'We Rising Up' : Rap Music as a Tool of Resistance

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Malmö University

Department of Global Political Studies Peace and Conflict Studies

‘We Rising Up’

Rap Music as a Tool of Resistance

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Abstract

This study aims to point out how music can be used as resistance. This study looks at four rap songs and how the lyrics express resistance against African American oppression in the United States of America. Using discourse analysis I, a method outlined by Gillian Rose, in combination with discourse theory and cultural resistance theory, the following research question is answered: How is resistance against oppression expressed in rap music? In addition this study asks how the expression of resistance against oppression has changed over time? Therefore the songs have been selected from a different era, starting from the 80s until today. The method portrayed how the selected songs construct blame, effects of truth and arguments against oppression through the lyrics. Moreover, the theories showed how rap music can be used as cultural resistance since it performs as a practice of survival and rebellion as well as can be political and an outlet to let out frustration. Moreover, it was found that discourse determines the ways the artists act and view their world which is expressed through the selected songs.

Key words: rap music, resistance, oppression, African American community, cultural resistance

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1 Introduction

Music can mean many things to different people; some listen to it as a distraction, some as consolation and others get empowered by music. Thus, it is this power that music provides that sparked the interest for this study. Music has been an imperative part of the African American community, beginning as resistance against slavery, further developing to Black gospel church music and later on jazz, continuing until today with other genres such as rap through, which identities and community values are alternated in the face of social transformation (Pratt, 1990:1). Music is a way to express oneself as well as to evoke certain feelings in a listener, which is why it is interesting to study how music can extend into the political field as a strategy of resistance by studying the lyrics.

When it comes to rap, one cannot ignore the message behind the lyrics. Even though not all rap talks about police brutality of racial discrimination, or is even ‘political’, some use rap as an outlet of expression, through which they describe their experience of being an African-American in the United States. Rap music can create a means of obtaining the upward mobility for some Blacks in the marginalized communities where few opportunities are available (Martinez, 1993:123). Indeed, African American oppression did not end after slavery was abolished since there are still many facts that indicate otherwise.

When looking into police brutality in the US, African Americans are 2.5 times more likely to be killed by the police than White people (Mock, 2019). The US holds the highest incarceration rate in the world and it significantly affects people of color. Due to the 13th Amendment, which abolished slavery and involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime, slavery is still acceptable when it comes to those convicted of a crime (Stevenson, 2019). The amendment and the forced labor it entails has been called a form of ‘modern-day slavery’ by which prisoners are forced to work to complete their sentence and paid below market price for their labor (LeBaron, 2018). Even though the amendment applies to all criminals, Black and Brown people are severely the victims of it (Stevenson, 2019). In 2000 Black people were incarcerated at a rate 8.3 times higher than White people but by 2016 the number had gone down to 5.1 (Mettler, 2019). Such as Nixon's war on drugs, mandatory minimum sentences and the three-strikes law all target Black and Brown people, who are

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Stevenson (ibid.) “Black defendants are 22 times more likely to receive the death penalty for crimes whose victims are white, rather than black”. Even though the number of incarceration has decreased the gap between races is still there. According to a study by the Council on Criminal Justice, the offending rate for Black people indeed declined but their length of time in the system increased (Mettler, 2019). All of the aforementioned issues among others are constantly visible in the lives of African Americans, which is why it is interesting to study how these injustices are described and resisted in rap music. The reason why this is studied here is that the issues presented through rap music can be utilized to raise awareness in the African American community as well as the larger public and thus can work as a tool in bringing greater change.

1.1 Research Problem and Aim

The aim of this study is to portray how four rap songs express resistance in their lyrics. When rappers write lyrics with the intention to describe their reality, “…their work loosely resembles a sort of street ethnography of racist institutions and social practices, but told more of than not in the first person.” (Kelley, 1996:190). Expressing resistance through rap music can be done by practicing cultural resistance, (see chapter 4, section 4.1) which creates a space free from the dominant culture where one can develop ideas and practices for resistance that can be shared and which fosters communality (Duncombe, 2002:6). It is this phenomenon and how it is transmitted through music that sparked the interest for this study. Hence, this study takes the form of a qualitative discourse analysis, which tries to discover how resistance is expressed in rap music. I am interested in how a group of people or a community seeks to understand the world they live in. The process of this qualitative study is largely inductive thus, the meaning is generated from the data since I will examine how these songs describe resistance against oppression by analyzing the lyrics. The genre has been limited to rap music from a different era to compare if their expression on resistance has changed since the songs have come out. The themes in the songs will be presented in the method chapter (see chapter 5, section 5.5), and later on in the analysis (see chapter 6. Section 6.2) I will analyze how the

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themes are approached in the chosen songs and moreover, how oppression is expressed in the selected songs for this study.

1.2 Research Questions

Based on the research problem and aim, my research question goes as follows:

● How is resistance against oppression expressed in rap music?

To further narrow the scope of my analysis of the chosen material, the following interrelated operational question has been formulated:

● How has the expression of resistance against oppression changed over time?

Since each song comes from a different era, this question will be answered through comparing the expression of the themes in the songs to discover differences or similarities in the way they are presented. Whether or not there have been changes, this study can only speculate about the development of African American circumstances in the US over time.

1.3 Relevance to Peace and Conflict Studies

Using art as resistance can be defined as a creative act that includes both a dynamic and aesthetic dimension (Awad, Wagoner and Glaveanu, 2017:161). Lederach (2019:141) further studies this dimension and argues that music encourages a more holistic lens that has the ability to “to hold memory or dreaming; call to action or appeal for contemplation; incite

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Indeed, rap music can be seen as inciting action and invoking empathy. He further argues how music offers a different medium for exploring deep human experiences that arise from encounters with conflict and peace (ibid). According to Lederach (ibid:143) conflict requires a relocating of oneself and others, events and meaning. Thus, music has an evocative capacity that can restore the disruption of our assumed understandings (ibid.). Rap music can be understood as the artists’ outlet for sharing their experiences as well as a tool to evoke feelings.

Rap music can also function as an outlet to bring change. Some say that art has always functioned as social criticism (McCarthy, 2007:364). The reason why rap music has been chosen is that it addresses many issues such as racial and economic discrimination but also calls for personal responsibility and self-improvement action in the Black community to find solutions for crime, drugs and community instability (Rose, 1994:2).

Oppression can be studied through the lens of structural violence by Galtung (1969), where violence is rooted in the system, which he also calls social injustice. All of the songs chosen for this study address this ‘systemic violence’, which is seen as targeting African Americans disproportionately. Moreover, in this study rap music is seen as cultural resistance against the dominant culture that is seen as forcing its culture over another (Duncombe, 2002). The dominant culture can be seen as practicing cultural violence, which legitimizes direct or structural violence (Galtung, 1990). In this case, the violence is more structural than direct since the dominant culture is more set in the structures and accepted by society. However Galtung points out that entire cultures cannot be classified as violent but only aspects of it (ibid.).

1.4 Delimitations

This study is mainly focused on the discourse of the following songs: “Fuck Tha Police” by N.W.A. (1988), “Changes” by 2Pac and Talent (1998), “Can’t Hold Us Back” by Public Enemy and Paris (2005) and “We Rising Up” by Climbing Poetree (2017), and how these express resistance against racial oppression in the US. These songs are chosen because their take on the subject of resistance is most suitable for this study and the way they describe issues such as racism further gives valuable insight to answer my research and operational

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question. To achieve this study’s aim, a relatively small number of songs have been chosen. I am aware that this decision can only give an insight into the subject and including more material, focusing on different genres or including other people of color in the discussion would further enrich this study as well as offer more general findings. These injustices are not only limited to Black people, however it is their historical background that has shaped these injustices and consequently the resistance, which this study is interested in and has thus taken that particular context as a departure point. I cannot relate or even come close to understanding their realities, however this study can try to raise awareness by portraying how rap can be used to resist racial oppression in the US.

Moreover, the focus is on only rap music produced by Black artists since it is their particular experience that this study is interested in and it can only be studied by focusing on the ones experiencing these injustices. I acknowledge the fact that there are numerous White rappers, but since my point of focus is oppression that has its roots in slavery and taking into account the history of rap music mainly being dominated by Black artists, including White rappers would completely shift the focus of the study. As only one out of three songs was produced by a female rapper, including more women rappers would make the study more diverse. To conduct a realistic study, within the scope and timeframe, the above-mentioned measures have been taken. Further study suggestions will be introduced in more depth in chapter 7.

1.5 Capitalizing “Black” and “White”

In this study the word “Black” is capitalized because it refers to people of African descent. When reading different scholars’ work for this thesis it was noticeable that some used a capital B and others did not. The current decision is made based on the notion from the Center for the Study of Social Policy, which states that Black signifies more than color and takes into consideration the history and racial identity of Black Americans (Nguyễn and Pendleton, 2020). It is further argued that language plays a historical and contemporaneous part in how Blackness and anti-Blackness have been understood in the US (ibid.). Moreover, White is

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argumentation above resonates with my stance, which is why these decisions have been made in this study. Also, when speaking of a culture, as this study does, Black should be capitalized because culture is something that is part of a person’s identity. The same goes for ethnicity or when talking of a group of people because “Black with a capital B refers to people of the African diaspora. Lowercase black is simply a color” (Tharps, 2014). Therefore, when writing about a group of people they should be appointed with the rightful terms.

1.6 Thesis Outline

This study consists of seven chapters in total. In the introduction the thesis is introduced and its aim and research questions are presented. Moreover, the relation between the thesis and the field of peace and conflict is discussed as well as the delimitations that have been taken into account while conducting this study. In the background chapter, the history of rap music and its many layers are explained briefly. The previous research chapter discusses relevant work surrounding resistance, resistance from below, art and resistance and rap music and resistance. The theory chapter consists of a discussion of cultural resistance and discourse, which provide an analytical foundation for the analysis as well as give the tools to answer the research questions. In the method chapter, discourse analysis I is introduced, related concepts explained, strengths and weaknesses discussed and lastly the choice of method is reflected on. The analysis is divided into four sub-sections, where the context of the material is explained, the lyrics and themes are compared, the findings are introduced and lastly a discussion is offered. The last chapter is the conclusion, where the main arguments and thoughts are drawn and potential further research is suggested.

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2 Background

This chapter discusses the background of rap music. Starting from its development into a popular genre listened by many as well as how it has been used to foster African American communality and as a tool of political criticism.

2.1 Rap music

Most of the research done on rap music explores its history as well as its development from music to a social movement (Rose, 1994). Music has always been part of the African American community. Its roots go back to slavery where music was used to cope with the oppression for a recreational purpose (Thompson, 2014). Black music further developed to Black gospel church music, continuing its development to other genres such as rap through which identities and values are expressed (Pratt, 1990). Rap music first emerged in the mid-70s in New York City and has since spread around the world and become one of the most popular music genres (Sullivan, 2003). Hip hop and rap are usually thought of as the same. While hip hop refers to a cultural movement among African American youth, rap has its roots in the “...African tradition of speaking rhythmically to a beat generally supplied by background music.” (Richardson and Scott, 2002:176). Rap derived from the working and lower-income class youth, who used it as an outlet to express their dissatisfaction against the economy and their social stigmatization (ibid:177). At first rap music went unnoticed by the music and popular culture industries (Rose, 1994.). After being ‘discovered’ and accepted by many industries such as music and fashion, it became popular and everyone wanted their part of it even though it was thought to be a passing trend (ibid.). For long it was mostly consumed by people of color and later on became popular among the White public (ibid.). Rap music faced a lot of obstacles while trying to gain a foothold in the music industry. One of the leading rap groups was Public Enemy, who paved the way for rap music. They became

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popular for addressing political issues as well as promoting Black nationalism through rap, which was seen as a ground-breaking step in rap music (ibid.)

2.2 The Many Layers of Rap Music

2.2.1 Violence and Rap

At first Rap music was seen as promoting violence, which is why it was judged and not accepted by the music industry as well as by White people. The fear was that exposure to violent media could cause violent behavior and impose a negative influence on the younger public (Grier, 2001). Even though a lot of work has been put in denouncing rap as the ‘bad guy’ among all the genres, some see it as too one-sided (Richardson and Scott, 2002). Violence exists in all levels of the entertainment industry and putting the blame solely on rap music may be too simplistic. Richardson and Scott (2002), further argue that instead the focus should be on the environment and circumstances rap derives from. They argue that this kind of ‘culture of violence’ has been created by America and that “If there is in fact a culture of violence, the true parent of rap lyrics is America herself, who financially rewards the glamorization of behaviors deemed socially unacceptable.” (ibid:175). Moreover, rap is not solely a product of profit but its existence is deeper, operating as an outlet of creative expression (ibid.). Simply seeing rap as advocating violence or crime instead of as resistance or objection to the status quo can be problematic and one-dimensional since this view disregards rap music’s ability to authentically portray the issues of everyday life in minority communities.

2.2.1 Political Rap

Even though rap music has been called out for promoting violence it quickly evolved into a political platform, where music worked as a tool to voice out injustices. Rap was no longer only seen as filled with energy and strength but now it also delivered a lyrical message

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(Martinez, 1993). It is the message that is imperative and powerful since it raises awareness on the unjust system many African Americans are bound to. It is further argued that rap music exists as a cultural form born out of oppression (ibid.). When studying the lyrics of specific rap songs, Martinez (ibid.) notes that the lyrics work as a reflection of what the American society has created. Themes such as racism, oppression as well as direct and systematic violence can be found in many rap lyrics. Addressing political issues in rap music became popular in the late 80s and early 90s, a period that was regarded as the ‘golden era of rap music’ (Sullivan, 2003:606). Songs like “Fight the Power” and “911 is a joke” by Public Enemy, exemplify the use of rap music as a political platform where important issues to the African American community were voiced out (ibid.). Rap has not always been political but it is artists like Public Enemy who took rap music to another level, where music could be used as a tool for political commentary (Rose, 1991).

2.2.2 Nationalism and Rap

It is also argued that rap music can promote nationalism. Scholars like Karenga (1980:15) define Black nationalism as a political belief shared and practiced by African Americans as a distinct people with their own historical personality who should engage politically in developing, defining and defending the interests of Blacks as a people. Black nationalism also has a darker side to it considering how women are portrayed in rap music since in the 1960s nationalist rap “took a patriarchal focus and a misogynist approach to womanhood” (Henderson, 1996:319). Women were portrayed as sexual objects and put down by many rap artists. This further gave cause for female rappers to oppose this narrative in their production (Henderson, 1996). Thus, women have claimed their place in the music industry through the practice of ‘sexual politics’ by working against dominant sexual and racial narratives portrayed generally by male rap artists (Rose, 1994:147).

As has been discussed above, rap music has many layers to it and it is important to understand how it has developed as a genre as well as how it operates from all these above-mentioned aspects. From first struggling to get a foothold in the music industry to becoming a popular genre around to world as well as a political outlet, rap music has come a long way to become what it is now. The aspect of rap music that this study focuses on is the way it addresses important social issues and how it operates on a political level. From this stance,

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rap music can be studied to examine how resistance against oppression gets expressed through lyrics.

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3 Previous Research

The following chapter will look at important concepts and ideas to understand why the research problem under study exists. By explaining these concepts, the reader will gain knowledge on the competing thoughts among scholars related to the concepts of resistance, resistance from below, oppositional culture, art and resistance and rap music as resistance. Further, possible gaps in the area of research will be discussed, and how this study may add to bridging the gaps in the research area.

3.1 Resistance

There are many definitions for the term resistance. Heredia (2017:69) defines resistance as the “…pattern of acts undertaken by individuals or collectives in a subordinated position to mitigate or deny elite claims and the effects of domination, while advancing their own agenda.”. Profitt (1996:25) defines the term as “active efforts to oppose, fight, and refuse to cooperate with or submit to… abusive behavior and… control.”. Modigliani and Rochat (1995:112) further see it as simply “questioning and objecting”. All these different definitions have added to the conversation about resistance and how it operates. However, Hollander and Einwohner (2004) have criticized the lack of a clear definition of resistance among scholars, which has resulted in contradictory uses of the term. By creating a typology, they have managed to define the term by creating a set of seven activities. According to Heredia (2017) this typology has achieved to point out that resistance is socially constructed and that resistors, targets and observers all participate in this construction. Hollander and Einwohner (2004) agree that resistance can take many forms; it can differ from its goals, be collective or individual and derive locally or be widespread as well (ibid.). As an example they look at cultural resistance, a concept further studied by Duncombe (2004), which strives to protect minority cultures against the hegemonic culture (ibid.).

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Resistance can be defined in numerous ways, thus making it more versatile and all-encompassing. However having a clear universal definition for resistance can be seen as strengthening its meaning as well determining in which contexts it can be called resistance. What is clear is that resistance has different approaches that play a part in how it is executed.

3.1.1 Violent and Nonviolent Approaches

Civil resistance as described by Schock (2015), most often contains methods of nonviolent means engaged by civilians against opponents who resort to violence in order to protect their interests. Civil resistance is often practiced in situations “…where the challengers are at a decided disadvantage relative to authorities with regard to influence in institutional politics and access to the means of violence.” (ibid:1). Schock further argues that resistance in highly charged situations can never be entirely nonviolent or violent (ibid.). According to Vinthagen (2015), nonviolence is simultaneously truth-seeking and a strategic power struggle and should be understood as such. This truth should also entail the one belonging to the opponent since the ultimate goal is to fight for all the principles that appear justified (ibid.). In order to show strength, Sharp (1973) argues that remaining nonviolent not only challenges the opponent but further strengthens the group dynamic. Indeed violence against violence is reinforcing, which in turn should be avoided in order not to put oneself in a disadvantage nor weak position (ibid.). In other words, the opponent wishes for violent action from the other party to give reasoning to their violence. It can be understood that violence can altogether weaken the cause since it takes the attention away from the actual purpose. Using music as resistance can be seen as non-violent action. However, as Galtung (1990) argues, culture can be used to legitimize violence but in this case rap is seen as a subordinate culture, which creates a space free from the dominant culture and practices resistance (Duncombe, 2002:5)

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3.2 Resistance from Below

3.2.1 Everyday Resistance

Heredia (2017:51) talks about the practice of ‘everyday resistance’ as an alternative for resistance in general, which looks at “establishing the pattern of acts of individuals and collectives in a position of subordination against the everyday experience of domination as defining elements.”. Similarly to Vinthagen, Heredia (ibid.) states that one cannot look at resistance without acknowledging the power relations in place that do indeed have an effect on resistance. Her work is highly influenced by James Scott’s theory of resistance which argues that “…resistance is rooted in the daily individual and collective covert acts of opposition and self-help against domination..” (ibid:53). These acts are more individualistic and take form in grassroot level initiatives that do not necessarily work under the umbrella of political organizations for example. In his book ‘Weapons of the Weak’ Scott (1985) argues that resistance as such is elitist and to perceive it only as a collective activity with a revolutionary end disregards other smaller initiatives.

However, other scholars have not seen the benefits of everyday resistance. Butler (2006) has criticized the ‘everyday resistance’ and its subjects drawing her comparison from feminism. She argues that making women the subjects of feminism, the feminist subject becomes victimized (ibid:2-3). Heredia (2017:62) acknowledges the similarities, however she argues that the representation of subordinates as the subjects of ‘everyday resistance’ works as a critique against power structures in which subjects should not be seen as victims but the aim is to acknowledge their intersectional identities and the experiences according to their sources of power such as class, race and gender among others. The strength of everyday resistance is its accessibility since it takes into consideration all activities from all levels. Rap music can be seen as a practice of everyday resistance since it can be used as self-help against domination as Scott (1985) describes. In addition, rap music is more of an individual, instead of an organized initiative and does not necessarily pursue a revolutionary end.

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3.2.2 Black Culture as Oppositional Culture

When it comes to culture, Blauner (1972:93) points out that minority cultures are in constant risk by the dominant one, which tries to force its culture over the other. Mitchell and Feagin (1995) were highly influenced by Blauner’s (1972) work. They build on the theory of ‘oppositional culture’ and further argue that minority groups such as African Americans, American Indians and Mexican Americans resist oppression and domination under ‘internal colonialism’(ibid:65). By assessing their own cultural resources, African Americans pave their way to basic economic and political institutions, to which they have not been allowed access in ways that White immigrant groups have (ibid:71). One of the most important assessments of African American oppositional culture is its respect for civil rights, which can indeed be transmitted through music and such issues are articulated in the songs chosen for this study as well.

3.3 Art and Resistance

Scott (1990) describes art as a form of resistance in disguise by which subordinate groups have access to resistance into the public space. Paris and Ault (2004), inspired by the work of Hebdige, expand on the concept of subcultures and political resistance and argue that subcultures engage as agents of political change. Scott (1990) further argues that the reason why subordinate groups turn to cultural forms of resistance, out of which rap music is an example, is to counter the hegemonic culture, which most often is degrading. Pratt (1990) sees a similar power relation as Scott and argues that African-American resistance took more of a cultural form than an overtly political one due to the relative power relations between the dominant and subordinate peoples. According to Pratt (ibid.), the power of music lies in its ability to convey messages. Therefore, the subordinate groups use art as a way to resist and fight in arenas to which they have access to. Awad, Wagoner and Glaveanu (2017) expand on the message art tries to convey and argue that e.g. graffiti communicates and the conversation it evokes can be more important than the picture itself. McDonald (2013) expresses how dance, graffiti, poetry and music played an important role in the first Palestinian Intifada since it gave a space to share sentiments and shape the national and political identities and affiliations of the Palestinian people as well as the opportunity to overthrow the dominant

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simultaneously powerful way to resist is its accessibility. Art does not look at class, race or gender when it comes to articulating important themes such as racially politicized issues to oneself as well to others.

3.4 Rap and Resistance

3.4.1 Political Rap

Music is primarily a product of entertainment but its power lies in its ability to raise awareness on other issues such as human rights, political issues, empowerment and identity in an oppressed community. According to Beighey and Unnithan (2006:134), political rap has its roots in post-industrial America, where it was used as a tool of resistance, “giving voice to the collective private troubles of African Americans facing institutional discrimination and neglect”. Along the same lines, Rose (1994:100) argues that rap music “serves as the cultural glue that fosters communal resistance.”. Indeed, many scholars argue that Black culture has been shaped by political rap (Gans 1974; Rose 1994). Henderson (1996:311) agrees, and sees rap and hip hop as a conduct of political culture, which is used to “…fill a transnational void of cross-generational cultural transmission within Black culture.”. As an example he brings up artists like Public Enemy who through their music and lyrics raise awareness about the Black condition by providing a political and cultural analysis of it (ibid:312).

Political rap and its many levels have been studied extensively since it became a popular tool to voice out political issues through music. Beighey and Unnithan (2006) studied the message behind rap songs, by using ethnographic content analysis thus, detailing the nature and frequency of the expression of oppositional culture and related themes in rap music. Their study takes a different methodological and theoretical approach. This is where my study comes in as it focuses on a smaller amount of material, and seeks to find out how resistance against oppression is described in them by using discourse analysis I as a method as well as

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cultural resistance and discourse theory as its theoretical foundation. Moreover, this study offers a deeper understanding of the material which explains the use of a different method.

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4 Theory

The following chapter will discuss the theories structured to support this study. Cultural resistance by Duncombe (2007) aids to understand and explain the relationship between rap music and resistance. The first part of this chapter leans heavily on Duncombe's notion of cultural resistance but also revisits the concepts explained above (see chapter 3) to put cultural resistance more into perspective as well as expand on the concept outlined by Duncombe. Moreover, discourse by Gillian Rose (2001) and Michel Foucault (1972; 1977; 1979), is explained to understand how it functions and some theoretical frames central to Foucault’s arguments are presented.

4.1 Cultural Resistance

Cultural resistance, defined by Stephen Duncombe (2007:1), is the practice of using symbols and meanings, to counterattack a dominant power while simultaneously rebuilding different version of the world. His interest in cultural resistance was sparked by music and more specifically punk music. Artists like the Sex Pistols and the Ramones made him relate to the songs and the problems they represented and after finding other people who felt the same he realized that the song’s problems, his problems and other listeners’ problems became society’s problems (Duncombe, 2002:4). Even though cultural resistance can take on many forms and mean many things, it is important to study some of its parameters and develop its main notions laid out by Duncombe.

Cultural resistance creates a space, free from the dominant culture where one can develop ideas and practices for resistance that can be shared and which fosters communality (Duncombe, 2002:5). Duncombe (2002:6) further points out how there is a low threshold between participating in cultural resistance than stepping straight into political activity, which makes it more accessible and easier for people from all levels to participate.

According to Duncombe (2002) there are different directions cultural resistance can take. On the one hand, he argues that cultural resistance is a political act itself since the issues

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abide by (ibid.). One the other hand, he sees cultural resistance as an escape from politics altogether, by which people can express their discontent on a certain issue without necessarily advocating for change (ibid.). Indeed some argue that African American resistance took more of a cultural form than an overtly political one due to the power relations between the dominant and subordinate peoples (see chapter 3, section 3.3).

Duncombe (2002:6) discusses the possibility of cultural resistance to exist and proposes how “The dominant system is one of such complete ideological and material hegemony than any cultural expression, even if it appears rebellious, is, or will soon be repackaged and transformed into, a component of the status quo.”. From this point of view cultural resistance as a political practice cannot bring change.

Duncombe has been highly influenced by Gramsci’s work on cultural resistance. Gramsci (1971) indeed advocated for cultural resistance and explained how past revolutions had failed since they underestimated the power culture and civil society. Power not only resides in powerful institutions but it is found in the people who are advocating for change. He explains how hegemony is both a political and cultural process thus, creating a counter-hegemonic culture to fight the dominant culture is part of the revolutionary process (Gramsci, 1971 and Duncombe, 2007). Cultural resistance differs from resistance in general since it takes more of a cultural form, which can be seen as more approachable since culture is something that people might have in common. Culture can be more of a powerful aspect to resistance because in addition to confronting wrongdoings, using culture such as music or symbols can help in bringing people together.

Duncombe (2002:6) further studies the political messages culture can convey. As an example he looks at how the Sex Pistols advocate resistance through their lyrics and by listening, the band offers its audience a political vocabulary and even an action plan (ibid.). Political rap entails these political messages and can thus, be seen as an outlet to voice out political issues through music (see chapter 3, section 3.4.1).

One thing that has to be taken into account is the difference in how politics can be transmitted by reading lyrics and hearing them sung with emotion (Duncombe, 2002). Thus, the effect the lyrics have on the audience depends on the way they are presented. Furthermore, how culture is received and interpreted defines its politics and the impact of the content may differ depending on the interpretation of the audience (ibid.). The effect on the audience would be an interesting point of view for this study since it would tell how the people listening to rap interpret and reinterpret the lyrics and if they can have an impact on people’s

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actions. However this aspect will not be taken into account but would be interesting to study further.

Duncombe (2002:7) further discusses the scale of political engagement, which he calls scales of resistance (ibid.). He considers the possibility of culture serving as a function of resistance but not intentionally or even understood as such by its participants or that culture was consciously created as a tool for political resistance and is indeed used for that purpose (ibid.). In other words, it can either not be rebellious but used to attain political aims or conversely be used with rebellion in mind but not serving non-rebellious purposes (ibid.).

Lastly, Duncombe (2002) presents the scale of social engagement, which affects the results of cultural resistance. On the left is the individual who creates or even lives out a culture that might challenge the dominant system (ibid:7). The subculture is situated in the middle, which has been cut off or has cut itself off from the dominant society in order to create and practice their own cultural values (ibid.). To the right is society, who if in its entirety, engages in cultural resistance can indicate two things: either the dominant culture and the power it holds is already fragile and can collapse at any given moment or cultural resistance is so incorporated into the society that it does not bear any political ground (ibid.).

The success of cultural resistance ranges from survival to revolution. With survival Duncombe (2002) means the way cultural resistance functions as a daily escape from injustices of life, while encouraging to push through it (ibid.). Rebellion contributes to political activity, against existing powers, which pushes reform but could also result in more suffering (Duncombe, 2002:8). Revolution is the complete overthrow of an existing ruling system and here is where the culture of resistance becomes just culture (ibid.).

The different aspects of cultural resistance, identified by Duncombe, are useful for this study since they provide a clear approach for the selected material. Music is a cultural form, and as has been mentioned above, music has always been an imperative part of Black culture. The way music can be used as cultural resistance has many aspects to it, which makes it versatile and very approachable. According to Duncombe (2002:35), culture is deeply political because it is an expression of tradition and lived experience and “… provides us with ideas of how things are and how they should be…”. Thus, culture can be used as resistance because it offers solutions to past solutions that have not worked. As Duncombe points out “In order to thrive for change, you have first to imagine it, and culture is the repository of imagination” (ibid:35). This is why Duncombe's cultural resistance has been chosen as the theoretical lens for this thesis. However other forms of resistance, such as everyday resistance

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music, which is more relatable to culture, Duncombe’s concept is more fitting in order to answer the research questions.

The main notions of cultural resistance will be used to compare the findings of the material in chapter 6.2., to find out if the rap songs chosen for this study can be seen as applying cultural resistance as well as puts the findings into perspective. Duncombe’s theory offers a set of aspects that define how rap music can be understood as cultural resistance and how these aspects are related to the selected songs.

4.2 Discourse

This section will discuss important concepts when it comes to discourse and how it is created and used. This is important for this study to understand how the lyrics of the songs chosen as the material are used to describe resistance against oppression. Discourse is studied by Gillian Rose in her book ‘Visual Methodologies’ (2001). Her work has been highly influenced by Michel Foucault’s (1972; 1977; 1979) work on discourse, and she outlines some theoretical frames central to Foucault’s arguments as well as to his methodology in order to understand the methodological implications thoroughly.

Rose refers to discourse as groups of statements, which structure the way something is thought about and how this thought determines the way we act (2001:136). Moreover, discourse determines how we view the world and act according to our understanding of it (ibid.). It can be said that in this study it is possible that the songs indeed portray how the artists view their world, thus writing about their experience and how it might determine their actions.

Another Foucauldian term, explained by Rose (2001:137), is discursive formation, which is the way meanings are interconnected in a specific discourse. Foucault (1972:37) defines discursive formations as “systems of dispersion”. By this is meant that the systems of dispersion are formed from the relations between aspects of the discourse through which a regularity in the discourse can be detectable (Rose, 2001:137). This is indeed visible in the songs chosen as the material for this study, which will be portrayed later on.

Rose (2001:137) further discusses how the power of discourse is profound due to its productivity. Discourse has the power to alter people’s way of thinking and acting. However,

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it does not impose rules for thought and certain sets of behavior on people, but instead they are produced through the operation of discourse (ibid.) As an example, Rose talks about certain kinds of masculinities and how their construction might be affected by a discursive visuality. Similarly rap can alter ways of thinking and acting. However this study can only speculate the way people act and think upon hearing the songs, since this aspect would require a different set of material, yet it would be interesting for future research.

Power does not necessarily take a top-down approach but according to Foucault (1972) and Rose (2001) power is everywhere and so is discourse. However, some discourses are more powerful than others and they exist to contest each other. There is no denying that some discourses are more powerful, not only due to being located and spread by socially powerful institutions, but also because “their discourse claims absolute truth” (Rose, 2001:138). Power produces knowledge and most powerful discourses lie on assumptions and claims that their knowledge is true, which is why power and knowledge imply one another (ibid.). The power behind a discourse is important in this study since it will aid in looking at how the songs form their claims of truth.

After discussing earlier on in this chapter about cultural resistance and linking it with discourse, a combination of both has been decided as best suitable for this study in order to conduct the analysis in chapter 6. Cultural resistance and discourse theory offer a lens through which the findings can be made. Duncombe’s theory offers a guide that defines how rap music can be understood as cultural resistance and how these aspects outlined by Duncombe are related to the selected songs. Discourse and its related concepts offer an understanding of how discourse operates and how the power of a discourse is determined as well as how it forms statements based on how people think and act, which further affects how the world is viewed.

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5 Method

In this chapter, the chosen method for this study, discourse analysis I outlined by Gillian Rose (2001), will be presented and explained. Further, there will be a reflection of the reasons why this method has been chosen and a discussion about its strengths and weaknesses. Lastly, a presentation of the material will be offered.

5.1 Discourse Analysis I

In her book, Rose outlines a methodological emphasis, produced by Michel Foucault, called discourse analysis I. Discourse analysis I, defined by Rose (2001:140), drawing her inspiration from Foucault’s work (1972; 1977; 1979), focuses on the notion of discourse articulated through visual images and verbal texts. Rose further emphasizes that discourse analysis I is more interested with discourse, discursive formations and their productivity (ibid.).

When it comes to the production and rhetorical organization of discourse, Rose (2001) introduces the way discourse itself is organized. There are different aspects that discourse analysis is interested in, such as how discourse describes certain things. However, Rose (ibid:150) does point out that the power of discourse lies in the way “it produces those things it purports to be describing”.

Another aspect is how discourse constructs responsibility and blame, stake and accountability and lastly how it categorizes and particularizes (ibid.). This is important in the analysis of the material because responsibility and blame are described in all of the songs.

When it comes to exploring the social production of discourse, Rose (2001:158) argues that “All discourses take place in specific social circumstances.”. As mentioned previously, the institutional location of discourse plays an integral role in the power of the discourse. Another important aspect of the social context of discourse production and why it matters according to Rose (ibid:159), is “... in terms of the audience assumed by images and texts.”.

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Tonkiss (1998:249), further emphasizes how the context around a discourse and its statements is imperative in order to determine who is saying them and under which circumstances.

The type of discourse analysis discussed in this chapter has clear strengths. According to Rose (2001:161) one of the strengths is that it reviews questions about power and how they are articulated in texts and visual images (ibid.). Even though reflexivity is a difficult issue when it comes to discourse analysis, by taking into account the context of its production and by applying rhetorical strategies of modesty it can be marked and undermined (ibid.).

However there are some weaknesses to this method as well. One of them is when knowing to stop making intertextual connections with all the material that is available to you (Rose, 2001:161). This is why, the quality of the material is more important than the amount.

Another weakness is the grounding of making intertextual connections empirically (Rose, 2001:162). The danger of making too many connections might render some of them weak. However, Rose argues that on some occasions the problem of tenuous connections can turn into an analytical discourse analysis in which the goal becomes to point out how to make the intertextual connections convincingly productive (ibid.).

Finally, Rose (2001:162) argues that some criticize the ability of a discourse analysis to ascribe causality. She explains how the relation between discourse and its context is not always clear enough in a discourse analysis. This is an aspect that is close to discourse analysis I, since it is more concerned about texts and images.

This study focuses on the lyrics of the songs where the above-mentioned aspects form a lens through which the material is studied. This approach pays attention to the context of the discourse statements, which is important when looking at the lyrics in order to understand who is saying them and under which circumstances. This aspect offers important insight into the analysis and will further help in answering the research question in this study. After taking into consideration both the strengths and weaknesses of this approach, I have decided it best suits this study and is most beneficial for the analysis as well as for answering the research question.

5.2 Seven Steps in Doing Discourse Analysis I

In her book, Rose (2001) introduces a list of steps where she explains how a successful discourse analysis I is carried out. The steps are integral since they will point out the most

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In the first step, Rose (2001:150) instructs researchers to rid oneself of any preconceptions one might have about the chosen materials and apply “fresh eyes”. Of course total objectivity can be hard, but as Foucault (1972:25) says “They [preconceptions] must not be rejected definitively, of course, but the tranquility with which they are accepted must be disturbed.”. Rose (2001) argues that this way the chosen material can present the researcher something that has not been noticed before.

The second step suggests to get profoundly familiar with and immerse in the research sources (Rose, 2001:150). It might take time but in the end it will give a much deeper understanding of the material as well as more insight in the analysis.

The third step introduces a much more systematic method to be used. Coding the words and identifying key themes give insight into the possible connections between the material, be it text or images (Rose, 2001:150). According to Tonkiss (1998:254), identifying key terms and themes will help in organizing the data and in creating a more systematic order in the analysis. He also mentions how looking for “patterns of context” and “consistency” in the material can provide a useful analytic tool (ibid.). The themes or words most mentioned portray what the author, or in my case rapper, is trying to put across in their discourse (ibid:257). Furthermore, Rose (2001:154) suggests returning to the material on many occasions to discover new themes that might have been missed before and reminds that one should let the details of the material guide the investigation. In the next chapter, the key themes addressed in the rap lyrics will be presented in order to define what kind of oppression this study seeks to examine.

The fourth step is of most importance when using this method and concerns the way a particular discourse works to persuade, as in how it determines its effects of truth (Rose, 2001:154). In this part, the focus is on claims of truth, scientific certainty, or the natural way of things (ibid.). Tonkiss (1998:255) suggests finding the variations in the data in order to detect the text’s internal hesitations or inconsistencies as well as to see how the discourse aims at combatting alternative accounts. Rose (2001:154) argues that “this work will highlight processes of persuasion that may otherwise be difficult to detect.”. The way the lyrics use examples to address the wrongs Black people encounter can be seen as a way rap artists try to persuade their audience.

The fifth step emphasizes the complexity and contradictions internal to discourses (Rose, 2001:155). This has to do with the discursive formations in discourses that do not always present themselves as coherent or logical (ibid.). Rose (ibid:156) argues that part of

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repertoire” that can be produced in its terms. This step will be done by finding the arguments used in the lyrics to portray oppression.

The sixth step involves detecting the not seen, unsaid or absences as Rose (2001) calls them, which can be as powerful as the parts visible to the reader. Tonkiss (1998:158) defines these as silences, which encourage the reader to search for possible gaps as well as to detect the accounts that are “... countered by rhetoric.”.

The final and seventh step presses the importance of paying attention to details (Rose, 2001:158). According to Rose (ibid.) the strength of discourse lies in the assumptions that determine what is true, real or natural as well as the detecting of contradictions and precision in what is said or left unsaid. Identifying these require profound reading and attention to detail.

5.3 Important Themes Conveyed Through the Lyrics

Discussing the themes covered in the rap songs chosen for this study is imperative to define what kind of oppression we are dealing with and what indicates oppression. In addition, other important themes found in the songs surrounding resistance are presented. The third step outlined by Gillian Rose (2001) suggests that identifying “patterns of context” and “consistency” in one’s material can provide a useful analytic tool. Introducing the themes here will help the reader to grasp the issues most important for this study and define the focus of the discourse analysis. Later on, the analysis will indicate how and where the themes are used in the songs.

Beauty and power in Black people. In many of the songs rappers remind their audience about the beauty Black people bear and how they should be proud to be Black even though society might tell them otherwise. Eurocentric beauty standards and negative stereotypes have long been used to judge Black people. In addition, the power of Black people uniting in bringing change is highlighted. The power is in numbers and by uniting actual change can be reached.

Police brutality. This is a theme that is highly expressed in all of the four rap songs. African Americans have been extremely targeted by police brutality. Young Black men like Trayvon Martin, Terence Crutcher and Philando Castile, among numerous others, have all been victims of police brutality and many of their perpetrators have not been convicted (Lee

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killed by the police than White people (Mock, 2019). It is an ongoing problem Black people are facing, which is why it was one of the most mentioned issues in the songs.

Equality, justice and demands for change. What all these songs call for is equality and justice for Black people at all levels. Seeking equality and justice might differ in their approaches but the end goal is the same. The lyrics reflect on the need to bring change in the conditions caused by slavery and the racism it created that is still very much part of the American society. Some of the encouraged action is collective but other action can mean taking a more violent approach.

Mistrust on the government. Many of the songs express a deep-rooted mistrust against the government, the system or against the ones in power in general. Topics such as the ‘War on Drugs’ and the prison system in America are often mentioned in the songs as a way to target Black people. Some scholars have even called this a “Racial Genocide Conspiracy” (Martinez, 1993 and Beighey and Unnitham, 2006), which could explain the high rate of Black male incarceration, mortality and police brutality.

Racism and class system. Even though racism is portrayed in many of the above-mentioned themes, racism and class are mutually connected. Criticism against the spatial segregation and lack of economic opportunities are highly addressed in the rap songs. The effects of federal, state and local policies, such as the public housing project New Deal 1949 by President Roosevelt, have created residential segregation, which is still seen in today’s America (Rothstein, 2017).

5.4 Reflection on the Choice of Method

Since I have chosen to study how resistance against oppression is described in the lyrics of rap songs, I feel that Rose’s approach to discourse analysis is highly relevant and beneficial for the aim of this study. The method’s focus is mostly on language, which is useful since the material is based on lyrics. According to Tonkiss (1998) and Rose (2001), language constructs and organizes a social reality for us from which social identities and meanings are created. This is useful when studying how rap music articulates accounts of African American realities through the lyrics. In addition, discourse analysis seeks to find out how blame is

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constructed as well as how discourse works to persuade. These aspects are important for this study since they aid in deconstructing the material.

Here it is central to acknowledge that I am very aware of my biased position, but as a researcher I am able to recognize my potential biases in order to adequately conduct my analysis. Being raised between two distinct cultures by my Finnish mother and Tunisian father, I cannot relate to being African American and have not experienced what they have or can even come close to understanding their experience thus, my interpretation is one of an outsider. As my focus is on resistance through music and interpreting lyrics, I am able to make my own claims, whereas when looking at the context I am aware that some aspects can go overlooked due to my distinct background and worldview. After taking the aforementioned into account, I have taken this approach and narrowed down my research in order to perform this discourse analysis in the best and non-biased way.

5.5 Material

For this study, four rap songs from different Black artists have been selected as the following material in order to conduct the analysis and answer the research question. When it comes to finding sources, Rose (2001:142) argues that “Discourses are articulated through a huge range of images, texts and practices, however, and any and all of these are legitimate sources for a discourse analysis”, which is why one needs to be careful about what sources to use. There are many phases in choosing sources for the study, such as using diverse and complex materials as a starting point (ibid:143). However, the quality of the sources is more important than quantity. As Tonkiss (1998:253) points out “What matters is the richness of textual data, rather than the number of texts analyzed”. This is portrayed in this study, since the chosen material, although similar in the covered issues, differ from the way they are articulated and approach certain themes. The selected songs were chosen because they depict issues such as oppression and discrimination and can be thus studied as how they promote resistance through their lyrics. The songs’ take on the subject of resistance is most suitable for this study and the way they describe issues such as racism further gives valuable insight in order to answer my research and operational questions. In addition to addressing the relevant issues for this study, the songs remind their audience of the power Black people hold and the beauty they bear in a society that tries to tell them otherwise (Rose,1994:21 and Gilroy,1993:34).

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The first three songs are from quite famous artists, who can be seen as the shapers of the rap industry and have a long legacy in rap and hip hop music. The songs have many streams which portray their popularity among the public. The last song is quite recent, and in addition to being selected because it fit perfectly with my research question, it was chosen because it was co-produced by the co-founder of the Black Lives Matter movement, Alicia Garza, which is a social movement bringing awareness on the social issues faced by Black Americans. Moreover, the lyrics for the second verse were collected from the public who were asked to describe the beauty of Black people. The songs are from a different era, the first one being released in the late 80s, the second one in the late 90s, the third one in the early 00s and the fourth one in 2017. In addition, to understand how resistance can be articulated through rap music, this study seeks to learn if there has been a difference in the expression of resistance throughout the years. In the late 80s and the early 90s rap music took an alternative direction during which political issues began to be transmitted through rap music, which is why the songs were chosen after this era. In addition, a decade between the songs can give more insight into the development of the themes outlined above (see chapter 5, section 5.3). In order to make it easier for the reader to differentiate each song and get familiar with the titles, the songs are listed below:

Song 1. “Fuck Tha Police” by N.W.A. (1988) Song 2. “Changes” by 2pac and Talent (1998)

Song 3. “Can’t Hold Us Back” by Public Enemy and Paris (2005) Song 4. “We Rising Up” by Climbing Poetree (2017)

The above-mentioned songs will be referred to in the analysis by the assigned numbers (in bold), in order to facilitate the process of reading the analysis. All in all, these songs will be used to study how resistance gets expressed in the lyrics of the above-mentioned songs. It will be done by focusing on the themes (see chapter 5, section 5.3), expressions and how they can be connected to resistance.

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6 Analysis

In the following chapter, the themes assigned in chapter 5, section 5.3 are discussed in relevance to the lyrics of the selected songs. Later, the findings will be reflected in the 7 steps of discourse analysis I assigned by Gillian Rose (2001). Moreover, a discussion of the findings are compared in relation to the theoretical framework, previous research as well as the research questions and aim of this study.

6.1 Context of the Material

In this chapter I will present the context of the selected songs identified in chapter 5, section 5.5. The selected songs have been explicitly chosen due to the way they express resistance against oppression in the African American community in the US. The songs describe the how these artists view their social reality. The messages addressed through these songs are of particular interest, which is why the context around the songs, as in a brief discussion about the artists and the background of the songs, should be introduced. Moreover, the themes mentioned earlier on in the study (see chapter 5.3) and how and when they are addressed through the lyrics will be presented.

When N.W.A. released their song “Fuck Tha Police” in 1988 it sparked huge controversy due to the graphic lyrics addressing police brutality against Black and brown people in the US. Lyrics like “Beat a police out of shape, And when I'm finished, bring the yellow tape” was not well received by the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), who started investigating the violent and disrespectful effect the lyrics may promote against law enforcement officers (Hochman, 1989). In addition, the song put into question music censorship and first amendment rights, which protects freedom of speech among other basic rights (ibid.). Advocators reminded that art should not be controlled by government agencies and that artists should be allowed to practice their right to freedom of speech. When one of the crew members, Ice Cube, was interviewed in 2015 he said the song's purpose was to raise

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still relevant, because police brutality still happens in 2015 as well as in 2020 (Gale, 2015). The song became a huge hit and is still widely listened to. When the riots in L.A. broke in 1992 due to a beating of a young Black man that was filmed, the song was used as an “unofficial motto” (ibid.).

2Pac’s “Changes” was released in the late 90s, just 2 years after the artist passed away due to gun violence. His murder was one of the most historically important events in rap history and still today the case has not been solved. Like many rappers, his songs have been controversial in ways they depict women and violence but “Changes” touches upon issues such as police brutality, social justice, racism and even the war in the Middle-East.

“Can’t Hold Us Back” by Public Enemy and Paris was part of their album “Rebirth of a Nation (2006), which makes reference to the White supremacist film “Birth of a Nation” released in 1915. As has been mentioned before, Public Enemy revolutionized the rap industry and with songs like “Can’t Hold Us Back” they continued to address political issues which made them so popular in the first place and state that “We rep justice, equality and freedom now” (Public Enemy and Paris, 2005).

“We Rising Up” by Climbing Poetree (2017) brings homage to the Black lives facing injustice in contemporary America. The song functions as an anthem that sends a message to the public that Black lives matter and that systematic state and police violence will not silence them. According to the group's webpage they are “ ...shifting culture and altering history, that we are healing present and ancestral trauma, that UP is the only direction we can go from here, that we are rising!” (Climbing Poetree, 2017). This is portrayed through the lyrics of the song.

6.2 Assigned Themes Addressed in the Songs

Some of the themes (see chapter 5.3) that became apparent during the examination of the selected rap lyrics were: beauty and power in Black people; police brutality; equality, justice and demands for change; mistrust on the government and racism and class system. This part

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order to conduct a successful discourse analysis I, steps one (“applying fresh eyes to your sources”), two (“immersing yourself in your sources”) and seven (“the importance of paying attention to details”) are not referred to in the findings since these steps were taken before starting the analysis. After analyzing the connection between the themes and the material and in order to organize the analysis in a systematic matter as outlined in step three by Rose (2001) the rest of the steps are discussed in the findings (see section 6.3).

Beauty and power in Black people. In two of the songs, Black people are reminded of their beauty, how they are powerful beings and that having dark skin is something one should be proud of. In song 4 the lyrics are uplifting and strong:

“Keep the glow in my smile, I ain’t weak I ain’t mild

I ain’t running no, I ain’t running

Black people are rising, Black people are significant magnificent, omnipresent, resilient, unmeasurable, unstoppable, indispensable, brilliant”

And

“No earthquakes, hurricanes, slave trade, no plantation, KKK, no prison schools, mind games, self-hate

overworked and underpaid we survive it anyway”

The lyrics encourage self-love and resilience and that no matter what, nobody can wipe away their smile or glow. The song gives an impression of an anthem against negative impressions of Black people that praises and reminds them of their power, beauty and significance. No matter the obstacle, they will overcome it.

In song 3, force is portrayed to be in the numbers and that change can only be reached if everyone participates for the common good:

“We united and strong - and never move alone”

As Duncombe outlines one of the aspects of cultural resistance is how it derives from symbols and meaning people abide by. In songs 4 and 3, the beauty and strength of Black people can be associated as a symbol Black people ascribe to.

Police brutality. Distrust against the police is brought up in all of the lyrics. Police are described as corrupt, mischievous and racist, who are too busy shooting Black people to uphold the law. The distrust against the police is expressed in song 2 as follows:

&apos;We Rising Up&apos; : Rap Music as a Tool of Resistance