The Reconceptualized War : A critical analysis of the new war theory through a case study of the Yemen War

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Linköping University | Department of Management and Engineering Master’s thesis, 30 credits| Master’s programme in International and European Relations Spring 2021| LIU-IEI-FIL-A--21/03750--SE

The Reconceptualized War

– A critical analysis of the new war theory through a case

study of the Yemen War

Author: Victor Malmgren

Supervisor: Philippa Barnes

Examiner: Per Jansson

Linköping University SE-581 83 Linköping, Sweden +46 013 28 10 00, www.liu.se

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Abstract

The much-debated new war theory suggest that a new type of organized violence has developed during the last decades of the twentieth century. These new wars occur during an era of

globalization and differ from old wars concerning four factors: the goals, the actors, the finance, and the methods. One of these new wars is the war in Yemen (2015-), a country divided and war torn, suffering the world's largest humanitarian crisis. The study aims to critically analyse the application of the new war theory through a qualitative singular case study of Yemen.

The analysis shows that an understanding can be made about both Yemen and the theory. The Yemen War revolves around reinvented and/or rekindled particularistic identities, formerly kept under control, but now unleashed after years of exclusion, increasing economic gaps, the Arab Spring, and the dismantling of the central state during an era of globalization. The war took on decentralized characteristics, the Yemeni government lost its monopoly on violence leading to several state and non-state actors involved in the war. They are sometimes financed by external actors or through looting, racketeering, kidnapping, etc., all akin to the methods of new war warfare which sees civilians as the main victims. The study argues that an even greater understanding can be made by reformulating the theory as a process rather than as separate factors only showing the differences between new and old. The new war process shows the interconnectedness between the four factors, while simultaneously including other impactful new war terms and concepts such as globalization, the motives of war, and the reoccurring and

persisting violence. Globalization then becomes part of the new war process rather than being a separate element.

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Acknowledgments

After many years in Linköping, it seems like this journey has come to an end and another will begin. I have learnt a lot during these years and have gained experiences and friends that I will carry with me for the rest of my life. A big thank you to all my classmates, professors, and lecturers.

I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my supervisor, Philippa Barnes, for encouraging me to always be critical, for pushing me when I have needed it the most, and for inspiring me to make the best out of this study.

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Tables & Figures

Table 1 | Kaldor's description of the Evolution of Old Wars. ... 12

Table 2 | Characteristics of Old and New Wars. ... 23

Table 3 | Counts of Conflict-related deaths in Yemen by reporting organization.... 60

Table 4 | The Domestic Actors of Yemen; their goals, methods, and finance. ... 63

Figure 1 | Armed Conflict by Type, 1946-2019. ... 14

Figure 2 | Map of Yemen. ... 44

Figure 3 | Military Control Map of Yemen. ... 50

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Abbreviations

ACLED – The Armed Conflict Location & Event Data Project AQAP – Al Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula

CIA – Central Intelligence Agency GCC – Gulf Cooperation Council

GEE – Group of Eminent International and Regional Experts on Yemen IHL – International Human Law

IS – Islamic State

ISI – Inter-Services Intelligence JNA – Yugoslav National Army

MENA – The Middle East and North Africa Region NA – Northern Alliance

NATO – North Atlantic Treaty Organization NRF – Yemeni National Resistance

PITF – Political Instability Task Force RMA – Revolution in Military Affairs STC – Southern Transitional Council UAE – United Arab Emirate

UAV – Unmanned Aerial Vehicle UCDP – Uppsala Conflict Data Program UK – United Kingdom

UN – United Nations

UNHRC – United Nations Human Rights Watch

UN OHCHR – Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights US – United States

USSR – Union of Soviet Socialist Republics

VUCA – Volatile, Uncertain, Chaotic and Ambiguous WHO – World Health Organization

YDP – Yemen Data Project

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1. Introduction

War is a fundamental part of human history. We seem to be drawn towards conflict in all its various ways. We wage wars of ideology, of religion, of land, of freedom, of terror, of identity and more. As so, there comes to no surprise that the study of war perhaps is as old as war itself. Going back as far as 2500 years we find still influential works on the philosophy on war from Chinese general Sun Tzu, or nineteenth century work, On War, by Prussian general Carl von Clausewitz. Naturally, many more theories and terms of war have followed since. The end of the Cold War, the Balkan wars and the ongoing war on terror have had a strong impact on public discussions and academic debate. Nowadays we hear about newer terms regarding war; proxy wars, hybrid wars, low-intensity conflicts. But new terms do not necessarily mean that the nature of war has changed. Or has it?

1.1 A Reconceptualization of War

The term 'new wars' suggests that warfare has changed, seeing a decline in interstate wars and a rise of civil wars. Military theorist and historian Martin van Creveld was the first to announce the idea of 'new wars' in 1991 and British professor Mary Kaldor has since followed, publishing the first edition of New & Old Wars in 1999 and expressing the view that war, in fact, has changed.1

While the transition between 'old wars' and 'new wars' did not happen overnight, the presumed change was gradually made sometime during the Cold War.2_{Undoubtedly, wars are different in}

terms of the level of technology, for instance, though Kaldor argues that its very definition is separate from technology.3_{She identifies four main factors that are different concerning 'new}

wars' compared to 'old wars', the goals, the actors, the finance, and the methods.4_{Old wars were}

fought mostly of ideological character, by armed forces of states through decisive military battles financed by a centralized government. New wars are fought in terms of identity politics between a variety of state and non-state actors, through increasing use of terror, violence and

1_{Akkerman, Tjitske. New Wars, New Morality? Acta Politica. 2009, p. 75.}

2_{Kaldor, Mary. Elaborating the 'New War' Thesis, in Isabelle Duyvesteyn and Jan Angstrom (eds.). Rethinking the} Nature of War. 2005, p. 221.

3_{Kaldor, Mary. New and Old Wars. 3}rd_{edition. Cambridge, Polity Press, 2012, pp. 151-152.} 4 Kaldor, Mary. In defence of new wars. Stability. Vol. 2(1): 4, 2013, p. 2.

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economy' consisting of looting and plunder.5

The idea that war or warfare has changed highlights the new war theory, especially since the Second World War and in particular since the end of the Cold War in 1989. Since the theory proposes that violence against civilians is a main goal, rather than being a side-effect of modern warfare, this acts contradictory to International Humanitarian Law (IHL) which attempts to minimize harm towards civilians and affirms that attacks on military targets are the only

legitimate acts of war.6_{Moreover, only sovereign states are signatories to IHL, whereas the new}

war theory suggests that non-state armed actors are more prevalent in new wars.

Kaldor's theory has sprung much debate and faced criticism mainly from scholars who do not dismiss the ideas of traditional war theorists such as Clausewitz. The expressed aim with the new war theory is to offer a different perspective on war, to reconceptualize the terms of war and violence, and to contribute to the field of research.7_{Kaldor wants the study of war to have the}

goal of affecting policymakers to prevent war from occurring as she sees new wars frequently being handled as if they were old wars.8_{This would also imply that policymakers in-part affect}

whether new wars occur or not. Kaldor's factors may not encompass everything setting new and old wars apart, her approach merging several historical factors as to why new wars arise into the process of globalization. Her focus on the four factors makes the question of why wars occur less important since the factors only seem to strive to explain that war has fundamentally changed. The theory could be expanded upon, based on the factors but with a reconceptualized idea on the framework of the theory; a new war process, rather than four factors arbitrary classified only showing the differences between old and new.

This study will dive deeper into the new war theory, examining and questioning the factors and how they connect to how new wars occur in the first place.

1.2 Yemen

5_{Kaldor, Mary. In Defence of new wars, pp. 2-3.}

6_{Akkerman, Tjitske. New Wars, New Morality?, pp. 80-82.} 7_{Kaldor, Mary. New and Old Wars, p. 14.}

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This study conducts a case study of the war in Yemen (2015-), a probable case of a new war. Yemen remains unresearched through the eyes of the new war theory. The war is ongoing and has many presumed new war elements. It is a war fought by several state and non-state actors including the Houthis and a coalition led by Saudi Arabia. The nation is experiencing the world's largest humanitarian crisis with upwards of 130,000 people killed in the violence alone, 4 million people displaced, and more than 20 million people in need of aid.9_{Together, this creates the}

incentive to study Yemen through the lens of the new war theory.

1.3 Research Aim and Research Questions

As will be made clear by the review on the various historical views on the nature of war, the historical theories and philosophies on war paints a wide picture with many conflicting opinions on its fundamentals and possible changing nature. Aside from Kaldor's own case studies of the wars in Bosnia-Herzegovina (1992-1995), Afghanistan (2001-) and Iraq (2003-2011), there is a fundamental lack of major case studies applying the new war theory on post-Cold War conflicts or contemporary conflicts. This study aims to critically analyse the application of the new war theory through the case of Yemen.

To fulfil this aim, research questions are formulated as follows:

• How can the conflict in Yemen (2015-) be understood by using Kaldor's identified factors that determine 'new wars'?

• How can the process of new war be understood?

1.4 Methodology

To answer the research questions, analysis of theory and the case study of the war in Yemen will be done through a qualitative document analysis. Defining the factors are part of the method. The

9_{Uppsala Conflict Data Program. Yemen (North Yemen), Number of Deaths 1989-2019. UCDP;} Council on Foreign Relations. War in Yemen. Global Conflict Tracker. Last updated May 6, 2021;

United Nations. UN humanitarian office puts Yemen war dead at 233,000, mostly from 'indirect causes'. UN News. December 1, 2020.

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the theories of war as well as a broad range of sources on the war in Yemen, including official United Nations (UN) reports, and statistics from respected data providers such as the Uppsala Conflict Data Program (UCDP) and the Armed Conflict Location and Event Data Project (ACLED).

1.5 Limitations

Regarding the factors, goals and aims may be hard to conclude due to goals of war sometimes being shrouded, or there being unclarity of the differences between an actor's goals and an actor's motives. There may be actors that may not get included or who are undervalued, either due to time and word restraints or due to other actors being regarded as more important in the context of Yemen and the theory. The UCDP definition of an actor will be the guideline for this issue. It has been claimed by several sources that some data from Yemen is unreliable, in particular regarding deaths.10_{Reports and data about victims could be false and used as propaganda and justification}

for attacks from both sides of a conflict. The same goes for the financing of actors, where there may be instances where benefactors deny financing actors they allegedly are. Finally, since the war in Yemen is ongoing, the analysis will only include developments from before April 1, 2021.

1.6 Thesis Structure

The focus on the theory will be apparent for all chapters, critically assessing and analysing the theory. Following the introduction, chapter 2 will provide the theory, reviewing the literature on traditional philosophies on war and our perception of it. The review will examine war itself, from 'old wars' to newer ideas, definitions, and terms of war such as proxy wars. This will naturally lead to the foremost theory of new war, presenting its central concepts of the differences between new wars and old wars, presenting the factors and other vital concepts connected to it such as globalization, as well as the critique the theory has faced.

10_{Hendrickson, Erik K. Just War Theory Applied to US Policy in Pakistan and Yemen. Defense Technical} Information Center: DTIC Technical Reports database. 2014;

Bourt, Anastasia A. The Houthies Propaganda in Yemen: A copy of the Lebanese Hezbollah or their own product?

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Chapter 3 will explain the method, explaining the research strategy and approach. It will present the use and advantages of a single case study and the focus on a theoretical approach. It will go through the material used and how the four factors of goals, actors, finance, and methods will be operationalized.

Chapter 4 will consist of a critical review and discussion of Kaldor's cases of the wars in Bosnia-Herzegovina (1992-1995), Afghanistan (2001-) and Iraq (2003-2011).

Chapter 5 will consist of the analysis of the single case study – the new war in Yemen.

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2. Theory

Influential works on the philosophy of war are primarily On War by nineteenth century general Carl von Clausewitz but also The Art of War by Sun Tzu some 2500 years ago. As the works are still influential today, it is of interest to compare their philosophies with newer ones and to make a concise transition between 'old' and 'new'. Clausewitz often described war as part of the human condition, as a sum of rational, irrational and nonrational actions, conflict fought between nation-states.11_{Several subsequent theories on war have naturally followed and answered Clausewitz}

and Sun Tzu, some echoing their beliefs and others disagreeing. At the forefront of this thesis, the theory on new war by Mary Kaldor, will lay. Kaldor's expressed aim with the new war theory is to offer a different perspective on war, to reconceptualize the terms of war and violence and to contribute to the field of research.12_{In short, Kaldor could be described as having an opposite}

view of Clausewitz's, suggesting there is a difference between what she calls 'new wars' and 'old wars'. She describes new wars as a mixture of war, crime, and human rights violations. War as regards to organized violence for political ends, crime meaning organized violence for private ends, and violence against civilians as human rights violations.13_{Kaldor argues that new wars}

have a logic that is different from the 'old wars' of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.14_She

identifies four main factors that are different with 'new wars' compared to 'old wars', namely: the

goals and aims of war, the actors of war, means of finance, and, the methods of warfare.

The chapter will begin with the traditional views on war, introducing the philosophies of Sun Tzu and Clausewitz. Mainly, Clausewitz is significant for the thesis in terms of Kaldor's expressed view of her theory being the opposite of Clausewitz's views. Following that,

definitions of war and conflict will be introduced along with frequently used terms on war and warfare, all with their connection to Kaldor's new war theory. More of these terms could be read about in Appendices. Then, Kaldor's theory will be critically examined and presented with that historical and classical context given to us mainly be Clausewitz but also the other frequently used 'modern' terms on war and warfare and its nature and conduct.

11 Clausewitz, von Carl and Howard, Michael, Paret, Peter (eds.). On War, pp. 40 & 89. 12 Kaldor, Mary. New and Old Wars, p. 14.

13_{Kaldor, Mary. In Defence of new wars, p. 6.} 14_{Ibid, p. 2.}

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2.1 Traditional Views on War

All in all, a prevalent debate regarding the new war theory is whether war has changed or not. To answer that, the traditional philosophies on war will be dissected to better explain the nature and our early understanding of war. The comparison is vital to understand Kaldor's identified

differences between new wars and old wars.

2.1.1 Sun Tzu

One of the oldest philosophies on war is The Art of War, written by Chinese general Sun Tzu some 2500 years ago. From his own experiences of battle and statecraft during the Warring States period of China, he mostly focused on weaponry and strategy. His teachings are, however, often broadened and applied to other areas than just war itself as one of his core concerns was the survival and prosperity of the state. As so, he examined the holistic relationship between warfare and statecraft and extended grand strategy. Together, statecraft dealt with the ongoings of

peacetimes for the state while warfare concerned the period of which the state was at war.15

Sun Tzu's principles are argued to been used in modern military warfare, American General Tommy Franks adopting Sun Tzu principles as Saddam Hussein in Iraq and the Taliban in Afghanistan both were overthrown after only a few months of war.16_{The early success and}

subsequent failures in these wars could, according to McNeilly, be explained with The Art of

War.17_{He supports Sun Tzu's principles as being of practical use. They can be employed in}

conflict analysis, to conclude a future successful or unsuccessful strategy based on its conformity with the principles. The semantics of being 'principles' is also mentioned, as McNeilly

nevertheless concludes that in no way are the blueprint on strategy and warfare. A 'principle' is a 'basic law or truth'.18_{He writes:}

15_{McNeilly, Mark R. "Introduction: The Relevance of Sun Tzu to Modern Warfare." in Mark R. McNeilly. Sun Tzu} and the Art of Modern Warfare, pp. 3-4.

16_{Ibid, p. 4;}

McNeilly, Mark R."Shaping the Enemy: Preparing the Battlefield.", pp. 6-7.

17_{McNeilly, Mark R. "Terrorism and the Wars in Afghanistan and Iraq: Applying Sun Tzu's Principles.", p. 1.} 18_{McNeilly, Mark R. "Introduction: The Relevance of Sun Tzu to Modern Warfare.", p. 6.}

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could ever be useful in the dynamic world of conflict between states.19

2.1.2 Clausewitz

Most scholars would agree that On War can generally be characterised in two

diametrically opposed but accurate ways. First, it is seen as 'the one truly great book on war yet written' and second, as 'often quoted but little read'. Overall, in spite of its flaws and sometimes contradictory insights, it is one of the very few books in the Western world that seeks to present a theory of war.20

The foremost military theorist of the West, Prussian general Carl von Clausewitz, defined war as

"...an act of force to compel our enemy to do our will" and saw war as an exertion of strength,

with only two motives: either hostile feelings or hostile intentions.21

Clausewitz examined war and its fundamental aspects from a philosophical perspective. His analysis excluded any limitations from the real world as he concluded that the very diverse nature of war in not governed by any logic. Clausewitz's concepts of war should be seen as part of a larger argument not to be examined separately. War tends to stretch to the extremes, to be absolute war, beginning with Clausewitz's famous argument that "war is only a continuation of

state policy by other means". As so, policy is the slave of strategy. The thesis of war is absolute

war – absolute violence – while the antithesis of war is the notion of war as something rational.22

War can take on different forms combining irrational, nonrational and rational aspects and forces. The irrational blind natural forces are the primordial violence, the hatred and enmity, the nonrational forces are luck, chance and probability, and the rational forces are war as an

instrument of policy.23_{These forces are known as the primary trinity while, in addition,}

Clausewitz introduce another trinity which aligns itself to the first. The irrational violence mainly

19_{McNeilly, Mark R. "Introduction: The Relevance of Sun Tzu to Modern Warfare.", p. 6.} 20 de Landmeter, Eric. The relevance of Clausewitz's On War to today's conflicts, p. 386. 21 Clausewitz, von Carl and Howard, Michael, Paret, Peter (eds.). On War, pp. 75-77

22_{Schuurman, Bart. Clausewitz and the "New Wars" Scholars. Parameters: journal of the US Army War College.} Vol. 40, January 2010, p. 93;

Clausewitz, von Carl and Howard, Michael, Paret, Peter (eds.). On War, p. 40. 23_{Ibid. p. 89.}

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concerns the people, the nonrational chance concerns the commander and the armies, and the rational forces concern the government.24

This side of Clausewitz's philosophy, the emotional human condition, is one side of which authors argue are still relevant today.25_{Clausewitz saw war as a human affair, affected by our}

irrationality, our emotions, and our violence. Alaraby agrees that there are in fact several aspects of contemporary wars that differ from those of Clausewitz's time during the nineteenth

century.26_{The industrial revolution and technical innovation led to the use of better equipment}

reaching its peak of destructiveness at the end of the Second World War and nuclear technology. The strive for effectiveness had further increased innovations of information technology within the military, while artificial intelligence is poised to even further surge military innovation in the future.27_{The complexity of the world is immense, adding to warfare increasingly being}

characterized as 'chaotic' or to paraphrase Clausewitz, irrational. This more chaotic world is symbolized by a term coined at the end of the 1980s by strategists of the US Department of Defence: VUCA, meaning Volatile, Uncertain, Chaotic and Ambiguous.28

Alaraby discuss the end of the cold war and the rise of intrastate conflicts.29_{Following the}

collapse of the USSR, several parts of Europe, Asia and Africa became enveloped by identity-based conflicts. Instead of the traditional wars, limited between states, low-intensity conflicts (see Appendix A) are the new norm, especially in the developing world. The increased

irregularity and asymmetry have created non-state actors exemplified by terrorist networks such as the Islamic State and Al Qaeda.30_{There has been a transformation, but this transformation has}

been overblown, according to Alaraby.31_{The essence of war remains unchanged, fuelled by}

human emotion – aggression and hatred, waged by material reasons with underlying ethnical, secular, or religious ideologies. Hence, imposing one's will is the foundation of human conflict. As Clausewitz states: " ...war is thus an act of force to compel our enemy to do our will".32

24_{Schuurman, Bart. Clausewitz and the "New Wars" Scholars, p. 94.}

25_{Alaraby, Muhammad. The Whispering Prussian: Clausewitz and Modern Wars, p. 1.} 26_{Ibid, p. 1.} 27_{Ibid, p. 1.} 28_{Ibid, p. 1.} 29 Ibid, p. 2. 30 Ibid, p. 2. 31_{Ibid, p. 3.}

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2.2 Definitions and Terms of War and Conflict

Since there is a lot of literature regarding the nature of war, definitions on war and conflict are relevant to introduce. The definitions and further presentation of relevant terms concerning war and warfare will work as an introduction to the new war theory itself.

2.2.1 War and Conflict

Uppsala University – Uppsala Conflict Data Program

War

(relates to state-based)

A state-based conflict or dyad which reaches at least 1000 battle-related deaths in a specific calendar year.33

Carl von Clausewitz –

War

"...[war is] an act of force to compel our enemy to do our will".34

Conflict, armed (relates to state-based)

An armed conflict is a contested incompatibility that concerns government and/or territory where the use of armed force between two parties, of which at least one is the government of a state, results in at least 25 battle-related deaths in one calendar year.

Comment

"Armed conflict" is also referred to as "state-based conflict", as opposed to " non-state conflict", where none of the warring parties are a government.35

33 Uppsala Conflict Data Program. War. N.d.

34_{Clausewitz, von Carl and Howard, Michael, Paret, Peter (eds.). On War, p. 75.} 35_{Uppsala Conflict Data Program. Conflict, armed. N.d.}

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Kaldor expresses the view that Clausewitz definition on war implies that the 'our' and 'our enemy' are states during a time where the will of the state was clearly defined.36_{Thus, the}

definition of war seem to suggest, or even explicitly declare, that war is something fought between states. According to van Creveld – a theorist more aligned with Kaldor's view on new wars – the definition of war as something waged by states was made to distinguish between war from crime.37_{UCDP's definition of 'armed conflict' affirms that it is indeed state based, though}

their definitions suggest there are conflicts with non-state actors as well.

Aside from the overarching terms of 'war' and 'armed conflict', there are several sub-definitions and terms on variations of war and conflict, some clearly defined while others more loosely define different concepts of war. Notably, many conflicts could have multiple classifications. A war being classified as a 'proxy war' does not hinder it to also be a 'new war', for instance. Some of these terms are more important than others in the context of discussing new war theory and the analysis of Yemen, and will therefore be briefly explained.

2.2.2 Old Wars

Notably, the term 'old war' was coined by Kaldor and is not a universally used or accepted term. Kaldor does not, however, dispute the definition of war, she argues that these classical

definitions of war describe what she calls old wars.38_{Kaldor explains 'the evolution of war' with}

the period between the seventeenth century and the late twentieth century as the time in which old wars existed.39_{While there are differences, the phenomenon of war was the same throughout}

this period. Centralized, rationalized, built upon a hierarchical order, by the modern state. Kaldor argues that a change has occurred after the late twentieth century, through globalization, new polity emerged, and war as presented became an anachronism, something misplaced in its time.40

The so-called old wars were predominantly European, but there have always been rebellions, guerrilla wars and colonial wars. These were sometimes not called wars at all, instead being called uprisings or insurgencies. Newer terms for these conflicts are low-intensity conflicts (see

36_{Kaldor, Mary. New and Old Wars, p. 17.} 37 Ibid, p. 20.

38 Ibid, p. 15. 39_{Ibid, p. 16.}

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view on war affects how we think about and how policy makers act on war today, even though war as a phenomenon might have changed.41

Table 1 | Kaldor's description of the Evolution of Old Wars.42

Kaldor argues that new wars and old wars are different but present differences even within old wars. The approach may come as inconsistent, even more so when we dive deeper into the four factors that Kaldor means are the major differences. Her concept of old wars will be more thoroughly examined as opposed to traditional views on war. Henceforth, when 'old war' is mentioned, it is Kaldor's description that is being referred to.

2.2.3 Proxy War

A proxy war is "a war fought between groups or smaller countries that each represent the

interests of other larger powers, and may have help and support from these."43_{Proxy wars are}

interesting because its resemblance with the definition of new wars. Proxy wars are in general a natural substitute for states that seek to further their own goals while still refraining from direct

41_{Ibid, p. 17.} 42 Ibid, p. 16.

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and costly warfare.44_{Several of the key conditions of proxy wars are much alike those conditions}

of Kaldor's new wars and have been present during the latest century: Afghanistan in the 1980s, Syria in the 2010s, and the Russian Civil War (1917-1922).45_{Irregular forces rise as proxy}

fighters through the context of failing central authority, the spread of weapons, an appeal of external powers to acquire natural resources or political influence, an emerging war economy based on plunder and barter, the inclination towards revolutionary ideas and weak conventional militaries. These wars tend to run out of control, making it harder to rebuild a stable region. The growing role of proxies is also argued to be a product of international change, from the bipolar Cold War to a more polyarchic world.46

2.2.4 Civil War and Intrastate Conflict

In the context of this thesis, civil war is highly relevant as the conflict in Yemen has been described as being a civil war.47_{A similar term that is sometimes used is Intrastate conflict or}

war. UCDP divides the term into two parts described below:

Conflict, intrastate (relates to state-based)

A conflict between a government and a non-governmental party, with no interference from other countries.48

Conflict, intrastate with foreign involvement/internationalized (relates to state-based)

44_{Mumford, Andrew. Proxy Warfare and the Future of Conflict. The RUSI Journal. 158:2, pp. 40-46, 2013, p. 40.} 45_{Marshall, Alex. Civil war to proxy war: past history and current dilemmas. Small Wars & Insurgencies. 27:2,} 2016, p. 189.

46_{Ibid, pp. 189-190.}

47_{Moyer, Jonathan D., et al. Assessing the impact of war on development in Yemen. United Nations Development} Programme. 2019, p. 14.

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government side, the opposing side, or both sides, receive troop support from other governments that actively participate in the conflict.49

Obviously, the opposite to intrastate wars are interstate wars, namely wars that are fought between two or more states.50_{Regarding Yemen, we will discover that a conflict of intrastate}

nature with foreign involvement would be the most truthful of the three. Noteworthy is Kaldor's claim that new wars tend to be civil or intrastate wars.51

Figure 1 | Armed Conflict by Type, 1946-2019.52

Indeed, UCDP data show that intrastate wars have been increasing since the end of the Second World War. UCDP:s definition of foreign involvement has seen an increase during later years, exemplified by Figure 1.

49_{Uppsala Conflict Data Program. Conflict, intrastate with foreign involvement/internationalized. N.d.} 50_{Uppsala Conflict Data Program. Conflict, interstate. N.d.}

51 Kaldor, Mary. New and Old Wars, p. 2.

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2.3 New War Theory

In light of the numerous and complex forms of conflict presented above and further explained in appendices, this section will introduce and problematize the fundamentals of Kaldor's new war theory. To begin with, globalization as a process will be critically analysed through the context of the theory. Then, Kaldor's four identified factors of what differs old wars from new wars will be presented and critically analysed.

While Clausewitz sees war as an exertion of strength, with only two motives: either hostile feelings or hostile intentions, Kaldor argues that war, at least nowadays, is a violent enterprise framed in political terms.53_{Kaldor writes about 'the logic' of new wars, mostly summarized in}

four factors explaining the differences between old and new wars; goals, actors, ways of finance and methods.54_{Whilst categorizations are not unusual, issues are incurred when attempting to}

define a category or a factor; what parts are left out?

2.3.1 Globalization – the fabricator behind new wars?

Before detailing the four factors, it is critical to probe what are seen as underlying drivers in the shift between old and new wars. At a first glance, globalization and violence are important for the understanding of new wars. According to Kaldor, new wars spread and persist since the actors involved achieve gains through violence without actually 'winning' the war in a traditional sense.55_{If old wars were associated with state building, new wars are associated with state}

dismantling.56_{Kaldor identifies the persistence and spread of new wars as the key difference}

with old wars.57_{To then have four factors separate from this process of persistence and spread}

weakens the arguments that the factors themselves make as being differences between old and new. In Kaldor's defence, she never argues that the theory is all-knowing, and to develop it is natural and crucial to move forward.

53_{Kaldor, Mary. In Defence of new wars, p. 3.} 54_{Ibid, p. 2.}

55_{Ibid, p. 3.} 56_{Ibid, p. 3.} 57_{Ibid, p. 3.}

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Returning to the theory, new forms of identity politics have developed as a result of

globalization, creating a political gap between the politics of particularistic identity and the politics of cosmopolitan or humanist values which together stand in the forefront of the very theory of new wars.58

Globalization as explained by Kaldor:

... [globalization is] breaking up the cultural and socio-economic divisions that deﬁned the patterns of politics which characterized the modern period. The new type of warfare has to be understood in terms of this global dislocation. New forms of power struggle may take the guise of traditional nationalism, tribalism or religious fundamentalism, but they are, nevertheless, contemporary phenomena arising from contemporary causes and displaying new characteristics. Moreover, they are paralleled by a growing global consciousness and sense of global responsibility among an array of governmental and non-governmental institutions as well as individuals.59

Other processes are thereby represented through globalization. First off, social vulnerability increases as the state weakens. This is seen specifically through the deterioration of the state's authority and legitimacy, and more profoundly on the erosion of what is collectively good – the public goods – such as security, infrastructure, and access to information. Secondly,

globalization creates better circumstances for economic motives of wars to grow, particularly to fuel civil wars.60

Kaldor does not dismiss other processes, practices, and historical factors for new wars, as she previously has mentioned the deterioration of authoritarian states, and other historical factors such as imperialism and colonialism. Nevertheless, she writes:

58_{Kaldor, Mary. New and Old Wars, pp. 71-72.} 59_{Kaldor, Mary. New and Old Wars, p. 72.}

60_{Newman, Edward. The 'New Wars' Debate: A Historical Perspective Is Needed. Security Dialogue, 35, June 2004,} p. 177.

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New Wars are the wars of the era of globalization. Typically, they take place in areas where authoritarian states have been greatly weakened as a consequence of opening up to the rest of the world.61

This explanation could be argued as being overly simplified, her approach merging several historical factors as to why new wars arise simply into the process of globalization. Her focus on the four factors makes the question of why wars occur less important since the factors only seem to strive to explain that war has fundamentally changed. Is the question of whether war has changed or not more important than policy implications to stop war? Or are they intertwined?

Increasing globalization mirrors emerging new wars. The time period of when old wars occurred and subsequently diminished while new wars emerged is nonetheless debated. Kaldor agrees by the fact of which the end of the Cold War contributed 'in important ways to new wars'62_{, they led}

to the vacancy of power with the disintegration of totalitarian empires, the withdrawal of

superpower support to and of increased availability of weapons.63_{However, Kaldor often refers}

to 'before the end of the Cold War' and displays her own table of the evolution of wars with old wars occurring until the late twentieth century (see Table 1).64_{Kaldor writes:}

The irregular, informal wars of the second half of the twentieth century… represent the harbingers of the new forms of warfare. The actors, techniques and counter-techniques which emerged out of the cracks of modern warfare were to provide the basis for new ways of socially organizing violence. During the Cold War, their character was obscured by the dominance of the East–West conﬂict; they were conceived as a peripheral part of the central conﬂict.65

The transition between old wars and new wars did not happen overnight and cannot be solely categorized into absolute time periods. Old wars occurred from the seventeenth century with the emerging nation-state and began to decrease in favour of new wars after the Second World War or during the Cold War.

61_{Kaldor, Mary. In Defence of new wars, p. 2.} 62_{Kaldor, Mary. New and Old Wars, p. 5.} 63_{Ibid, p. 4.}

64_{Ibid, p. 16 & p. 31.} 65_{Ibid, p. 31.}

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In conclusion, the presentation of the four factors will be done keeping the processes and terms of globalization, violence and the persistence and spread of new wars in mind.

2.3.2 Goals and Aims of War

The goals of old wars were mostly of ideological character or geo-political in nature. Kaldor argues that the world has seen a shift from ideology and territorial frictions to another political friction, that between what Kaldor calls the cosmopolitan side and the particularistic side.66_This

makes new wars being fought in terms of identity politics, the struggle for power by reason of a particular identity, be that of ethnic, tribal, national, clan, linguistic or religious character. Globalization explains the context of this divide, as there are some that are part of global processes while others are not. To understand particularistic identities is to understand the dissonance between the ones who participate in the globalized society and transnational networks, through travel, the Internet and communication, and those who are excluded from global process. However, among the ones who participate in transnational networks, there are some who work for exclusivist/particularistic identity while there are individuals at the local level who deny particularistic politics.67

During the era of globalization, large diaspora communities have seen their influence increased by the ease of travel and communication. The use of mobiles, the Internet and social media has greatly contributed to the emergence of political networks and the speed of political

mobilization.68_{Kaldor argues that while all wars have involved some sort of clash between}

identities, old war identities were tied to notions of state interest or ideas on how society should look like.69_{For instance, the European nationalism of the nineteenth century was a project of}

nation building. Identity politics of new wars tend to idealize nostalgic images of the past, a claim to power in accordance with labels encouraging social or political change. Some narratives of identity politics may be call-backs to the same ones of the past kept under control by the Cold

66_{Kaldor, Mary. New and Old Wars, p. 7.} 67 Ibid, p. 7.

68_{Ibid, p. 8.} 69_{Ibid, pp. 7–8.}

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War or colonialism. Nevertheless, through failing political legitimacy, these identities are reinvented and distinct from ones in the past.70

The cultural divide between those who participate in global society and those who are not, are not entirely explained by political terms, however. Kaldor's point is that the process of

globalization breaks up cultural and socio-economic divisions which define the system of politics categorizing the modern period.71_{These clashes between identities will be exemplified in in}

Chapter 4 and 5.

2.3.3 Actors of War

Kaldor argues that whereas old wars were fought by armed forces of states, new wars are fought by a variety of state and non-state actors, including private contractors. This can make the distinction between combatants and civilians blurry.72_{New wars are indeed fought by regular}

armies but also by breakaway groups from national armies, paramilitary units, local warlords, criminal organizations, mercenary groups and more. Kaldor argues that a distinct difference from old wars is the decentralized character of a new war.73

This factor garners several questions and reflections. Notably, all the other factors connect to actors. It is the actors of war, whether they are 'new' or 'old', that portray their goals of war and who act according to methods of warfare which are to be financed. The issue arises when defining an actor, the importance of non-state actors in new wars imply that a large number of actors could be relevant regarding a war. If the aim of the new war theory is to influence policy, the application of the theory on cases should not be overly complex. A conflict with a coalition that contains numerous different state and non-state actors makes the analysis more difficult. Groups within actors whose goals, methods or finance differ from their parent group would by definition be regarded as a separate group. This raises an issue which we will return to in chapter 5.

70_{Ibid, pp. 7 & 72–73.}

71_{Kaldor, Mary. New and Old Wars, p. 72.} 72_{Ibid, p. 215.}

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2.3.4 Means of Finance

The decentralized character of new wars is very much seen from the financial aspect as it comes through looting, humanitarian aid, smuggling or diaspora support rather than being financed by the state, being absolute and centralized.74_{From the finance factor of wars, Kaldor coined the}

term 'globalized war economy' which she argues is completely different from the war economies of the world wars. The economies of new wars are dependent on external resources as

unemployment rate is high with declining domestic production due to destruction and global competition as well as the interruption to tax revenue. As so, looting and plunder emerges as the natural method of finance for the non-state actors of war. These actors may get support from diasporas worldwide, they tax humanitarian organizations when they try to assist the population and the black-market soar due to the lack of state control as trade of arms and other valuable goods or materials flow in and out of the conflict area. Support from neighbouring states to various groups lead to the arguments of conflicts being proxy-wars. To sustain the globalized war economy, continued violence must occur, and new wars tend to affect neighbouring countries and regions as well through refugees, organized crimes, and ethnic minorities. The cycle of fear and hate is reinforced by when actors obtain economic or political gains from the violence.75

2.3.5 Methods of Warfare

The final aspect of war that has undergone change, according to Kaldor, is methods of warfare.76

Through terror, violence and displacement of ethnic groups, new wars are fought over the control of populations. This differs from old wars where military battles were the decisive factor of political control. New warfare has similarities with guerrilla warfare with the purpose of avoiding large-scale military battles where the enemy may have advantages in manpower and equipment. In theory, guerrilla warfare aimed to capture the hearts and minds of the population, new warfare draws more similarities to counter-insurgency strategies of spreading fear and hate

74 Kaldor, Mary. New and Old Wars, p. 10. 75 Ibid, pp. 10-11.

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through destabilization, to mobilize extremist politics. The aim is to discard dissidents and ones of different identity by terror. Terror and intimidation are achieved by a variety of political, economic, or psychological tactics, including mass killings and forcible resettlement. This in turn lead to a high level of a displaced population and refugees and why violence is directed towards civilians. Terrorist attacks in the US, Western Europe as well as in other places such the Middle East is modified from this new strategy, the use of spectacle and gruesome violence to generate conflict and fear.77

2.4 Discussion

As is clear, the nature, philosophies and theories on war paints a wide picture with many conflicting opinions on its fundamentals and possible changing nature. Some of the debated questions regarding the new war theory or theories on war in general will be handled in the analysis and conclusion parts of the thesis. Below, a brief discussion of the relevancy of the case Yemen will be made, as well as questions regarding the factors ability to be reproduced in studies.

2.4.1 Why study a case of new war?

There is an integral lack of major case studies applying new war theory on contemporary conflicts. Most of the literature regarding new war theory is about the theory itself, its criticism of traditional views on war and the subsequent adverse reaction to her theory coming from theorists and academics adhering to Clausewitz's views. Chojnacki argues that Kaldor's theory is struggling with how new wars are classified while Kaldor argues that it is the existing

categorisation of conflict that struggle due to its disconnect with contemporary reality.78_Perhaps

this is why we have so many different categorisations of war and conflict to begin with, everything from proxy, post-modern (see Appendix C), hybrid, and intrastate-interstate.

Broadening the understanding of new wars will aid the understanding of old wars. Likewise, the understanding of old wars through the lens of a new war could do the same.

77 Kaldor, Mary. New and Old Wars, p. 9.

78_{Chojnacki, Sven. Anything new or more of the same? Wars and military interventions in the international system,} 1946–2003. Global Society. 2006, p. 26.

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The expressed aim with the new war theory is to offer a different perspective on war, to

reconceptualize the terms of war and violence, and to contribute to the field of research.79_Kaldor

wants the study of war to have the goal of affecting policymakers to prevent war from occurring as she sees new wars frequently being handled as if they were old wars.80_{Her approach of}

merging underlying or historical several historical factors as to why new wars arise simply into the process of globalization raises the question of whether globalization or failed policy is the contributing factor that explains why new war occur. Yemen seems like a probable new war, with its numerous actors and complex intra-state war. But the focus on the factors within the theory makes the question of how the war occurred less important, even though that question might lay within the factor of goals and aims. This will be investigated in chapter 5.

2.4.2 Methodology Criticism

The arbitrary classification of Kaldor's factors as well as the possible over reliance on the process of globalization creates some difficulties regarding methodology. Chojnacki questions the ability for Kaldor's identified factors to be reproduced intersubjectively.81_{While he agrees that}

identifications of change in warfare should be made within conflict research to attain the

institutionalisation of deterrent measures and peace, he disputes the relevance of empirical cases for new war theory since its results would not give rise to the identification of global trends of conflict nor central causal mechanisms of contemporary wars.82_{Kaldor mean that the existing}

categorisation of conflict is problematic, that it in particular has a hard time fitting into

'contemporary reality'.83_{Therefore, the policy that emerge out of them are disoriented. Kaldor}

mentions how the term 'new' hopefully can be replaced with further refining of the concept of war.84

79_{Kaldor, Mary. New and Old Wars, p. 14.} 80 Kaldor, Mary. In Defence of new wars, pp. 3-4.

81_{Chojnacki, Sven. Anything new or more of the same? Wars and military interventions in the international system,} 1946–2003, p. 26.

82_{Ibid, pp. 26-27.}

83_{Kaldor, Mary. In Defence of new wars, pp. 5-6.} 84_{Ibid, p. 5.}

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2.4.3 Summary

In chapter 2 we introduced the classical views on war, most significant being that of Clausewitz who expressed war as driven by states and having irrational, nonrational and rational aspects and forces. Moving on, definitions and terms of war was introduced, exemplifying the numerous and complex forms of conflict existing while making a connection to Kaldor's new war theory. The new war theory is argued to be the opposite of Clausewitz's; summarized in Table 2. With the theory in mind, we move on to the method on how the case of Yemen will be handled.

Table 2 | Characteristics of Old and New Wars.

Factor Old War New War

Goals and Aims

Wars of identity tied to notions of state interest, ideology.

Wars of identity tied to identity politics, the struggle for power by reason of a particular identity; ethnic, tribal, national.

Actors Fought between states. Fought by numerous non-state and state groups.

Finance Centralized. Decentralized, violence financed by looting, hostage taking, illegal trade, diasporas; international networks tied into the conflict. State-building effect of war financing. War dismantles the state.

Methods Controlling territory through direct military engagement with opposing groups, decisive military battles.

Controlling territory through controlling population (displacement, rape, ethnic cleansing). Avoidance of direct military encounters.

Clear front line. Patchwork of enclaves controlled by different actors.

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3. Method

This chapter presents the methodological approach, explaining the use of a case study and the focus on a theoretical approach by operationalizing Kaldor's factors. The method is qualitative, being a document analysis. The research strategy involves both deductive and inductive

reasoning where the analytical process goes back and forth between theory and empirics to develop both. The aim is to critically analyse the application of the new war theory through the case of Yemen. Since the theory of new war is central for the thesis, the four factors of goals,

actors, finance, and methods are the factors that will be mainly studied regarding the case. Aside

from Kaldor's own case studies, there is a fundamental lack of major case studies applying the new war theory on post-Cold War conflicts or contemporary conflicts.

3.1 Research Design

Qualitative research strives to understand the motivations that encompass human behaviour.85

Therefore, a holistic understanding is needed to comprehend the four identified factors, the whys and hows of social actions and how it has affected the war in Yemen. The research is based on both primary and secondary sources.

The principal orientation to the role of theory tends to be inductive – generation of theory – regarding qualitative research while quantitative research tends to be deductive – testing of theory.86_{A deductive approach is made conducting research with reference to a hypothesis and}

ideas inferred from theory.87_{While the theory is a major part of this research paper, I do not}

intend to 'test' the theory in traditional terms, nor do I have any theoretical hypotheses. This research paper is more about a critical theoretical discussion, the research value is therefore on the 'hows' and 'whys' and not on any 'yes or no' question. The case of Yemen is a probable instance of a 'new war', making that statement the closest aspect to any form of hypothesis. The research of this paper is deductive in terms of being critical towards the applied theory and inductive in terms of opening up questions on theory, for instance, if Kaldor's identified factors

85_{Della Porta, Donnatella & Keating, Michael (eds.). Approaches and Methodologies in the Social Sciences: A} Pluralist Perspective. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008, p. 26.

86_{Bryman, Alan. Social Research Methods. 5}th_{edition. Oxford, Oxford University Press. 2016, p. 32.} 87 Ibid, p. 690.

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could be expanded or revised. The researcher is the primary instrument of data collection and analysis and assumes an inductive stance to find meaning in data.88_{An advantage of a qualitative}

method is its fluidity and flexibility; it makes it possible to acknowledge unanticipated findings and alter the research plans while the study progress.89

The strategy is to do an iterative approach, constructing knowledge by going back and forth between theory and empirics.90_{As so, both deductive and inductive reasoning is applied to the}

research. It is a process that entails the capture of words from a given material, finding relevant documents, and identifying patterns and information that is repeated from several different sources.91_{For instance, Actor A of Yemen may repeatedly be mentioned to be financed by Actor}

B. Then the process goes into analysing in depth, drawing conclusions from the data whilst finally evaluating different point of views and data and revisiting by going back to the theory while writing as to confirm what the qualitative data represents.92_{In conclusion, the writing}

process will go back and forth between theory and analysis, effectively assessing the theory critically, pointing out issues and raising questions about it.

3.1.1 Epistemology and Ontology

There are two main epistemological positions with differing approaches to research, namely positivism and interpretivism.93_{Positivism back the idea of using methods of natural sciences to}

the study of social sciences while interpretivism is critical towards the positivist use of scientific models to the study of the social world.94_{In sum, the subject matter of social research, whether}

that is people or institutions, are entirely different from the ones of natural sciences. Social sciences are not natural phenomenon, it requires a logic that consider the fundamental

differences between people and objects of the natural sciences.95_{The approach that will be used}

in this thesis is interpretivism due to the qualitative design of the research and relevancy

88_{Sharan, Merriam B. & Tisdell, Elizabeth J. Qualitative Research : A Guide to Design and Implementation. John} Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, 2015, p. 31.

89_{Bryman, Alan. Social Research Methods, p. 78.}

90_{Kekeya, Joseph. Analysing qualitative data using an iterative process. Contemporary PNG Studies. Vol. 24, May} 2016, p. 93. 91_{Ibid, p. 93.} 92_{Ibid, p. 93.} 93_{Bryman, Alan, pp. 24-26.} 94_{Ibid, p. 26.} 95_{Bryman, Alan, pp. 26–28.}

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institutions, and their effect on the phenomenon that we know as war. War is difficult to measure, though there are certainly some numbers that can be presented and added to a critical analysis on its nature from the perspective of a particular theory.

Finally, ontology intends to identify the object of study by constructing concepts, it concerns what can be studied and compared, and what constitutes as being political.96_{The ontological}

position of qualitative research is usually constructionism rather than quantitative research's objectivism.97_{Constructionism maintains that social phenomena and their connotations are}

constantly being challenged and accomplished by social actors.98_{Accordingly, there is no single}

perspective on a phenomenon, and it is shaped by individuals or groups. Objectivism, on the other hand, asserts that social phenomena have an existence independent of social actors.99_The

ontological position of this study will therefore be of constructionism.

3.1.2 Document Analysis

In many cases, qualitative researchers who use written texts as their materials do not try to follow any predefined protocol in executing their analysis. By reading and rereading their empirical materials, they try to pin down their key themes and, thereby, to draw a picture of the presuppositions and meanings that constitute the cultural world of which the textual material is a specimen.100

Qualitative methods may be difficult to formalize and how approaches and methods are labelled may be a question of interpretation backed by one's own disciplinary background and studies.101

Application of document analysis is sometimes classified as being an 'unobtrusive' method.102

The focus is primarily on what contains within a document – a conduit of meaning. They often

96_{Ibid, p. 689;}

Della Porta, Donnatella & Keating, Michael (eds.). Approaches and Methodologies in the Social Sciences: A

Pluralist Perspective, p. 21. 97 Bryman, Alan, p. 32. 98 Ibid, p. 689.

99 Ibid, p. 693.

100_{Denzin, Norman K. & Lincoln, Yvonna S. (eds.)., The SAGE Handbook of Qualitative Research. 2011, p. 530.} 101_{Given, Lisa M. (eds.). The SAGE Encyclopedia of Qualitative Research Methods. 2008, p. XXX.}

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come in the form of writing but can also include maps, films, and photographs.103_{It sometimes}

includes content analysis; the process of categorizing textual data, to identify patterns and themes.104_{This method is a way of reducing data and deriving meaning from it, commonly used}

to analyse a wide range of textual data.105_{It allows a broader applicability and is a highly flexible}

method.106_{Qualitative data analysis does not have many universal rules for drawing conclusions}

and verifying dependability.107_{The document analysis is made to critically assess and analyse}

the theory and the case of Yemen through the use of several sources, taking advantage of the iterative approach of going back and forth between empirics and theory.

3.1.3 Case Study

New war theory very much entails contemporary conflicts, as so, to understand contemporary reality as in the context of war, a contemporary conflict is suited as a choice for a case study. Naturally, the case of Yemen suits well in the aspects concerning a relevant choice for the application of new war theory. There is a lack of new war theory being used to explain the conflict and its contemporary and complex nature would presumably make it a representative or typical case of a new war.

The value of a case study is that it gives the opportunity to explain the whys of a result rather than what those results are.108_{The focus should be to examine the theory and evaluate both the}

theory in context of the cases and the cases in context of the theory. We have already discussed some questions and issues regarding the theory, mostly regarding the classification of factors and the role of globalization. By looking at Yemen, we can critically analyse the factors and the impact of globalization to both understand how and why war occurred in Yemen but also to point out parts that are missing or lacking regarding theoretical explanations.

103_{Ibid, p. 230.} 104_{Ibid, pp. 120 & 230.} 105_{Ibid, p. 120.}

106_{Bryman, Alan, p. 303.}

107_{Miles, M. B., & Huberman, A. M, Qualitative data analysis: A sourcebook of new methods. Thousand Oaks, CA:} Sage, 1984, p. 16.

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instrumental.109_{Instrumental case study is research that wants to understand a phenomenon}

through a case or to refine theory while abductive case study is research about a distinctive phenomenon, a better understanding of this particular case, thereby understood to be desirable in and of itself.110_{This study is an abductive case in terms of research on war in Yemen, though}

very much instrumental in terms of understanding war – through the focus on theory.

3.2 Material

The violence in Yemen has weakened governance functions and monitoring capacities, the actors involved imposing bureaucratic hinders, threatening journalists and seeking to control the flow of information.111_{In view of these limitations, the analysis draws upon a variety of sources, both}

secondary and primary. The primary sources will include UN security council statutes and meetings, statistical data from providers such as UCDP, as well as transcripts, meetings, and agreements. The secondary sources will intend to capture a broad spectrum of material and empirical studies from different scholars, authors, books, papers, and news articles.

All pieces of information acquired will be managed from a critical viewpoint, in particular information from media with connections to belligerents in the conflict.112_{A careful and}

systematic assessment of sources are made to determine where they originate from, who wrote it, and which audience it is intended for.113_{Biased sources will not be automatically discarded since}

they still can contain sound information, though the reliability of the information should by checked by triangulation.114_{Partisan sources such as media controlled by a party within a}

109_{Obeng, Raymond. An Exploration of the Case Study Methodological Approach through Research and} Development. Northeastern University, College of Professional Studies. 2015, p. 2.

110_{Ibid, p. 2;}

Punch, Keith F. Introduction to Social Research | Quantitative and Qualitative approaches. Third Edition, SAGE Publications, 2014, p. 121.

111_{Carapico, Sheila. War and de-development. Politics, governance, and reconstruction in Yemen. Project on} Middle East Political Science (POMEPS), studies no. 29, Washington DC, January 2018;

Dureab, Fekri, et al. Diphtheria outbreak in Yemen: the impact of conflict on a fragile health system. Conflict and

Health. 13: 9, 2019.

112_{Hoglund, Kristine & Oberg, Magnus (eds.). Understanding Peace Research : Methods and Challenges. Taylor &} Francis Group, 2011, p. 45.

113_{Hoglund, Kristine & Oberg, Magnus (eds.). Understanding Peace Research : Methods and Challenges, p. 45.} 114_{Ibid, p. 43.}

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conflict could be useful to establish their view of themselves and of their adversaries.115_One

such source for this study might the news media network Al Jazeera, funded by the Qatari government, who have had their tensions with other countries involved in Yemen.116_Saudi

Arabia and the UAE cut ties with Qatar in 2017, accusing it of supporting terrorism, though diplomatic relations were restored earlier in 2021.117

Reports from IGOs and NGOs are valuable sources of information, who often can operate in areas where traditional media is restricted. Still, they can have their own agendas, being sometimes partisan, or semi-partisan.118

For the statistical research regarding the figures on war, many data providers will be used. Firstly, the UCDP describes itself as the world's main provider of data on organized violence (see Appendix D) with a focus on civil wars. UCDP:s definition regarding armed conflicts and how they are studied is the global standard in quantitative research.119_{The Uppsala Conflict}

Database is regarded as an excellent provider on information of armed conflicts.120_{To add to}

this, the research will also be using data from respected data collectors such as ACLED, the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (UN OHCHR), the Political Instability Task Force (PITF), the Yemen Data Project (YDP), the World Health Organization (WHO), as well as reports from the UN Group of Eminent International and Regional Experts on Yemen (GEE). ACLED is a non-profit American data collection and analysis project.121_PITF,

financed by the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), focuses on the deliberate killing of civilians in the context of the wider conflict.122_{The YDP have been used and cited by several credible}

sources including the UN, the New York Times, the Washington Post, and The Guardian.123

3.3 Operationalizing Kaldor's Factors

115_{Ibid, p. 52.}

116_{Al Jazeera. About Us. Al Jazeera. 2021.}

117_{BBC. Qatar crisis: Saudi Arabia and allies restore diplomatic ties with emirate. BBC. January 5, 2021.} 118_{Hoglund, Kristine & Oberg, Magnus (eds.), p. 52.}

119_{Uppsala Conflict Data Program. About UCDP. UCDP. n.d.} 120_{Hoglund, Kristine & Oberg, Magnus (eds.), p. 52.}

121_{The Armed Conflict Location & Event Data Project. About ACLED. ACLED. n.d.}

122_{PITF. Political Instability Task Force worldwide atrocities dataset. Parus Analytics. April 15, 2020} 123_{Yemen Data Project. Yemen Data Project In Use. YDP. n.d.}

The Reconceptualized War : A critical analysis of the new war theory through a case study of the Yemen War