Work... 113

9.1 Information Technology for Workplace Learning ... 113

9.2 Developing Information Systems for Workplace Learning ... 117

9.2.1 Stabilization and Materialization of Concepts ... 117

9.2.2 Prototyping... 118

9.2.3 Worker Participation ... 119

9.2.4 System Use and Acceptance ... 119

9.3 Information Technology for Explicit Learning... 120

Part IV Creating Learning Environments... 123

10 Concepts in Creating Learning Environments in Manufacturing Workplaces ... 125

10.1 Knowledge and Learning, Information Systems and the Manufacturing Work Practice ... 125

10.2 Learning and Acquiring of Knowledge in Manufacturing Workplaces... 126

10.3 The Rationale and Conditions for Learning... 127

10.4 Information Technology based Information Systems for Learning in Manufacturing Workplaces... 128

10.5 Information Systems Properties to Facilitate Learning and Acquiring of Work Knowledge ... 129

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10.7 Future Work ... 130

References ... 133

Figures

Figure 1-1 Control panels for two hydraulic presses ... 5

Figure 1-2 Activities running hydraulic presses ... 6

Figure 1-3 The scope for learning and knowledge sharing among production workers... 7

Figure 1-4 Learning among production workers... 9

Figure 2-1 Deduction, induction and abduction (amended from Alvesson and Sköldberg, 1994)... 13

Figure 2-2 Time span of the research project... 15

Figure 2-3 Object for analysis (amended from Alvesson and Berg, 1988)... 17

Figure 2-4 Focal areas ... 19

Figure 2-5 Levels of analysis ... 25

Figure 3-1 A generic model of work practice (Goldkuhl and Röstlinger, 2002b) ... 28

Figure 3-2 Levels of knowledge... 31

Figure 3-3 The experiential learning cycle (model) (amended from Kolb, 1984)... 33

Figure 3-4 Information systems for learning... 35

Figure 4-1 An automatic, hydraulic and excenter press... 40

Figure 4-2 A four-step operation... 41

Figure 4-3 Production... 43

Figure 4-4 Production workers situation of work ... 44

Figure 5-1 Operating an automatic and hydraulic press ... 48

Figure 5-2 Setters' work activities in mounting presses and overseeing the workplace ... 49

Figure 5-3 Objects for learning ... 51

Figure 5-4 Acquiring knowledge of work... 52

Figure 6-1 Objects for ‘explicit’ learning support ... 56

Figure 6-2 Sources for learning and acquiring work knowledge ... 56

Figure 6-3 Workers' knowledge in relation to the company’s businesses (amended from Ericsson and Avdic, 2002) ... 58

Figure 6-4 Classes of errors (amended from Ericsson and Avdic, 2002) ... 60

Figure 6-5 Valuing Errors’ impact on the company’s business (Ericsson and Avdic, 2002) .. 62

Figure 6-6 Valuing errors’ impact on the company’s business on the basis of relevance (Ericsson and Avdic, 2002)... 63

Figure 6-7 Error relevance diagram (amended from Ericsson and Avdic, 2002) ... 64

Figure 6-8 Development process... 68

Figure 6-9 Development tracks ... 69

Figure 6-10 Prototype version 0.1... 70

Figure 6-14 Login... 79

Figure 6-15 Menu... 79

Figure 6-16 Registering errors ... 80

Figure 6-17 Searching errors... 81

Figure 6-18 Retrieving errors –view as table ... 82

Figure 6-19 Retrieving errors –view as form ... 83

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VI

Figure 6-21 Error report ... 84

Figure 7-1 The manufacturing work practice... 92

Figure 8-1 Workplace- and work task experience ... 96

Figure 8-2 Routine character of work tasks relative to work situation ... 100

Figure 8-3 Varity of 'one and the same' artifact ... 101

Figure 8-4 Learning by working ... 105

Figure 8-5 Acquiring, experiencing and handling errors ... 108

Figure 9-1 information technology for workplace learning ... 115

Figure 9-2 Symbolic representation and conceptualization of errors ... 116

Figure 9-3 Stabilization and materialization of information systems artifacts ... 118

Figure 10-1 Relations between the work practice, learning and information systems ... 125

Figure 10-2 The manufacturing work place concerning artifacts and activities ... 127

Figure 10-3 Workplace and information system alignment... 129

Tables

Table 2-1 Data collection ... 19

Table 3-1 Data, information and knowledge... 30

Table 4-1 Articles, operations and presses... 41

Table 5-1 Learning situations... 53

Table 6-1 Error data ... 64

Table 6-2 Usage situations ... 65

Table 6-3 Project and development setting ... 69

Table 7-1 The Manufacturing work practice... 92

Table 8-1 Variants of learning and acquiring work knowledge on an overall level ... 97

Table 8-2 Workplace learning on an error experiencing level relative to different types of control issues ... 99

Table 8-3 Acquiring, experiencing and handling errors ... 107

Table 8-4 Experiencing, handling and acquiring errors on tools ... 110

Table 9-1 Workers control over the development process... 119

Examples

Example 1-1 Managing hydraulic presses ... 5

Example 4-1 Producing an article ... 41

Example 5-1 Set up (mounted) presses’ construction regulates operators’ activities... 48

Example 5-2 Setters' work activities in mounting presses and overseeing the workplace ... 49

Example 6-1 Error sources... 57

Example 6-2 Error relevance measurement ... 63

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1 Introduction

This thesis is about learning in manufacturing companies. The thesis covers development of information systems for learning and acquiring work knowledge among production workers. Focus is on production or factory workers in workplaces where the job workers do have a routine character. The purpose of this chapter is to present the motives behind the thesis and to explain what the thesis is about.

1.1 Background

This section covers the background to the thesis. The background covers motives behind the thesis and a characterization of production workers’ workplaces in manufacturing companies. Production workers’ workplaces are characterized by an example of production workers’ work. Depict production workers’ workplace by an example is a way to make the subject under scrutiny clear.

1.1.1 Motivation

Early year 2000, researchers from the Department of Informatics at Örebro University and practitioners from a Swedish manufacturing small and medium-sized enterprise (SME1) got together to organize a research project. The project commenced by assessing how information technology can support production workers’ job. Several alternatives emerged and ended with: Manage information about production important for the company’s daily operations to secure commitments to customer. Important information was identified as information about production workers’ use of machinery and equipment in daily operations. The aim of the project was to facilitate production workers’ on the job learning and acquiring of work knowledge about errors in manufacturing (operational disturbances) due to inaccurate use of machinery and equipment by developing an information system2.

The motives behind the project and this thesis are based on the following observations: (a)

manufacturing companies have not been subject to the steep increase in attention to learning and knowledge in organizations; it is a lack of attention to production or factory workers, (b) commonplace learning on the job and knowledge in daily operations and everyday work is important, (c) developing information systems for learning and acquiring work knowledge among production workers must be in alignment with the way workers learn on the job and acquire work knowledge, the way the work is organized (in doing work activities), and the workplaces’ physical environment.

Manufacturing companies have not been subject to the steep increase in attention to learning and knowledge in organizations (compared to other branches, e.g. service branches in the knowledge intensive business services sector). Ahanotu (1998) questions if organizational learning theories apply to production workers. Much of the organizational learning thinking has been devoted to workers traditionally thought of as professionals and there is no plan for extending the benefits of the knowledge intensity of work to production workers (ibid). Further, the focus on most research on organization learning has at large been about limited segments of organizations such as management (Ellström, 1999).

A traditional way to think about manufacturing is that manufacturing consists of a production workforce, which adheres to strict commands. Production workers primary task on the job is to create products not to learn and acquire knowledge about that task that changes

1_{The company can be categorized as a small and medium-sized enterprise on the basis of the 96/280/EC:}

Commission Recommendation of 3 April 1996 concerning the definition of small and medium-sized enterprises. Official Journal L 107, 30/04/1996 P. 0004–0009.

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IT for Learning and Acquiring of Work Knowledge among Production Workers

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focus from doing the job (with the exception of the learning and knowledge required to do the job). Much of the manufacturing thinking usually model knowledge as flowing into (and defining) production, but rarely is knowledge modeled as flowing out (Ahanotu, 1988). In that sense, it is a conflict between creating products and creating knowledge in manufacturing and a need to strive for a balance between product creating activities and knowledge creating activities.

Learning at work or on the job (workplace learning) is important for business (Järvinen and Poikela, 2001). A working environment that supports learning and acquiring of work knowledge causes positive effects on business. Everyday work activities make contributions to the development of individuals’ work knowledge (Billet, 2000). To make manufacturing workplaces into effective learning environments is to weigh product creating activities and knowledge creating activities against each other relative to the costs and benefits such balancing attracts. In that sense, it is important to consider ways of organizing work that reduces or even make impossible the learning that happens at work in making work tasks ever more standardized and routine (cf. Ericsson, 2001; Järvinen and Poikela (2001).

Research on workplace learning often focuses on intervention measures aimed at improving the performance of organizations and workers (Järvinen and Poikela, 2001). According to Järvinen and Poikela (2001) should learning at work be an improvement to the performance of the employee, group and the organization. In that sense, should research on workplace learning study learning on the job as three simultaneous processes, i.e. as an (a)

individual-, (b) group- and (c) organizational learning process (ibid.). Production workers’

learning and acquiring of work knowledge is linked to lines in organizing work on a group and organizational level in a way that the working environment (physically and organizationally) can make or not make learning happen at work (see Ericsson, 2001).

Developing information technology based information systems for learning and acquiring work knowledge must fit the individual worker, group and organization. An information system must be in alignment with the workplace learning the system is to support. Learning is a human capability that can be acknowledged in different ways. Production workers’ learning capabilities can be acknowledged by organizing work in a way that it supports learning. Information technology is a tool extending human capabilities, e.g. a tool for communication and to process and store records of some kind (see Wyssusek, et al., 2002).

Developing information systems to extend production workers’ learning capabilities should fit production workers’ learning capabilities; learning capabilities that are acknowledged for in the way work is organized, i.e. to be sensitive toward production workers (see Ericsson and Avdic, 2003). The fit between information systems and production workers’ job is not to only account for present ways of organizing work. Developing information systems bring about new situations at work, e.g. new usage and learning situations and work knowledge. In that sense, it is important to acknowledge for changes in work practice due to information systems, i.e. changes in the organizations’ capability (see Braf and Goldkuhl 2002; Goldkuhl and Braf, 2002).

Putting too much emphasis on information technology alone and not keep it in line with production workers’ learning on the job is insensitive towards the workplace and production workers and may result in a tool that does not facilitate learning (see Braf and Goldkuhl 2002; Goldkuhl and Braf, 2002; Scarbrough and Swan, 1999; Wyssusek et al., 2002).

These motives lead to several distinguishing features of what this thesis is about and what it is not about:

• On an overall level, this thesis is about identifying organizational and information technological characteristics for creating learning environments in manufacturing companies by developing information technology based information system.

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1 Introduction According to Chauvel and Despres (2002) it is common (in doing survey research) to overlook differences in organizational characteristics in studying learning and knowledge in organizations. In that sense, this thesis is distinct in having SMEs as the object for study.

Further, this thesis is about:

• Learning and knowledge among production or factory workers in manufacturing companies, not about service branches and workers traditionally thought of as professionals.

• Learning at work in doing daily work (commonplace learning and knowledge in daily operations), not about innovation and product development (among others) as such (although it can be a side effect of learning on the job).

• Developing information systems for learning and acquiring work knowledge in alignment with production workers’ learning capabilities (among others), not about information technology alone.

1.1.2 Characterizing Manufacturing Workplaces

This thesis focuses on production or factory workers in workplaces where the job workers do have a routine character. The routine character of production workers job can be reviewed by acknowledging the interplay between production workers and machinery and equipment (artifacts). In manufacturing companies, the interplay between production workers and machinery and equipment and among production workers (i.e. communication) constitutes the environment for learning and acquiring work knowledge on the job. This interplay originates in the overall organizing principle of work.

Example 1-1 illustrates the interplay between production workers and machinery and equipment. The example is used to characterize manufacturing workplaces in a more distinct way. The example derives from the manufacturing company and it is simplified due to its illustrative purpose to characterize manufacturing workplaces. Depict production workers’ workplace by an example is a way to make the object for study under scrutiny clear.

Example 1-1 Managing hydraulic presses

Consider a manufacturing company in a situation where two production workers (operators) in production run two different hydraulic presses. The presses have different control panels as depicted in Figure 1-1. Control panel for press A have an On and Off switch to launch the press and create products. Control panel for press B has an additional control for Speed in comparison to press A.

On Off Speed On Off Min Max

Control panel for Press A Control panel for Press B On Off On Off On Off Speed On Off Min Max Speed On Off Min Max Speed On Off Min Max On Off On Off On Off Min Max

Control panel for Press A Control panel for Press B

Figure 1-1 Control panels for two hydraulic presses

Press B has more variations in its operation compared to press A. Running press B is not only a question of turning it on and off; it is also a question of speed. Press A and B

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differ in complexity. The number and structure of activities workers do in running the presses are different. Figure 1-2 illustrates the structure and order of activities workers do in running the presses. Activities in running press A are to switch the on and off button. Activities in running press B are to switch the on button, set speed (at a given or any other level) and switch the off button. The situation can also be reversed, i.e. to set speed, switch the on and off button and set speed. Other combinations are also possible. The number and structure of activities running press B is not given in advance. Running presses requires sensitivity towards the situation, i.e. the worker, what is produced, raw material etc. Off Min speed Max speed On Min speed Min speed On Max speed Off Off Any speed On Min speed Min speed On Any speed Off On Off

Activities running Press A Activities running Press B (any of four alternatives)

Off Min speed Max speed On Min speed Min speed On Max speed Off Off Any speed On Min speed Min speed On Any speed Off Off Min speed Max speed On Min speed Off Min speed Max speed On Min speed Min speed On Max speed Off Min speed On Max speed Off Off Any speed On Min speed Off Any speed On Min speed Min speed On Any speed Off Min speed On Any speed Off On Off On Off

Activities running Press A Activities running Press B (any of four alternatives)

Figure 1-2 Activities running hydraulic presses

This leads to several distinguishing features of the example in characterizing manufacturing workplaces. Activities workers do in running the presses are bounded to the range of activities presses are designed to support. In that sense, presses are constructed to support a varied range of activities and that range of activities is relative to presses’ fixed construction. The number and structure of activities is given by the press itself in its construction, an arrangement following a principal order set by operations management to be efficient, and/or voluntary dependent on the situation at hand as experienced by the workers.

Activities workers do follows a structure set up by the presses, operations management and/or by the workers themselves. The interplay between production workers and machinery and equipment and among production workers, governed by operations management and management on a higher level, constitutes the workplace.

In manufacturing workplaces, the scope for learning and acquiring of work knowledge among production workers on the job is dependent on the workplace. In that sense is the scope for learning and acquiring of work knowledge in manufacturing workplaces among production workers relative to the interplay between workers and machinery and equipment (artifacts) and the interplay among workers themselves (see the bold line in Figure 1-3). This scope is set by several interrelated factors:

• Artifacts’ ‘fixed’ construction, i.e. the variety or range of activities artifacts are designed to permit.

• The variety or range (series) of activities ‘fixed’ character relative to (a) the artifacts’ fixed construction, (b) management (organizing principle of work) and/or (c) the working situation at hand as experienced by workers.

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1 Introduction

• Workers’ options to communicate with fellow productions workers relative to the working environment, e.g. noise level and placing of workstations. (This option is also related to the organizing principle of work).

Artefacts

Results/Products Artefacts

Results/Products

Figure 1-3 The scope for learning and knowledge sharing among production workers

It is likely that the factors setting the scope for learning in manufacturing workplaces are not primary set up to account for learning and acquiring of work knowledge. It is more likely that the outset is to have effective and efficient operations (in creating products). In that sense, learning should contribute to effective and efficient operations and the interplay between workers and artifacts and among workers should be seen as the sources for learning on the job.

1.2 Aim of Research and Object for Study

This section covers the aim of research and the object for study presented in section 1.1.2 is further scrutinized.

1.2.1 Aim of Research

This thesis encompasses creation of learning environments in manufacturing companies by developing information systems for learning and acquiring of work knowledge; systems that are in alignment with the workplace learning the systems are to support, i.e. the work knowledge acquired to do the job (input) and the work knowledge acquired (learned) in doing the job (output).

The characterization of manufacturing workplaces in section 1.1.2 evokes several questions about knowledge and learning in manufacturing workplaces and outlook for this thesis.

The overall research question is:

• What does it mean to facilitate learning and knowledge among production workers in manufacturing workplaces by developing information systems?

The overall research question assumes that it is relevant to reflect on learning and knowledge among production workers. It is important not to let an assumption like that go by, for that reason, it is relevant to question the legitimacy claims of learning and knowledge among production workers by taking the following questions into account:

• What is learning and knowledge among productions workers in manufacturing workplaces all about?

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• What is the rationale and conditions for learning and knowledge among productions workers in manufacturing workplaces?

The scope for learning and knowledge sharing at work is relative to the interplay between workers and artifacts, the interplay among workers themselves and the interplay between workers and other actors (e.g. management). In manufacturing workplaces, learning and knowledge among production workers is, so to speak, bound to time and space due to that learning is relative to the interplay between workers and artifacts. Workers’ job tasks are closely linked to machinery and equipment located in the workplace. The workplace constitutes the setting for learning among workers. Knowledge and learning among production workers in manufacturing workplaces is relative to the costs and benefits knowledge and learning attracts, i.e. to weight knowledge creating activities and product creating activities. It is also important to understand under what conditions it is relevant to talk about knowledge and learning among production workers.

To facilitate knowledge and learning among production workers in manufacturing workplaces by developing information systems require relevant instruments to develop appropriate systems to support knowledge and learning. Developing information systems to support knowledge and learning among production workers in manufacturing workplaces is relative to the learning capabilities inherent in such workplaces. In that sense, information systems are tools extending human capabilities. Information systems alone do not cause knowledge and learning activities among production workers. Accordingly, the questions are:

• How can information systems support learning and knowledge sharing in manufacturing settings?

• What are the properties of information systems to enhance learning and knowledge sharing?

To sum up, the research questions are about conceiving and ‘changing’ manufacturing workplaces as to support knowledge and learning among production workers working in such workplaces, i.e. to make knowledge and learning among production workers systematically a part of the workplace. In that sense, to make intentionally the workplace support knowledge and learning among production workers to create a learning environment.

The research questions set out the purpose of the thesis: The aim is to present a framework

on information technology for learning and knowledge among production workers in manufacturing workplaces, i.e. to pinpoint aspects and concepts and relations among these concepts about information technology for learning and knowledge among production workers.

1.2.2 Learning Environments in Manufacturing Workplaces

Learning is a human capability and linked to people doing activities. Learning and human activity is closely related. People do activities in different situations at work, off the job etc, i.e. in different contexts. In that sense, learning is closely related to the contexts in which activities take place. According to Lave (1996) learning is a situated activity, i.e. bounded to the context where activities occur. Situated activity involves change in knowledge and activity, and changes in knowledge and activity are central to learning (ibid.). Learning as a sole situated activity is bounded to specific contexts, i.e. to distinguish learning as a time and space bounded activity that takes place on specific occasions. In that way, learning is perceived as an ‘on site’ activity. In social practices, people do activity grounded on what they learn and know. Knowledge people use is situational in a way that knowledge is adapted to the current situations people faces (Goldkuhl, 1999). What people learn and know about a

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1 Introduction situation can be adopted to any other situation and not be pure situational (ibid.). In that sense, learning is also an ‘off site’ activity.

Learning is an on and off site activity relative to learning’s situational character. This is related to the elusiveness of the word learning. According to Weick and Westly (1996) is the verb learning elusive:

“… [The] word ‘learning’ refers to both an outcome and a process, giving it a circular and tautological sense, and concealing rather than revealing the dynamics of the process and the exact nature of the outcome.” [Author’s comments] (p. 441)

Learning is an on and/or off site activity relative to: (a) if activities and thus learning is

‘fixed’ to the situation or not (and what in the situation that causes it) and (b) if situated

learning refers to an outcome, a process, or both.

A distinguishing feature of Example 1-1, which characterize manufacturing workplaces, is that activity and learning at work are ‘fixed’ to the situation due to the interplay between production workers and artifacts. The process of learning is bounded to the physical workplace due to use of artifacts at work. The outcome of learning is also bounded to the physical workplace due to use of artifacts at work, assuming that the artifacts are not to be found elsewhere. If artifacts are found elsewhere the process and outcome of learning is not bounded to the workplace because workers can learn and use what they once have learned in any way as they please in other situations.

The scope for learning on the job in manufacturing workplaces is set up by the interplay between workers and artifacts, i.e. a learning state where learning is implicit. Learning in manufacturing workplaces can be supported by making learning and knowledge among production workers systematically a part of the workplace, i.e. a learning state where learning is explicit. This is illustrated in Figure 1-4.

Artefacts

Results/Products IT

Artefacts

Results/Products

Learning state A Learning state B

Implicit learning Explicit learning

Artefacts Results/Products Artefacts Results/Products IT IT Artefacts Results/Products Artefacts Results/Products

Learning state A Learning state B

Implicit learning Explicit learning

Figure 1-4 Learning among production workers

Figure 1-4 depicts manufacturing workplaces from a learning perspective. Production workers’ activities encompass interaction between workers and artifacts in transforming raw material into products. Production workers learn on the job when using machinery and equipment and interacting with fellow workers. Learning on the job can be looked at from two different viewpoints: (a) a situation where learning is implicit and not systematically supported (no intervention measures aiming at workplace learning) and (b) a situation where learning is explicit and systematically supported (intervention measures aiming at workplace learning). These learning situations are regarded as different learning states: (a) a state where

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learning and knowledge among production workers is implicit and (b) a state where learning

and knowledge among production workers is explicit. The prime difference between these learning states is that of having intervention measures aiming at learning on the job.

A motivation for undertaking the study is to assess the legitimacy claims of learning and knowledge sharing among production workers in manufacturing workplaces. Such assessments should build upon a conception of what learning and knowledge among production workers in manufacturing workplaces is all about. Figure 1-4 is a first inquiry in doing that.

1.3 Demarcations

This thesis is first and foremost about learning and knowledge among production workers in manufacturing workplaces in SMEs. Although, learning and knowledge among production workers is not separated from other actors and/or group of actors found in the organization (e.g. management) and the organization as a whole the primary focus is on production workers learning on the job. Aspects and concepts about information technology for learning and acquiring work knowledge among production workers in this thesis should be seen as grounded on and developed for such workers and companies.

Finally, some initial remarks in section 1.1.1 have been made concerning what this thesis is about and what it is not about, i.e. about learning and knowledge among production workers, learning on the job and developing information systems in alignment with workers’ way of learning on the job.

1.4 Stakeholders

This thesis is of interest for both researchers and practitioners. The thesis should appeal to both researchers and practitioners interested in learning and knowledge and how information technology facilitates learning and knowledge in manufacturing work practices.

The thesis addresses aspects that are not commonly considered in the learning and knowledge thinking in organization. In that sense, the thesis appeals to researchers interested in knowledge and learning in manufacturing SMEs.

The thesis is based upon real world problems found in manufacturing and should appeal to other practitioners in manufacturing. The thesis covers development of an information system for learning and acquiring work knowledge among production workers in a manufacturing workplace. In that sense, the thesis is close to practice in elaborating upon what knowledge and learning is all about and how it can be supported by an information system.

1.5 Thesis Outline and Reading Instructions

The thesis is divided into four parts. Part I Background contains three chapters (1 Introduction, 2 Research Design and 3 Central Concepts). These chapters present the motives behind the thesis and what the thesis is about, the research design and definitions of central concepts relevant for the thesis.

Part II The Manufacturing Workplace contains three chapters (4 The Manufacturing Workplace, 5 Learning and Acquiring Work Knowledge and 6 Information Technology for Learning and Acquiring Work Knowledge) focusing on the empirical work. These chapters present the manufacturing SME and production workers’ situation at work, the implicit and explicit learning and acquiring of work knowledge among production workers (the situation where no intervention measures are carried out to support learning and knowledge on the job and the situation where such intervention measures are undertaken, cf. Learning state A and B in Figure 1-4). These chapters are interrelated in a way where prior chapter is taken as a starting point in subsequent chapters.

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1 Introduction Part III Learning and Acquiring Work Knowledge in Context contains three chapters (7 Manufacturing Work Practices, 8 Production Workers’ Learning at Work and 9 Information Technology for Production Workers’ Learning at Work). These chapters present aspects grounded in the empirical work (Part II) by relating aspects in the empirical work to relevant knowledge domains. These chapters have different but interrelated themes, i.e. the manufacturing work practice, learning at work and information technology for learning at work. These themes are first embarked on in Part II although not as distinct as in Part III.

Part IV Creating Learning Environments contain one chapter (10 Concepts in Creating Learning Environments in Manufacturing Workplaces). The chapter presents a conceptual framework on information technology for learning and acquiring work knowledge among production workers in manufacturing workplaces by summarizing and formulating concluding remarks relative to the set up aim of research. The chapter ends with reflections about studying and developing information technology for learning and knowledge and it what way the research presented in this thesis can be continued.

In the end of each chapter, starting from Chapter 3, is a chapter summary. These summaries highlights the most important aspects embarked on in subsequent chapters. This is most apparent in Part III. In order to be consistent I have also chosen to include summaries of the chapters in Part II as well although some of them might seem unnecessary.

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2 Research Design

The purpose of this chapter is to present the research design. The research design presents the research approach and method. Reasons for the chosen research design (approach and method) are grounded in a review of the aim of research and object for study described in Chapter 1 section 1.2. Distinguishing features of the aim of research and object for study in establishing the research design is: (a) abduction, (b) qualitative research and (c) action case

study research (i.e. a combination of action and case study research).

2.1 Reviewing Aim of Research and Object for Study

To establish the research approach and method for this thesis work it is important to review the aim of research and the object for study.

The prime reason for this thesis work is to gain an understanding of information technology for learning and acquiring work knowledge among production workers in manufacturing workplaces. To gain understanding, is to define what a phenomenon or

occurrence is all about (Repstad, 1999). In that sense, this thesis work is in line with

interpretative research (see Alvesson and Sköldberg, 1994).

The aim is to present a framework on information technology for learning and knowledge among production workers in manufacturing workplaces by identifying concepts and relations among these concepts (see Weber, 2003).

Such a framework encompasses the research questions in establishing the meaning of information technology for learning and acquiring work knowledge among production workers in manufacturing workplaces. To establish meaning (gain understanding) is to conceptualize, respectively, learning and ‘work knowledge acquiring’ aspects in manufacturing workplaces and information technology aspects for learning and acquiring work knowledge. The order for such an establishment is first to investigate learning and ‘work knowledge acquiring’ aspects and last to investigate information technology aspects. Learning and knowledge aspects encompass (a) what is significant for learning and acquiring work knowledge in manufacturing workplaces, (b) conditions for learning and acquiring work knowledge; whereas (c) in what way information technology can support learning and acquiring of work knowledge and (d) information system properties to enhance learning and acquiring work knowledge encompass information technology aspects.

2.2 Research Approach

The research approach in this thesis work is related to abduction. Abduction is in relation to deductive and inductive research approaches more flexible in not given a fixed empirical or theoretical stance (see Figure 2-1) (see Chalmers, 1999; Alvesson and Sköldberg, 1994).

Deduction Induction Abduction Theory

Empirical data

Deduction Induction Abduction Theory

Empirical data

Figure 2-1 Deduction, induction and abduction (amended from Alvesson and Sköldberg, 1994)

This thesis sets out to study a contemporary phenomenon in its real life context. Two aspects about how to approach such a phenomenon can be articulated: (a) is the phenomenon to speak for itself, or (b) is the phenomenon to speak in behalf of a predetermined frame of reference (theory). The prime reason for the chosen research approach in this thesis work has

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been to assess the subject at hand in an open manner, i.e. to investigate the phenomenon in its own right and not deliberate use a set up frame of reference. However, to investigate phenomenon in its own right does not mean to refrain from knowledge domains the subject under scrutiny is related to. The knowledge of others’ is important to acknowledge for the knowledge of ‘self’ (the subject under scrutiny) relevancy in a broader context.

The ideas and thoughts embodied in the research questions in this thesis work are empirically generated in a close collaboration between researchers and practitioners in a research project.

The empirical work is a starting point, in giving a rich picture of creating a learning environment in a manufacturing workplace by developing an information system, to ‘make the most out’ of the activities in the research project (to exploit activities undertaken in the research project). Such a starting point does not underestimate or leave out work of others’. An important part of this thesis work is to establish the empirical works’ relevancy and legitimacy relative to other influential knowledge domains to position the thesis work in a relevant and broader context. However, this thesis work is related to abduction in emphasizing alterations between empirical data and theory.

Abduction emphasizes two aspects of empirical data: (a) the empirical data causes theory in relating empirical data to existing theory and (b) the empirical data reviews theory in giving new insights (underlie new theory) (Alvesson and Sköldberg, 1994). The dual importance of the empirical data is the preferred approach in this thesis work to not lose interesting aspects in the empirical data by having a fixed theory (cf. deduction) and to not leave out the empirical data’s relation to theory (cf. induction) in establishing the research’s relevancy and legitimacy in a broader context.

2.3 Qualitative Research

Qualitative and quantitative research is often regarded as opposites and contrasting ways of doing research. This thesis work is related to qualitative research (Patton, 1990; Repstad, 1999). Distinguishing features of qualitative research are: (a) a profound approach in portraying the object for study, (b) a close, immediate and lasting relation to the object for study, and (c) flexible use of methods (Repstad, 1999). Consequently, qualitative research often emphasizes a small number of objects for study. According to Firestone (1993): “qualitative research is best for understanding the processes that go on in a situation and the beliefs and perceptions of those in it” (p. 22).

This thesis work sets out to establish the meaning of information technology for learning and acquiring work knowledge among production workers in manufacturing workplaces. Such an establishment is in line with qualitative research. Learning and work knowledge is related to peoples’ activities as is information systems for learning and knowledge. Altogether, learning and acquiring work knowledge among production workers is a complex phenomenon. To study learning and knowledge requires a profound, close, immediate, and lasting relation to the object for study.

2.4 Research Project

This thesis work has been achieved in a cooperative project setting. The ideas and thoughts embodied in the aim of research and research questions are close to practice in solving real world problems, i.e. the ideas and thoughts are empirically generated in a cooperative effort between researchers and practitioners. It is a mutual commitment in bringing about action and research in a real world setting.

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2 Research Design The origin of the ideas and thoughts represented in this thesis work is related to a research project including researchers3 from the department of Informatics, Örebro University and practitioners from a Swedish manufacturing SME (AB Linde Maskiner). The overall aim of the project is to acknowledge use of information technology in manufacturing to bring about performance improvements in the company’s way of doing work and business. Within the limit of the project several activities have been accomplished. The project has been divided in smaller parts (subprojects). The positioning in time of the project and project activities is illustrated in Figure 2-2.

2002 Time

1998 1999 2000 2001 ... 2005

Business process analysis

IS/IT infrastructure analysis

Total project time

Knowledge management initiative

Figure 2-2 Time span of the research project

The origin of the ideas and thoughts represented in this thesis work is related to activities that aim at making production worker’s workplace a workplace for learning and knowledge sharing by developing an information system. The research findings presented in this thesis are based upon the process and outcomes of such activities in the research project. Activities represented in this thesis work covers approximately two years of work, from the beginning of year 2000 to the end of year 2002 (see Knowledge management initiative in Figure 2-2). Figure 2-2 also illustrates other activities within the limit of the project prior (before year 2000) to activities in making production worker’s workplace a workplace for learning and knowledge sharing by developing information systems; activities that aimed at analyzing the company’s business and core-processes and information systems/technology architecture.

Even though activities before year 2000 did not have learning and knowledge sharing as a focal point some of the empirical studies performed during that time will be used to: (a) where possible, make cross references to how things appear and behave over time due to that the work covers a long period, (b) ground the empirical findings in a reflective manner by reference to other, but compatible, situations studied in the project and (c) account for or recapturing the knowledge of others (fellow researchers). Different researchers have been active participants in the project and when a new researcher entry the project, as in the case of the author of this thesis, basic knowledge about the company is also acquired by reference to fellow researchers4.

2.5 The Case’s Relevancy

The suitability of the case is not given by having access to the company alone. The company was very much ‘given’ in beforehand. Such a situation does not underestimate the importance to assess the case’s relevancy relative to what the study is about.

The case’s relevancy is related to in what ways the chosen case speaks on behalf of the objects under scrutiny. This is a single case study. In that sense, it stands in opposition to have a multiple case study (Yin, 1994). To study learning and acquiring of work knowledge among

3_{Researchers from the department of Informatics, Örebro University are Dr. Anders Avdic who is the overall}

project manager and I who am the researcher and developer of the system in the project.

4_{Before I became a part of the project the project was managed by Jenny Lagsten who is also a researcher from}

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production workers requires a close relationship to the case to be appropriately studied. The objects for study are phenomenon that are not easily covered but requires time and sensitivity towards the actors involved. An important aspect in creating a close relationship is that of time. It takes time to build a relationship with the people I as a researcher and developer collaborate with. The time aspect is also related to developing an information system. It takes time to develop such a system. These observations regarding the nature of what is studied are motives for a single case study.

The case’s suitability relative to the objects for study can be said to be ‘strong’ due to the collaborative effort in identifying such objects. In that sense, it is more likely to arrive at a satisfying end regarding the legitimacy of the ending results due that the case is committed to the things under scrutiny in comparison if the where not to be an active part in that process.

2.6 Research Method

This thesis work is grounded on interpretations of the process and outcome in making production workers’ workplace in a manufacturing company a workplace encompassing learning and acquiring of work knowledge by undertaking intervention measures facilitating learning and knowledge. In this case, such intervention measures are to develop an information system in line with the learning capability found in the workplace. The distinguishing feature of the thesis research approach (abduction) requires access to the object for study and that the object for study is appropriately investigated (a combination of action research and case study research) by using suitable research methods for data collection.

2.7 Action Case Study Research

The empirical work in this thesis is a joint effort between researchers and practitioners based on real world problems found in a manufacturing company. The empirical work covers the

process and outcome in undertaking intervention measures facilitating learning and acquiring of work knowledge among production workers. This way of work has much resemblance with

action research and case study research.

Action research has been acknowledged as a way of doing research in the information system field (Avison, et al., 2001; Chiasson and Dexter, 2001; McKay and Marshall, 2001; Mumford, 2001). Action research emphasizes collaboration between researchers and practitioners in relation to real world problems (Avison et al., 2001). The action researcher is directly involved in planned organizational change (opposed to be a ‘passive’ observer/investigator) (ibid). The researcher is concerned to create organizational change and simultaneously to study the process (ibid.). In sum, action research is to bring about change (some outcome) and, at the same time, to study the actions (process) that cause such change. In that sense, there is a dualism in action research, i.e. the double challenge of action (take part in organizational change) and research (generate scientific knowledge) (Avison et al., 2001; Baskerville and Wood-Harper, 1996).

On an overall level, the aim of research and object for study justifies that the researcher is an active partaker in making production workers’ workplace into a workplace facilitating learning and acquiring of work knowledge. In particular, an action research approach is justified due to that (a) the ideas and thoughts embodied in the research questions are empirically generated in a research project, (b) the most ethical thing to do is to fully account for the situation that brought those ideas into existence, (c) expectations among project participants to realize those ideas (should account for practitioners expectations) and (d) it is possible to do so (combine action and research in relation to real world problems). The last aspect underlines that the knowledge acquired in this thesis work is grounded on a real time situation.

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2 Research Design Action research has similarities with case study research. Yin (1984) defines case study research as an empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real life context. First, action research and case study research is about real world situations. Second, action research and case study research are usually considered to be qualitative research approaches (Avsion et al., 2001; Merriam, 1994; Yin, 1984). Action research entails the researcher to take active part in creating organizational change compared to case study research (Avison et al., 2001).

An important component in case study research is a study’s propositions and unit of

analysis. The study’s proposition directs attention to what is within the scope of the study (Yin, 1984). The scope for this study is the object for study, i.e. learning environments in manufacturing workplaces. An essential part in defining the object for study is the proposition that the scope for learning and acquiring work knowledge in manufacturing workplaces is set up by the interplay between workers and machinery and equipment (artifacts) (see 1.2.2).

The unit of analysis is related to defining what the case is all about (Yin, 1984) and what knowledge the case study leads to when studying the case. The case is a ‘context of discovery’ to generate knowledge about (a) manufacturing workplaces (the working

situation), (b) production workers’ learning and acquiring work knowledge in such

workplaces (the learning situation) and (c) information systems to facilitate such learning and

knowledge (system usage situation and development). These three units are what this study seeks to generate knowledge about, i.e. the units of analysis.

The case is a Swedish manufacturing SME (see 2.5). Figure 2-3 depicts a way to distinguish the case. On an overall level, there is the organization as a whole. On a detailed level there are different functions and social groups in the organization. The case study focuses on the workers (the production workers). However, workers do not work or function in isolation from operations (middle) management and management. Management (in various forms) is an intrinsic part of production workers work. A focus on workers does not mean to leave out but to acknowledge management due to that management set up the organizing principle of work. In that sense, a focus on workers is to have workers in the foreground and to have management in the background (not to exclude management). The units of analysis are related to the worker level but are seen in a greater context e.g. the impact an information system for learning and acquiring of work knowledge among production workers have on the company’s business (the organization as a whole).

Organization as a whole Functions

(middle management) _{Social groups in the organization} (management and workers) Organization as a whole

Functions

(middle management) _{Social groups in the organization} (management and workers)

Figure 2-3 Object for analysis (amended from Alvesson and Berg, 1988)

2.8 Data Collection

Activities represented in this thesis work covers approximately two years of work in a research project. Multiple methods for data collection have been used within the limit of those activities. Use of multiple methods in collecting data is related to triangulation of methods (Patton, 1990). To combine different methods give a broader basis of the object under scrutiny and a more reliable basis for interpretations (Repstad, 1999). The aim of research and object for study in this thesis calls for a deep empirical inquiry to be studied due to that the examined concepts are not straightforwardly exposed.

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On an overall level, the data collection has been goal oriented. The data collection is oriented towards the aim at making production workers’ workplace into a workplace where production workers’ learn and acquire work knowledge. Different intervention measures have been undertaking to make that happen mainly by developing an information system. The data collection covers the process and outcome of turning the manufacturing workplace into a learning environment.

The intervention aspect gives the study a distinguishing feature of action research. This feature is more given by the cooperative project setting than in the methods for data collection. The methods for data collection are not related to methods normally thought about in action research e.g. participative and intervening observations. The intervention aspect in the data collection is apparent due to the active and participative role I have as a researcher and developer in the project.

As said earlier, the data have been collected during approximately two years. During that period of time different areas of interest have been in focus. On an overall level, the data collection has been ‘steered’ towards the aim of the project (to fulfill the aim of the project). Looking at the data collection (as a whole) in retrospective, three interrelated areas of interest became evident. These three areas of interest are regarded as focal areas due to that having one area in the foreground implies having the other areas in the background. During the time for data collection it was not a deliberate choice to focus on different focal areas (not set up in advance). The data collection evolved through time by continually assess what has been done, remains to be done and is to be done and can at a closer look be categorized into different focal areas. This is related to the issue in action research of giving up control on behalf of others in the situation at hand (Dahlgren, 1993), i.e. to continually asses in what ways the empirical work contribute to fulfill the project aims.

2.8.1 Focal Areas

The data collection can be categorized into three different but interrelated focal areas (a) the

learning track (LT), (b) the work practice track (WPT) and (c) the system track (ST). These areas of interest have on an overall level been evident during the time for data collection but not made explicit in advance (grew to be explicit as the data collection progress). These focal areas have also been functioning as a way to distinguish the units of analysis in a more detailed way. The three areas have been of main interest at different points in time during the two year period. The positioning in time of the focal areas is depicted in Figure 2-4. The different lines and arrows in Figure 2-4 represent the tracks’ different states. A thin line ( ) represents a track not in focus, a thin arrow ( ) represents a track in secondary focus and a bold arrow ( ) represents a track in primary focus.

At first, there was a focus on the work practice itself and how information technology can facilitate organizational performance improvements in the manufacturing company. Such assessment brought about ideas to develop an information system for learning and acquiring of work knowledge about operational disturbances (errors in manufacturing) among production workers. An equally important aspect was also to account for the changes in production workers’ workplace such a system cause (learning and information technology usage situations etc.), i.e. to turn the workplace into a workplace facilitating learning and knowledge. This was an intrinsic part when developing the system, making the work practice- and system track the primary focal areas. During that time, it became evident that the work practice, when looking at how production workers do their work, in different aspects facilitated and obstructed learning, making the learning- and work practice track the primary focal areas. The learning track became a ‘broader’ way of looking at learning and acquiring of work knowledge among production workers not explicitly accounted for in the other tracks. At this stage all tracks are in primary focus when creating a synthesis of the different areas

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2 Research Design and grasping what it means to facilitate learning and acquiring of work knowledge among production workers by developing an information system.

LT LT LT LT LT WPT WPT WPT WPT WPT ST ST ST ST ST Time 2000 2001 2002 LT LT LT LT LT LT LT LTLT LTLT LTLT LTLT WPT WPT WPT WPT WPT WPT WPT WPTWPT WPTWPT WPTWPT WPTWPT ST ST ST ST ST ST ST STST STST STST STST Time 2000 2001 2002

Figure 2-4 Focal areas

This way of thinking (viewing the data collection as different focal areas/tracks) can also be looked at as a cycle of reinforcement when trying to understand learning and knowledge and developing an information system aimed at learning and knowledge in a work practice and have similarities with the hermeneutic circle (Alvesson and Sköldberg, 1994). It is about understanding practice (the whole) from a learning- and system ‘position’ (the parts). The practice represents a holistic view of what is going on in the practice and is looked upon by emphasizing intrinsic and systematic aspects of learning and knowledge.

2.8.2 Method for Data Collection

The data sources that makes the body of empirical data has been collected by using several methods for data collection, e.g. interviews, observations, taking part in project- and user meetings and conducting logbooks. Table 2-1 depicts an overview of the data collection. The data collection has been categorized according to the different areas of interest (see 2.8.1), i.e. the learning track (LT), work practice track (WPT), and system track (AT). Although, being partly integrated it is relevant to acknowledge the data collection relative to the different tracks and different points in time.

Table 2-1 Data collection

Track1 Method for data

collection Respondent (informant)/object for study2

Time

(h) Recording Data collector3

WPT Interviews Management M1

Logistics L 2×2

Written notes Fen ST/WPT Development

log

Developer D1

Development process

N/A Written notes Fen ST/WPT Development

log Developer D1 System Version 0.1 System Version 0.2 System Version 1.0 System Version 1.1 System Version 1.2 System Version 1.3 System Version 1.4 System Version 1.5 System Version 1.6