Ethical Dilemmas in Experiential Education

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Faculty of Sciences, Humanities and Education Technical University of Liberec

Ethical Dilemmas in Experiential Education

Bachelor Thesis

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Technická univerzita v Liberci

FAKULTA PŘÍRODOVĚDNĚ-HUMANITNÍ A PEDAGOGICKÁ

Katedra: KPP

Studijní program: vychovatelství Studijní obor

(kombinace):

Pedagogika volného času

Ethical Dilemmas in Experiential Education Etická dilemata v prožitkové pedagogice

Bakalářská práce: 08-FP-KPP-45

Autor: Podpis:

Petr Gilar Adresa:

Na Úbočí 17

460 05, Jablonec nad Nisou

Vedoucí práce: PhDr. Jan Činčera, PhD.

Konzultant: Joanna Coleman, M.A.

Počet

stran grafů obrázků tabulek pramenů příloh

94 9 8 2 7 3

V Liberci dne: 5.5. 2009

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Prohlášení

Byl(a) jsem seznámen(a) s tím, že na mou bakalářskou práci se plně vztahuje zákon č.

121/2000 Sb. o právu autorském, zejména § 60 – školní dílo.

Beru na vědomí, že Technická univerzita v Liberci (TUL) nezasahuje do mých autorských práv užitím mé bakalářské práce pro vnitřní potřebu TUL.

Užiji-li bakalářskou práci nebo poskytnu-li licenci k jejímu využití, jsem si vědom povinnosti informovat o této skutečnosti TUL; v tomto případě má TUL právo ode mne požadovat úhradu nákladů, které vynaložila na vytvoření díla, až do jejich skutečné výše.

Bakalářskou práci jsem vypracoval(a) samostatně s použitím uvedené literatury a na základě konzultací s vedoucím bakalářské práce a konzultantem.

V Liberci dne: 5. 5.2009 Petr Gilar

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Special thanks to

I would like to thank PhDr. Jan Činčera PhD. very much for supervising the thesis, to Joanna Coleman, M.A. for proofreading this thesis, for her advice and especially for her unceasing support.

I would also like to thank all respondents of the research, namely Mgr. Zdeněk Slejška, Ing.

Lída Brynychová, Pavel Ungr, Mgr. Leoš Šebela, Mgr. Jan Sýkora, Aleš Zemín and Mgr.

Marie Navrátilová. Without you, writing this thesis would be impossible.

My thanks also belong to my family and friends, who stayed by my side even in the past particularly hard months, especially to my loving mother, Ilona Pětníková, my father and my stepfather and all the rest of my amazing family. I'd specifically like to thank to those friends, who are closest to my mind and heart and whose presence always lights up my life, Tereza Hriníková and Veronika Prančlová.

My sincere gratitude and special thanks belong to my spiritual guides and guardians.

Thank you all.

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Abstract

Experiential education is a growing and rapidly developing field. It has become one of the most important trends in modern education, especially in free time education, outdoor education and all types of after school care. Numerous books have been published about the methodology, specific practices and theoretical psychological and educational basis of experiential education in its many variable forms. After decades of ongoing practice and research in the field, we have learned a great deal about the phases and cycles of learning through experience.

There are valuable resources the studying of which may improve an educator's knowledge base and abilities needed for planning and successfully performing team building seminars, outdoor training, environmental education seminars, personal development seminars and other activities that commonly use the methods of experiential education. There is, however, a serious lack of reflection of and insight into the ethics of experiential education. Because the field is quite recent and extremely variable, there is nothing like a general code of ethics, nor any written consensus of the correct approach from this direction.

Should experiential education be value-neutral, multicultural and absolutely inclusive, or is it impossible to teach without passing on the educator's ethical views? What means are valid, what solutions are possible? What are the boundaries of the correct client-instructor relationship? And what other challenging decisions may experiential educators commonly face?

There is little advice for experiential educators who ask these questions at the moment. Thus, the people who work in the field have to answer these questions individually, and approach them on their own. The purpose of this thesis is to find out to what extent the local

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practitioners of experiential education are aware of the ethical side of their occupation and how they approach ethical dilemmas and controversial themes.

For this purpose, research has been done into the general ethical rules of organizations that use the methods of experiential education, and questions regarding sample ethical issues (based mostly on the work of Jasper S. Hunt) have been posed. This thesis maps the awareness and attitudes of Czech experiential educators and brings critical insight to their approaches. It may be an inspiration for people in the field to think about the issues and ethical side of their work, so that they may base their ethical decisions on their own research and reasoning, making them solid, rather then improvised outcomes of uninformed, intuitive decisions.

Keywords: Experiential education, ethics, dilemma

Anotace

Prožitková pedagogika je rostoucí a rychle se vyvíjející oblast. Stala se jedním z nejdůležitějších trendů v moderním vzdělávání, zejména v pedagogice volného času, outdoorové pedagogice a všech typech mimoškolního vzdělávání. Mnoho knih bylo napsáno o metodologii, specifických postupech a teoretickém psychologickém a pedagogickém rámci prožitkové pedagogiky v mnoha různých formách. Po desetiletích probíhající praxe a výzkumu v dané oblasti jsme se naučili mnohé o fázích a cyklech učení se prožitkem.

Existují cenné zdroje, jejichž studium zlepší vzdělavatelův přehled a schopnosti, potřebné pro plánování a úspěšnou organizaci teambuildingových seminářů, outdoorového tréninku, environmentálně vzdělávacích seminářů, kurzů osobnostního rozvoje a dalších aktivit, při kterých se běžně využívají metody prožitkové pedagogiky. Existuje však závažný nedostatek

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reflexe a vhledu do etiky prožitkové pedagogiky. Protože se jedná o relativně novou a velice různorodou oblast neexistuje žádný obecný, společný etický kodex, ani sepsaný konsenzus o správném přístupu z tohoto hlediska.

Měla by prožitková pedagogika být hodnotově neutrální, multikulturní a zcela inkulzivní, nebo je nemožné učit bez předávání etických hodnot vzdělavatele? Jaké prostředky jsou platné, jaká řešení jsou přípustná? Jaké jsou hranice korektního vztahu mezi instruktorem a klientem? A jakým dalším náročným rozhodnutím musí prožitkoví pedagogové běžně čelit?

V současnosti existuje pro prožitkové pedagogy, kteří si kladou tyto otázky, jen málo rad.

Proto lidé, kteří v tomto poli pracují, musí tyto otázky zodpovídat individuálně, a čelit jim samostatně. Účelem této práce je zjistit, do jaké míry jsou si místní prožitkoví pedagogové vědomi etické stránky svého povolání, a jak přistupují k etickým dilematům a kontroverzním tématům.

Za tímto účelem byl vypracován výzkum obecných etických zásad organizací, které používají metod prožitkové pedagogiky. Respondentům byly položeny otázky, týkající se příkladů etických dilemat (vycházejících převážně z práce Jaspera S. Hunta). Tato práce mapuje uvědomělost a postoje českých prožitkových pedagogů a přináší kritický vhled do jejich přístupů. Může být inspirací lidem v tomto poli, aby se zamysleli nad etickou stránkou své práce, aby mohli svá etická rozhodnutí založit na vlastním výzkumu a argumentaci, tak, aby byla pevnými názory, a nikoliv pouze improvizovaným výsledkem nepoučených, intuitivních rozhodnutí.

Klíčová slova: Prožitková pedagogika, etika, dilema

Annotation

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Die Erlebnispädagogik ist ein wachsender und sich schnell entwickelnder Bereich. Sie wurde zu einem der wichtigsten Trends in der modernen Ausbildung, vor allem in der Freizeitpädagogik, Outdoorpädagogik und in allen Typen der ausserschulischen Ausbildung.

Es wurden viele Bücher über Methodologie, spezifische Verfahren und über theoretischen psychologischen und pädagogischen Rahmen der Erlebnispädagogik in vielen verschiedenen Formen geschrieben. Seit Jahrzehnten der verlaufenden Praxis und Forschung im gegebenen Bereich haben wir Vieles über Phasen und Zyklen des Lernens durch Erlebnis gelernt.

Es gibt wertvolle Quellen, deren Studium eine Übersicht und Fähigkeiten der Ausbildenden verbessert. Diese braucht er dann zum Planen und erfolgreiche Organisation von Teambuildingseminaren, Outdoortraining, Environmental-Ausbildung-Seminaren, Kursen der Persönlichkeitsentwicklung und weiteren Aktivitäten, bei denen Methoden der Erlebnispädagogik ganz üblich ausgenutzt werden. Es gibt nur einen erheblichen Mangel an der Reflexion und dem Einblick in die Ethik der Erlebnispädagogik. Weil es sich um einen relativ neuen und ziemlich artenreichen Bereich handelt, gibt es weder einen allgemeinen, gemeinsamen Kodex, noch einen abgefassten Konsens über ein richtiges Herantreten aus diesem Gesichtspunkt.

Sollte die Erlebnispädagogik, was ihren Wert angeht, neutral sein, oder multikultur und ganz inklusiv, oder ist es ganz unmöglich, ohne die Vermittlung von ethischen Werten der Ausbildenden zu lernen? Welche Mittel sind vollwertig, welche Lösungen sind zulässig? Wie sind die Grenzen der korrekten Beziehung zwischen Klienten und Ausbildenden? Und welchen weiteren Entscheidungen müssen die Erlebnispädagogen noch standhalten?

Heutzutage gibt es für Erlebnispädagogen, die sich diese Frage stellen, nur wenige Ratschläge. Deshalb müssen Leute, die auf diesem Gebiet arbeiten, diese Fragen individuell beantworten, und selbstständig solchen Fragen standhalten. Der Zweck dieser Arbeit ist

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festzustellen, wieweit sich die örtlichen Erlebnispädagogen der ethischen Seite ihres Berufs bewusst sind. Und wie sie an ethische Dilemmas und kontroverse Themen herangehen.

Zu diesem Zweck wurde eine Untersuchung von allgemeinen ethischen Grundsätzen der Organisationen erarbeitet, die Methoden der Erlebnispädagogik benutzen. Es wurden den Befragten Fragen gestellt, die die Beispiele der ethischen Dilemmas angehen (ausgehend vor allem von Arbeiten von Jasper S. Hunt). Diese Arbeit zeigt Bewusstheit und Stellung der tschechischen Erlebnispädagogen und bringt einen kritischen Einblick in ihre Herangehensweisen. Sie kann zum Anlass für Leute werden, die auf diesem Gebiet arbeiten, um über die ethische Seite ihrer Arbeit nachzudenken, und um ihre ethischen Entscheidungen auf eigener Argumentation gründen. Und zwar damit diese Argumentation nicht nur improvisierte Ergebnisse unbelehrter, intuitiver Entscheidungen spiegelt, sondern zu unerschütterlichen Meinungen wird.

Schlüsselwörter: Erlebnispädagogik, Ethik, Dilemma

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List of Figures

List of charts

Ethical codes...26

Sources of ethics...27

Chart of inclinations...29

Risk and safety...30

Informed consent...33

Deception...36

Sexual interaction...41

Environmental awareness...46

Social Impacts...50

List of illustrations

Illustration 1: Trust fall - an example of a challenging activity with very low objective risk level...15

Illustration 2: Hiking in mountains...34

Illustration 3: Outdoor training...40

Illustration 4: What are the boundaries of acceptable contact on seminars, outside organised activities?...44

Illustration 5: Cleaning up wilderness...50

Illustration 6: Czech nationalists – demonstration (Foto: internet) ...53

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List of abbreviations

CBC Challenge by choice

ČČK Czech Red Cross

ELC Experiential Learning Cycle FVC Full Value Contract

PA Project Adventure

PŠL Prázdninová škola Lipnice, Czech branch of Outward Bound

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1 Introduction

Motto:

“The question of the hour seems to be, who am I to judge? It used to be that popular belief held that there was truth in all areas and that rational thought could help lead us to discover truth. That kind of “enlightenment” thinking is considered old school.

Now it is widely held that we are postmodern in thought.”¹

1.1 Motivation

The ethical side of the experiential education field is a relatively new theme, and in the Czech republic there are no publications available. No sources have been translated into the Czech language and only little has been published about the current situation in the country. The field of experiential education in the Czech republic is variable and growing. I decided to accept the challenge of putting effort into mapping the situation and getting at least some insight into the current state of affairs.

1.2 Aim of the project

The aim of this work is to present issues that may arise in experiential education as described in literature, especially in English and American sources concerned with modern forms of experiential education, such as Project Adventure, and to employ these facts as tools for a local qualitative research. The aim of the research is to show how ethically aware Czech

1 WINEMAN, Andy. Ultimatepursuits.com : Ever Wonder? [online]. 2007. Louisville, Colorado : 2007 , May 31, 2007 [cit. 2009-04-23]. Dostupný z WWW: <http://ultimatepursuits.com/2007/05/31/who-am-i-to-judge/

>.

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leaders, instructors and other practitioners of experiential education are, as well as present their opinions and positions, and what these are based on.

2 Background

2.1 Ethics in relation to the principles of experiential education

The experiential learning as described in the PA² methodology happens within the ELC³, described as follows: “The Experiential Learning Cycle begins with activity, moves through reflection, then to generalising and abstracting and finally to transfer.”⁴ This whole process is led by an instructor, who creates the learning conditions, presents clients with a specific situation or task and then leads them through the process. Again, using the words of PA: “The teacher's role in the Experiential Learning Cycle is to design and to facilitate. Each role is demanding, creative and enormously rewarding.”⁵

The book Adventure Classroom also claims that: “As a designer, the teacher develops activities that are open-ended and capable of being examined at a variety of levels. The activity must have a discovery nature. Students and teachers might be able to predict the outcome, but the activity prompts discovery and process.”⁶ It was my impression, however, that with most PA activities, the design has a very clear aim. Actually all the activities in their

2 Project Adventure

3 Experiential Learning Cycle

4 HENTON, Mary. Adventure in the Classroom : Using Adventure to Strengthen Learning and Build a Community of Life-Long Learners. 1st edition. Hamilton : Project Adventure, Inc., 1996. 231 s. ISBN: 0-

7872-2459-6.

5 Ibid.

6 Ibid.

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literature do have specific and written aims in the chart that introduces the activity. Even though the activities are open-ended, the choice and the design of activities influences and by large determines the outcome. The designers and facilitators have direct and intense impact on the clients. This puts them in a position of a great responsibility.

Now, it can be argued that an educator in any position, whatever method they use, is in a position of responsibility. That is, without doubt, correct. Experiential education is, however, a specific case. In the traditional form of teaching, the students are always aware that they are receiving information and values from the teacher's. In experiential education, this process is less direct and obvious – which seems to be one of the keys to its success. Students discover things for themselves, sometimes in a relaxed, stress-free environment of mutual support, sometimes under a certain pressure of a challenge facing them. They are less aware that they are being taught. The aims of the teacher and sometimes even the topic of the lesson might not be completely clear in the beginning, it might be one of the things that they need to discover – what is hidden behind the challenge, why is such and such question being posed or situation presented. Especially in the techniques of dramatic education, the theme is often not wholly uncovered until the debriefing and evaluation.

Experiential education is often used for personal development training, teaching of core skills and ethics.⁷ Moral dilemmas and decisions regarding interpersonal relationships occur commonly. The vast majority of activities are by design and in principle not value neutral, and neither can the role of the instructor truly be. Thus the ethical awareness and ethical behaviour of experiential educators' turns out to be a crucial element for the very practice of experiential education being an ethically acceptable process.

7 JOHNSON, D. W. JOHNSON F. P. Joining Together : Group Theory and Group Skills. Boston : Pearson, 2006.

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2.2 Ethics in relation to the nature of experiential education

Numerous other points that deserve scrutinizing in terms of their ethical status come from the nature of the practice of experiential education. An example would be the security and risk related issues. Even the most peaceful activities of experiential education with the highest safety standards are naturally objectively more dangerous than frontal teaching, as they require moving around, providing the

participants with more space for communication and bringing them from the passive side of “being educated” to the side of actually “learning,” being active and aware.

Experiential education has incorporated challenge and risk-taking in its very roots. As explained in the introduction to CBC⁸ in PA:

"...taking intellectual risks encourages cognitive growth. Such risk taking pushes the intellectual capacities to search for new connections, find new avenues, reach for higher goals. This extension, in turn, enhances individual capacities for more complex

learning."⁹ The recognition of this fact is a part of the experiential education paradigm. There

8 Challenge by choice, one of the basic principles of PA's methodology.

9 HENTON, Mary. Adventure in the Classroom : Using Adventure to Strengthen Learning and Build a Community of Life-Long Learners. 1st edition. Hamilton : Project Adventure, Inc., 1996. 231 s. ISBN: 0- 7872-2459-6.

Illustration 1: Trust fall - an example of a challenging activity with very low objective risk level

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is no such thing as a zero risk when experiencing things, there is always a challenge and at least an intellectual risk of overstepping one's previous personal limits.

Experiential education consciously and intentionally works with comfort zones. The aim of most experiential activities is to bring participants into the learning space out of their comfort zone, without pushing them and without bringing them to the so called “panic zone,” i.e.

traumatizing them to such an extent that natural experiential learning is impossible.¹⁰ Thus experiential education forever lingers on the edge of a metaphorical cliff. To learn and grow, people must be brought close enough to the edge to perceive the situation as at least a somewhat challenging experience, but the instructor must not force them to come there and is also responsible for not letting them fall off the cliff.

Let's have a look at a stated aim of a typical PA activity: “After the conclusion of this activity, students will be able to: Understand, that cooperating, rather than competing with peers is a more effective way to manage stressful situations.”¹¹ This is a very common aim for cooperating activities, which are an essential part of experiential education. However, contrasting the impact of cooperation and competition in a stressful environment is impossible without simulating stress. Experiential education cannot function without “harming” or at least using discomfort, without working with a wide spectrum of feelings and emotions, including the not so nice ones. However it is naturally understood, that the clients must leave the course unharmed and not traumatized. The work with distress and negativity is another space, where ethical dilemmas may arise.

10 ČINČERA, Jan. Práce s hrou : Pro pforesionály. 1. vyd. Praha : Grada, 2007. 116 s. ISBN 978-80-247-1974- 0.

11 KILTY, K. Creating Healthy Habits : An Adventure Guide to Teaching Health and Wellness – Middle school.

Project Adventure, 2006.

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With the growing popularity of high-ropes activities and other adrenalin experiences used in experiential education in various seminars and courses, safety standards have become a great issue. Both objective risks (injuries must be prevented) and subjective risks need to be kept under control. The image of experiential education as something that typically consists of climbing, falling, white-water rafting and ATV¹² riding is a problem in itself. Many effective activities are low-adrenaline and don't even resemble sports, but the products typically available on the market may deceive clients into thinking that it is not so, and that the whole area is something scary, risky and not quite meant for sane, careful people. This image puts the wide popularity of experiential education in danger, and should definitely be one of the concerns for any practitioner.

Another matter are the methods commonly used in experiential education – such as simulation or other activities that, to a certain degree, use methods of deception and misleading the client.

Another issue may be informed consent. The surprise element of some activities or the protected content of specific courses may be seen as overstepping the boundary of informed consent and approaching activities fully willingly.

2.2.1 Ethical issues of today's world

Another area where thinking ethically and being aware and clear about one's ethical stands is crucial are courses and activities that in any way deal with the current dilemmas and problematic trends in the world. Whether these are radical positions relating to the environment and its protection, sexual issues, or the impact of the courses on the society, these all may be problematic.

12 An all-terrain vehicle (terrain motorbike equivalent with four wheels).

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It is impossible to eliminate them completely, just as with the risk concerns mentioned above, but in a similar way, they can be worked with and dealt with ethically, when the instructors are aware of them and clear about their position.

2.2.2 Jasper S. Hunt's introduction to ethics

Cases used in the research below all either come from the book Ethical Dilemmas in Experiential Education or are inspired by it. It seems appropriate to briefly mention how Hunt summarized ethical theories in his book, since I was strongly affected by it during the whole process of writing this thesis.

According to Hunt, the major ethical theories can be divided into four “branches.” Ethical subjectivism, ethical objectivism, consequentialist theories of ethics and nonconseqentialist theories of ethics.

Regarding ethical subjectivism, he claims: “The ethical subjectivist reasons that in order for an action to be declared a good action, there must be a person who holds that the action is good. The source of morality for the subjectivist is the individual person.”¹³ As examples of ethical subjectivists he quotes Protagoras and Hume. He sees the individuality and changeability in time that makes this approach very relative as a major flaw in it.

Ethical objectivism is summed up in the book as follows: “The ethical objectivist maintains that in order for an act to be a good act, it must have been made in accordance with some source of morality that transcends the limitations of a particular person or set of limited circumstances.”¹⁴ The Platonic tradition is provided as an example of ethical objectivism.

13 HUNT, Jasper. Ethical Issues in Experiential Education. 2nd edition. Dubuque : Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company, 1994. 137 s. ISBN 0-8403-9038-6.

14 Ibid.

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According to Hunt, however, the ethical objectivism is only less relative and less individual as long as concerned individuals agree upon the external source of ethics (e.g. The Bible) and its interpretation, which may not always be the case.

Hunt describes ethical consequentialism as “the most famous and widely accepted application of normative ethics”¹⁵. Normative ethics are described as “making judgements in terms of the highest good and its relationship to given sate of affairs.”¹⁶ He explains the problem of summum bonum, that which is considered the highest good, which can again be different for different individuals. The author then explains utilitarianism as the most famous consequential theory of ethics, described as follows: “Fundamentally, the utilitarian argues that actions are good, if and only if, they bring about the greatest good for the greatest number. The “greatest good” (summum bonum) for the utilitarian is defined as happiness.”¹⁷ (That is pleasure and absence of pain.) The author than further describes utilitarian thinking, rule utilitarianism and also the major flaw of entirely utilitarian thinking, which lies in situations where the greater good for a majority or a group can imply the need even of terrifying actions against an individual. This he sums up with explanation, that “Utilitarianism typically cannot account for private and minority interests, except when these interests fit the utilitarian calculation.”¹⁸

It should be stated that when I use the term “utilitarianism” or “utilitarian” approach below, I don't refer to universal utilitarianism (where summum bonum is the good for most people in the world) but to pragmatic utilitarianism, i.e. choosing solutions and methods that benefit most of the specific group the best in the specific situation.

15 Ibid.

16 Ibid.

17 Ibid.

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The last theory described in the introductory chapter is ethical nonconsequentialism, where the question of what is ethical shifts from results of actions to the actions in themselves in

“adherence to the standard set by the sumum bonum. Once this standard has been determined, it is not to be put aside in order to achieve good ends.”¹⁹ He describes the common approach of Judeo-Christian tradition and Kantian theory as examples of nonconsequentialist theories.

At the end of this theoretical chapter, Hunt explains his methodology for resolving ethical problems. Throughout the book, however, he scrutinizes various dilemmas and problematic situations from various points of views (i.e. the mentioned theories) but does not resolve them. The same principle, exploring the dilemmas and their possible solutions, but not actually choosing the one best approach, was followed in this thesis.

As well as using specific cases from this book, my own examples were created with regard to these theories. I worked with presenting two contrasting examples of summum bonum, by giving a dilemma between safety and benefits of risk taking. I also worked with contrasting consequentialism and nonconsequentialism in a dilemma dealing with social impacts of providing a specific course, to see towards which of these approaches the respondents incline.

3 Methodology

The core part of this thesis is based on qualitative research. General questions and concrete hypothetical cases have either been taken from literature or loosely inspired by it and created specifically for the purpose of this research.

19 Ibid.

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3.1 Purpose of the research

The main purpose of the research was to gain insight into the thinking and opinions of Czech practitioners of Experiential Education, to take a thorough look at their reasoning and ethical awareness. The basic question was whether the addressed organisations and individuals have specific ethical codes and in what form, and, if so, whether and how these affect their ethical awareness and reasoning.

3.2 Carrying out the research

The research was carried out between January and March 2009. It had the form of personal interviews with the interviewees, voice records of these interviews were made, written down and used after the interviewees approval. Respondents were provided with the case studies in advance to have time to think them through. The general questions were posed without previously presenting them. All respondents agreed to be quoted directly, nobody required the protection of their anonymity.

3.3 Introductory questions

Three questions with optional sub-questions and six specific cases, each with an added question to clarify the obvious level of the dilemma, were posed.

The first question was: “Does your organisation have an ethical code?” which, in the case of very short or too general answers, was extended with additional questions such as “Is the code written and publicly available?” or “Does the code address specifically the experiential activities that you do?”

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Its purpose was to gain a general insight into the organisation's attitude towards ethics, mainly how formalised and clarified it was, in case there appeared a connection between the level of formality of the ethical code and the stated attitudes.

Another question posed to the interviewees was seeking the source of their ethical statements.

Most often, it was worded “What do you base your decisions on when you yourself face a dilemma or a problem in your practice?” and explained further when necessary. The aim was to find out how self-appointed approaches and personal philosophy correlate with responses to the cases, and whether people who claim to decide on similar grounds tend to decide in a similar pattern.

The third general question was not directly linked to the remaining parts of the research. The interviewees were asked what they consider to be the current issues and problems in the field of experiential education. This I did mainly to see whether the specific issues covered in this thesis, which were selected from literature and created after the pre-research, are relevant to the current situation in The Czech Republic, and also to see whether there happen to be other ethical issues that are not mentioned in the literature, because of how recent they are or for other reasons.

After these introductory questions, concrete cases were presented to the interviewees, each ending with a specific question to give the answers a potent direction, however not always directly revealing the main ethical theme behind the case.

3.4 Case question 1

Created by the author of the thesis.

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“It is the instructor's task to lead a small group (up to 10 members) of sporty young people (15-18 years old) to the peak of a mountain. It is the fifth day of a one week outdoor experiential seminar and the mountain is not far from the place where the seminar is based.

The instructor knows the group, the terrain and the weather forecast well. The forecast predicts the possibility of showers, but no extreme weather (storms or strong wind). The instructor is to decide which way to take. He can either choose the easy way up a designated tourist path, which will only challenge the group very little, and will only provide limited opportunities to uncover their potential and practise the skills they have learned during the course. This option seems perfectly safe to him. Or he can choose a steep climb up through the terrain, which will give the group a greater opportunity to develop its potential and use the new skills (such as using a map and a compass). It will, however, be very physically demanding, especially for the weakest people in the group, and will also, considering the terrain, pose a greater risk.

Which of these ways would you recommend that he choose and why?”²⁰

This question was quite directly and obviously aimed at the respondent's opinions and positions regarding risk and safety. The main aim was to explore the variety of reasoning and approaches to the problem solving of complicated situations – whether it is the instructor's intent to keep the objective risk at the lowest possible level that makes them challenging for them. Or whether they are naturally complex because they might present a considerable amount of risk.

20 This case was inspired by the Risk-benefit analyses chapter in Ethical Dilemmas in Experiential Education by Jasper S. Hunt. The chapter, however, did not include a suitable sample case, for which reason I came up with my own hypothetical situation to use in the research.

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3.5 Case question 2

Used directly from the source literature.

“Suppose a young woman from an urban setting has signed up for a wilderness-based experiential education program. She has been informed about possible hazards and has signed statements indicating her understanding of these hazards. She has also been informed that if she quits the program for non medical reasons, she will lose most of her tuition money.

She arrives for the course and discovers to her dismay that she will not be allowed to use any toilet paper for a month. She cannot drink coffee or tea because the program has declared these bad for health. She is told to surrender her wristwatch to the authorities. She is from a very conservative background and discovers that she will be required to sleep under tarps with male students. She objects to all of these requirements and says that they are unreasonable and she wants to leave the course.”²¹

“Should her tuition be given back to her, despite the fact that she's leaving for non-medical reasons?”²²

This question, seemingly dealing with financial and legal issues in experiential education has a somewhat hidden main purpose. It deals with informed consent and explores whether the respondents notice the lack of information available to the participant in advance, and how this affects their decision.

22 Although the case was dealing with it, the question was not worded exactly this way in the book, and is an addition of the author of this thesis.

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3.6 Case question 3

“A group of students on a wilderness-based experiential education course were having a hard time learning the fundamentals of emergency first aid. They were not taking the lessons seriously and wanted to go climbing instead, claiming that first aid was not very important or difficult to learn. The instructor of the group had the assistant instructor sneak into the woods where she feigned a severe accident. Cosmetic devices were used to give the injury the look of an actual accident. Hearing her screams, the students ran over and were confronted by a scene of trauma that shocked many groups members and impelled them into taking action.

Several minutes later the students realised that the accident was staged. The instructors debriefed the group on the importance of first aid and several group members expressed their appreciation of the feigned accident. One member of the group was extremely angry that she had been deceived by the instructors.”²³

“Was the use of deception the right step from the instructors to take, and why?”²⁴

This question openly explores the respondents' attitudes towards deception and misinforming clients during an experiential course. It is supposed to reveal whether, under what circumstances, and why the use of (unannounced) deception is acceptable according to the respondents.

3.7 Case question 4

24 Ibid. (A paraphrase of the text that follows up the case.)

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“Sue was an experienced and capable wilderness-based experiential educator. She was 28 years old and unmarried. During one of her courses, she had a student named Al who was 30 years old, single, and interested in the possibility of pursuing an outdoor career. As the course went on, Sue and Al began to have long talks together when time permitted. The course was going exceptionally well and Sue and Al began to anticipate their time together alone. It became clear to both of them that there was romantic attraction. Being mature adults, Sue and Al sat down one evening and discussed their emerging feelings for each other. They decided that they had better be very careful about the emerging romance but they also felt that they could handle sexual expression of their feelings during those rare moments when they were alone.”²⁵

“Let's assume that Sue's performance was not negatively affected by the romance, but it did affect the group anyway, since they knew about it. Is Sue's and Al's behaviour all right and why?”²⁶

This case is presented to reveal the respondents attitudes towards sexual issues in relation to experiential education, specifically sex between an instructor and a client. The clause about performance not being negatively affected was added to avoid simple, one-level answers claiming that it is unprofessional without further explanation and was used to shift the dilemma from a technical towards a moral level.

3.8 Case question 5

“An organisation receives an opportunity (a grant) to organise an environmental outdoor project abroad (in Eastern Europe) for a hundred high school students. The given

26 I added this clause for reasons stated below.

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circumstances and time possibilities only offer two options of where it can be held. The first choice is a centre in the suburbs of a small town, which is relatively well equipped, but its surrounding aren't completely ideal for the project's purposes. The second is a nice centre high in the mountains, in the wilderness, in a beautiful environment that matches the original idea of such place of the organisers perfectly.

Because one of the requirement's aims was low environmental impact of the project, the organisers do some research into how the locality will affect the environmental impact of the seminar. The research shows that while the suburban centre keeps the environmental issue in mind and, among other things, recycles its waste, the better positioned centre in the mountains does not recycle its trash because of traffic access problems and it, in fact, seems to burn a major part of its waste while heating the resort.

Let's suppose that it is not realistic to affect the owners' behaviour nor take care of such an amount of waste in another way. Which of these centres should the organisation choose and why?”²⁷

The purpose of this case was to find out how important the practical environmental impact of their activities is to the respondents and how strict they are about environmental issues in a situation of direct conflict between a great benefit and a significantly lower environmental impact.

The clause about not having a realistic effect on the owner's behaviour was supposed to prevent the dilemma deteriorating because of an obvious solution of choosing the less environmental solution but making it environmental by other means, and also to keep the

27 I came up with this example to present a realistic dilemma for Czech practitioners of experiential education.

Practically all of Hunts examples in the relevant chapter seemed to be so extreme from a local point of view, that they would not provide the desired range of answers.

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questions realistic, after an unofficial “pre-research” that showed a tendency of “test”

respondents²⁸ towards unrealistic solutions such as making the whole diverse group of a hundred high-school students bring their own trash bags and recycle on the way back.

3.9 Case question 6

“An organisation aimed at outdoor experiential courses for the youth, that, among other things, offers team-building courses for companies and other organisations and also wilderness-based survival courses, receives a request for a three week long, physically demanding seminar aimed at survival skills and the improvement of the participants' physical condition. The organisation is equipped to organise such course, which will fill its full capacity in a time of otherwise generally lower demand for courses. The potential customer is willing to pay an above average price, which may be crucial for the annual budget of the organisation.

However, before accepting the order, the organisation's leader accidentally finds out that the group interested in ordering the seminar is a paramilitary ultra-right wing group of young skinheads and the customer himself is person with a history of accusations, law-offences and even imprisonment for racial violence related crimes and the propagation of Nazism. The course in the publicised offered form includes, apart from others, a potentially abusable lecture on self defence and the improvised creation of traps and hunting weapons.

Let's assume that the leader of the organisation has the opportunity to legally refuse the request and do it even without making it obvious that it is because of ethical or personal

28 People from my whereabouts with whom I discussed the cases before starting the research, but who aren't professionals in the field and thus their sample answers were not relevant to the research.

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reasons. Should the organisation accept the request and provide the course to the group, or not, and why?”²⁹

This case explores the extent to which the respondents feel responsible for the possible long term impact of their activities, how they would deal with such a dilemma while considering serious financial problems of the organisation and on what grounds they would base such decision.

3.10 Interviewees

These questions have been posed to 7 various individuals from the field. Listed in the chronological order of the interviews.

Mgr. Zdeněk Slejška, currently an employee of the Research Institute of Education in Prague – VÚP, who in the past worked for Prázdninová škola Lipnice, the Czech branch of Outward Bound as an instructor and also for an experiential education agency Egredior. Interview took place in Prague, 23^rd January 2009.

Mgr. Jan Sýkora, employee of a team-building and experiential education course agency, also a lecturer at the the Faculty of Education of Hradec Králové University. Interview took place in Hradec Králové, 29^th January 2009.

Mgr. Leoš Šebela, an instructor, programme manager and organiser of numerous summer camps for children and adolescents, as well as a lecturer at the the Faculty of Education of Hradec Králové University. Interview took place in Hradec Králové, 29^th January 2009.

29 This case attempted to simulate a situation, that could happen in the Czech Republic, because cases in the book were all strongly based in the American context.

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Pavel Ungr, a scout leader, lecturer in the fields of post-modern philosophy and ethics, and also an organiser of private experiential seminars. Interview took place in Prague, 5^th February 2009.

Ing. Lída Brynychová, a Senator and active politician, who has led the co-educated environmental group Netopýři in Jablonec nad Nisou for decades and is an active and experienced organiser of pioneer and other youth activities. Interview took place in Jablonec nad Nisou, 6^th February 2009.

Aleš Zemín, instructor and project manager of Sundisk Ltd., a local experiential, team- building and project and promotion organising agency. Interview took place in Jablonec nad Nisou, 10^th March 2009.

Mgr. Marie Navrátilová, physical education and ethical education teacher at a combined primary-secondary school and a lecturer of experiential courses of ethical education to secondary school teachers, member of the Ethical forum of the Czech Republic. Interview took place in Rychnov u Jablonce nad Nisou, 23^rd March 2009.

3.11 Data collection and handling

Voice records of the face to face interviews have been made, and written down into texts for approval. The texts were translated into English for further use. In these texts, essential phrases were highlighted, linked to more general key terms. These were organised as codes falling into separate categories, each category reflecting people's reactions to one of the research questions.³⁰ A Calc³¹ chart has been made to organise the data and make it easier to

30 The process of sorting and coding of the data was derived mainly from: Taylor-Powell E., Renner M., Analyzing Qualitative Data.

31 OpenOffice.org Calc is the spreadsheet component of the OpenOffice.org software package.

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compare it and derive results and statements. The final text is an analysis and interpretation of this chart, accompanied with translated quotations from the interviews that give examples and support the presented statements. The chart and also its simplified version mentioned below are enclosed to this thesis.

The Kdissert mind-mapping programme was used to create charts with quotations at the beginning of every chapter to clarify and back-up the presented results.

This thesis was made entirely with the use of Open Source Software³² tools, under the GNU- Linux (Ubuntu) operating system and written in OpenOffice.org office software package.

3.12 Problem solving tendencies chart

This chart was created during the interpretation phase of the research to confirm or disprove a theory of general tendencies and since it is interesting and helps clarify the diversity of interviewees opinions, it was later integrated into the main part of this thesis.

For the use of this comparative chart, the answers of the respondents were condensed and simplified into a “yes/no” value in a chart. This, of course, was not 100% accurate and should not be seen as a precise quantification. Its purpose is mainly to show interesting general trends, that seem to correlate with other key facts.

Each of these “yes/no” values was labelled as either liberal (risk taking, compromising, freer) or conservative (safe, uncompromising, careful). It must emphasised that neither of these values is intended to have any “good”, “bad” or political connotations whatsoever. The liberal solutions, although they tend to represent the more risky and more disputable solutions, may

32 Software, that meets the Open Source Definition requirements, for further reference, see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_Source_Definition

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be more effective in certain situations, or they may just represent a more complex approach that works with the risks and problems consciously and carefully rather then avoiding them completely. Working with risks and problems does not mean carelessness. Similarly, the

“conservative” label should not be interpreted as something necessarily rigid or static – in the sense used in this thesis, it just represents an approach that maximises safety by expecting, preventing and avoiding problematic situations when possible, even before they arise.

Based on this logic, in the Risk case, taking the harder path was labelled as “liberal,” in the Informed consent not returning money to the client (ignoring her uninformed consent) as

“liberal”, in the Deception case, accepting the deception as a valid means was seen as

“liberal”, in the Sexual case accepting or approving of the sexual behaviour was seen as

“liberal,” in the Environmental case compromising on the course's imprint (choosing the mountain centre) was seen as “liberal” and finally in the Social impacts case accepting the request despite the possible impact was labelled as “liberal,” the opposite cases were analogically labelled as “conservative”.

A small table was made that only included the list of names and list of cases, and into every field for a specific case and person, a value “L” for liberal (as explained above) or a value “C”

for conservative (also as defined above) was written down. This gave a ratio of a certain amount of liberal and a certain amount of conservative answers out of the six responses to the cases altogether, e.g. 2 “L”, 4 “C”. These sums were then depicted in the chart of liberal and conservative problem solving tendencies – the liberal parts of the chart being blue, the conservative red and the interviewees listed from most liberal to most conservative for easier orientation.

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4 Research

For simplicity, all quotations of interviewees from the research in the footmarks are only labelled with their names. Details about the respondents and the interviews are to be found above. The full texts of the translated interviews are enclosed to the thesis for reference.

4.1 Ethical codes of organisations

The first question posed to the interviewees was: “Does your organisation have an ethical code?” With only one exception³³, the interviewees claimed that their organisation either doesn't have a written ethical code, or that this code is not directly relevant to their experiential work. However, unwritten sets of rules or habits, or other specific or general grounds for ethical behaviour were always mentioned. Thus, although the ethical issues are often not dealt with in a written code, they have been discussed and are known to the instructors of the organisation generally.

Although it is impossible to generalise in any way solely on the basis of a single example, an interesting fact should probably be nevertheless mentioned. There was a clear connection between working for an organisation with a written ethical code and being very aware of all

33 Jan Sýkora

Chart 1: Ethical codes

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possible consequences and approaching all of the mentioned cases very carefully. This is the case of Mr. Sýkora. When you look at table 1, you can see that his sequence of inclinations is

“no” to objective risk, “yes” to taking into account informed consent, “no” to deception, “no”

to compromise on environmental footprint, and “no” to a negative social impact. This is a unique pattern of answers in the research and “extreme” in the sense that it inclines towards the “safe” or “conservative” in the sense “professionally less disputable” side in all six cases.

Although this might be a coincidence, it may also suggest that spending time to think through, define and normalise the organisation's ethical code in a written form provides it a tool that significantly raises the level if its inner ethical awareness and may result in the employees being generally more careful.

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4.2 Sources of ethical rules

Answers to this question overlapped significantly. Experience, legal norms, general rules of decency, feeling and intuition and also utilitarian statements (e.g. “whatever works best”³⁴, or

“the aims of the course”³⁵) were among those mentioned repeatedly. Team agreement, acting professionally and the golden rule³⁶ appeared as well.

34 Pavel Ungr

35 Zdeněk Slejška, Jan Sýkora

36 The ethic of reciprocity, the current most common English wording is "Do unto others as you would have them do unto you." (Luke 6:31, NIV) or further developed by Karl Popper: "The golden rule is a good standard which is further improved by doing unto others, wherever possible, as they want to be done by."

POPPER, K. The Open Society and Its Enemies, Vol. 2. Lodnon : Routledge, 1945.

Chart 2: Sources of ethics

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There seems to be some correlation between claiming and/or openly using a utilitarian approach and tendency towards more liberal and more disputable solutions. For example, Mr.

Ungr, whose response to his basis for deciding was: “It is definitely a matter of conscience and highest effectiveness,”³⁷ inclines towards liberal solutions in the Risk case, Informed consent case, Deception case, Sexual case and is the only one admitting the acceptance of request for a course with likely negative social impact as an option under certain circumstances. Other people who showed an openly pragmatic approach in a specific case, such as Lída Brynychová and Aleš Zemín in the Deception case, also incline somewhat more towards liberal solutions.³⁸ Lída Brynychová in the Risk case, Deception case, Sexual case and even Environmental case, Aleš Zemín in the Risk case, Deception case, and Environmental case.

The individual tendencies towards either liberal (risk taking, disputable) versus conservative and safer approaches can be seen in the chart below.³⁹

37 Pavel Ungr

38 For reference see enclosed Table 1.

39 To see what this chart is based on and how it was created, see the Methodology chapter

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4.3 Generally stated ethical rules

The interviewees came up with a very variable range of ethical rules, such as the “instructor must have previously experienced the thing that they are mediating on their own”⁴⁰ rule, being inclusive, helping each other mutually in the group, supporting tolerance,⁴¹ acting in a neighbourly way towards the client⁴² and more. Connections between the rules and the principles that the respondents mention and their solutions are described in chapters dealing with the specific dilemmas.

40 Zdeněk Slejška 41 Lída Brynychová 42 Aleš Zemín

Chart 3: Chart of inclinations

Pavel Ungr Lída Brynychová Marie Navrátilová Aleš Zemín Zdeněk Slejška Leoš Šebela Jan Sýkora

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Chart of inclinations

Liberal vs. Conservative tendencies and solutions

Conservative / safe Liberal / disputable

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4.4 Risk and safety

Opinions on this dilemma were very divided. Essentially, two main approaches arose, and the people who choose the same option often also used similar reasoning.

On one hand, selecting the easier path seems an obvious choice for security reasons. Safety and the principle of never putting the client into an objectively risky situation were the mains reasons for choosing the easier path. One example is given in the chart above, the second claim is effectively identical: “I'd always choose the less difficult and physically demanding activity, [...] then to go into an objective risk.”⁴³

Both supporters of this solution also suggested the use of some additional activities or means with which the journey can be made more challenging. One claims that: “basically, the path can be made more difficult by other points, prepared challenges”⁴⁴ the other statement is analogical and can be seen in the chart above.

43 Jan Sýkora 44 Leoš Šebela

Chart 4: Risk and safety

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On the other hand, multiple people argued that it is the very purpose of experiential education to actually provide experience, and that walking on a signposted tourist path is not a good enough experience to provide learning space on a wilderness-based seminar⁴⁵. They chose to face the risk of climbing up through the harder terrain. It was argued that safety can be assured by different means, primarily by making the group aware of the risk⁴⁶, thus making safety one of the activities aims and delegating the risk to the group. This provides further opportunities for the group's growth.

As Marie Navrátilová states: “For the reason that the participants would really practice what they have learned. It will be more interesting and more fun for them [...] the stronger individuals may help the weaker ones, work on their ego, get over their ferocity, and adapt somewhat. “I'm not here just for myself.” On the other hand, the weaker participants, by adapting to a more difficult situation, can reinforce their self-confidence and realise that with the help of others they may reach much higher then they originally thought or even dared.”

45 Lída Brynychová, for the exact phrase, see the chart 46 Zdeněk Slešjka, for the exact phrase, see the chart

Illustration 2: Hiking in mountains

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The tendency to clearly divide the group into weaker and stronger individuals as different groups who may benefit in a different way, which was not directly described as the situation in the case question, suggests that the interviewee herself may have encountered a similar situation in the past, where such a division was clear. This division of roles and use of the element of mutual support and group learning, from which all the individuals may benefit more,⁴⁷ is a repeated pattern that practically all those in favour of this solution mention in a way. This emphasis on mutual learning and the group's positive development when stimulated and challenged correctly show that experiential educators tend to trust in these natural elements of experiential learning and are inclined to use them and make their clients benefit from them.

Other arguments for risking slightly more were the easy accessibility of immediate help these days⁴⁸, the realistic option of giving up or transferring to an easier path in case the clients were too tired⁴⁹, and others.

An interesting difference in perceiving the situation arose among those who would take the harder path. Whereas Zdeněk Slejška and Lída Brynychová noticed and reflected the risk dimension of the case, the remaining two supporters of the more risky approach did not directly mention safety as an issue. They touched the issue indirectly or after being asked an additional question, however, their reasoning seemed to show that they take safety for granted, as something that must always be dealt with, rather than not taking it into account at all. Aleš Zemín for example states that he would operatively choose the easier path in case the

47 “...thus choose the more demanding option, that can benefit the group better...” (Z. Slejška)

48 “today it is not a problem, if there is some extreme situation, to call help, I don't consider that impossible these days.” (L. Brynychová)

49 “I'd prepare a variant of getting from the harder way to the easier, and I'd definitely have dealt with possible problems (health care, accessibility etc.)” (P. Ungr)

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clients were tired: “But if they – for the whole week – were on rafts one day, then on ropes, then bikes and so on, then I wouldn't have any problem with choosing the way of least resistance.”⁵⁰

4.5 Informed consent

In the case researching the awareness and attitudes of informed consent issues, interviewees were presented with a situation of a young woman who arrives to an experiential course insufficiently informed and when she finds out what the conditions are like, decides to leave immediately and claims her payment back, despite the fact that she previously signed a

50 Aleš Zemín

Chart 5: Informed consent

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general contract covering mainly the risk-related issues that states that she can only be given a refund if she cancels her participation for medical reasons.

Unlike with the previous case, where respondents who inclined towards the same solution used similar reasoning, the reasons for the individual decisions in this situation were extremely variable, as you can see in chart 5. People from both groups, those who would return the money in a such situation, often with some cancellation fee, as well as those who most probably would keep it, realised the informed consent issue in the case and mentioned the problem of the client's lack of information in advance. The division of attitudes isn't as clear-cut as in the previous case. In most cases, interviewees suggested some form of compromise, usually returning the money with a small cancellation fee.

The reasoning behind this solution, however, differed significantly with each individual.

Zdeněk Slejška would, for example, return most of the money: “...there was some preparation, so maybe let's agree on some cancellation fee, but not dramatic, and I'd give the money back.”⁵¹ The stated reason however, has nothing to do with informed consent and is not specifically client-oriented - “For me, the good name of the company is more than pushing a participant towards something, so in a case like this, [...] I would not have a problem with giving the money back.”⁵²

Another reason given for returning the money was the comfort of group which would be affected by a dissatisfied client should the financial side of the situation make them stay, despite the fact that they are generally unwilling. “Definitely more people would suffer around her, so for the sake of the experience of the others, and so she herself isn't under stress,

51 Zdeněk Slejška 52 Zdeněk Slejška

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I'd probably just say, pack go home”⁵³ Here again the client in question is not the central point of the argument.

We move closer to basing the argument on grounds related specifically to the client when we face the extremity of the requirements⁵⁴, and the fact that is to be considered unpredictable by a new client or anyone not very familiar with the organisation and the field of wilderness- based outdoor training. With the unpredictability being mentioned, we also indirectly touch the issue of informed consent. “...there is no expectation of it being so much out of the daily reality.”⁵⁵ Another similar reason given was respect to the client's background (upbringing, religion): “...especially the accommodation – may become a real problem for, for example, conservative or religious individuals.”⁵⁶ This all can, however, be seen as almost the same reasoning – there is no point in forcing the client towards anything that is unacceptable for them.

In those who realised the informed consent issue, the agreement was that such conditions must always be made clear or at the very least available for clarification in advance.⁵⁷ The problem of missing information was mentioned repeatedly: “But also, she wasn't told in advance what exactly she's going to do during the whole time. So also because of that, the missing information.”⁵⁸

53 Lída Brynychová 54 Jan Sýkora, Aleš Zemín 55 Jan Sýkora

56 Marie Navrátilová

57 Leoš Šebela, Aleš Zemín, Jan Sýkora 58 Aleš Zemín

Ethical Dilemmas in Experiential Education

Faculty of Sciences, Humanities and Education Technical University of Liberec

Ethical Dilemmas in Experiential Education

Bachelor Thesis

Technická univerzita v Liberci

FAKULTA PŘÍRODOVĚDNĚ-HUMANITNÍ A PEDAGOGICKÁ

Ethical Dilemmas in Experiential Education Etická dilemata v prožitkové pedagogice

Special thanks to

Abstract

Anotace

Annotation

Contents

Table of contents

List of Figures

List of charts

List of illustrations

List of abbreviations

1 Introduction

1.1 Motivation

1.2 Aim of the project

2 Background

2.1 Ethics in relation to the principles of experiential education

2.2 Ethics in relation to the nature of experiential education

2.2.1 Ethical issues of today's world

2.2.2 Jasper S. Hunt's introduction to ethics

3 Methodology

3.1 Purpose of the research

3.2 Carrying out the research

3.3 Introductory questions

3.4 Case question 1

3.5 Case question 2

3.6 Case question 3

3.7 Case question 4

3.8 Case question 5

3.9 Case question 6

3.10 Interviewees

3.11 Data collection and handling

3.12 Problem solving tendencies chart

4 Research

4.1 Ethical codes of organisations

4.2 Sources of ethical rules

4.3 Generally stated ethical rules

4.4 Risk and safety

4.5 Informed consent