Department of Archaeology and Ancient History
Erotic Tokens and The Business of Prostitution
A study on the function & monetary value of tokens in Pompeii
Emilia Wall
Abstract
Wall, E. 2019. Erotic Tokens and The Business of Prostitution: A study on the monetary value of tokens in Pompeii.
Wall, E. 2019. Erotiska polletter och affärsverksamheter kring prostitution: En studie om polletter och dess monetära värde i Pompeji.
Erotic tokens or the so-called spintriae leave little to the imagination. These coin-like tokens depict acts of love making couples with Roman numerals on the reverse. The tokens are believed to have been in use during the 1st century A.D. and is often attributed to the reign of Tiberius. The material examined in the thesis are the four spintriae from Uppsala University Coin Cabinet. Due to the specific characteristics, scholars have been questioning the function of the erotic tokens. The most accredited hypothesis is that erotic tokens was used as payment in brothels. The purpose of this thesis is to discern whether the erotic tokens had a monetary value in Pompeii. The study also aims to examine if the tokens were used as payment in brothels instead of contemporary currencies and as to why the reason for this could be. To be able to discern a purpose, function and value of erotic tokens, three analyses on the basis of graffiti, iconography and ancient literature are made.
Keywords: Roman Empire, Pompeii, spintriae, tokens, prostitution
Bachelor Thesis in Classical Archaeology and Ancient History 15 hp. Supervisor: Susanne Carlsson. Ventilated and approved 2019-06-12.
© Emilia Wall
Department of Archaeology and Ancient History, Uppsala university, Box 626, 75126 Uppsala, Sweden.
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank my supervisor Susanne Carlsson, without her input and support there would not be a thesis to read. Thank you to Ragnar Hedlund at Uppsala University Coin Cabinet, who gave me access to the material which is central in the thesis.
Contents
1. Introduction ... 5
1.1. Why erotic tokens ... 5
1.2. Aims and research questions... 5
1.3. Material and method ... 6
1.4. Previous research ... 7
2. Spintriae in the Uppsala University Coin Cabinet (UMK) ... 10
2.1. The four spintriae and their relation to prostitution ... 10
2.1.1. Interpretation of sexual activities ... 12
2.1.2. Grouping of the tokens ... 13
2.1.3. The legend of the tokens... 14
3. Identifying the value of erotic tokens on the basis of graffiti... 15
3.1. The symbolic value of erotic tokens and the value of a prostitute ... 15
3.2. Graffiti, prostitution and erotic tokens ... 15
3.2.1. Inscriptions ... 16
4. Identifying the purpose and function ... 19
4.1. Identify a purpose of erotic tokens on the basis of iconography ... 19
4.1.1. The Lupanar and the Suburban Baths ... 19
4.1.2. Tokens in the private sphere ... 20
5. Ancient literature and its correlations to erotic tokens ... 22
6. Discussion and conclusion ... 25
6. Bibliography ... 28
6.1. Ancient sources ... 28
6.2. Modern literature ... 28
5
1. Introduction
1.1. Why erotic tokens
Roman coinage can shed light on public life and society, so can the material, presented in this thesis. The tokens with erotic motifs, so-called spintriae (s. spintria), circulated in the Roman Empire during the 1st century A.D. In general, these erotic monetiform pieces have no monetary value, only a symbolic value which might correspond with contemporary currencies. Apart from the erotic scenes on the obverse of the tokens, Roman numerals are represented on the reverse, ranging from I-XVI.1 This kind of tokens can give a better understanding to what extent Romans used currencies with no known monetary value in their daily life, or why they were manufactured in first place. It has been suggested that the tokens were used as payment in brothels replacing real money.
Three main hypotheses, which will be taken in consideration in the thesis, have been developed by scholars regarding the function and purpose of the erotic tokens: 1) brothel tokens – Roman numeral indicating monetary value (in asses); 2) entryway tokens for imperially sponsored games; 3) gaming tokens.2 In the two last hypotheses the tokens are not considered
to have any monetary value. The spintriae were first studied by Ezechiel Spanheim from a numismatic perspective in 1664. Spanheim was the one who applied the Latin word spintriae to the erotic tokens and suggested the connection to prostitution.3
Due to the high level of preservation, Pompeii constitutes an exceptional city when analyzing the tokens in relation to payment in brothels and to prostitutes. The city is infamous for the number of brothels that scholars have been able to discern, many agreeing on approximately 30-35 different brothels distributed throughout the city, the Lupanar is the best known.4 The correlation between prostitution and the erotic tokens is central to analyze, for a better understanding of how the Roman economy and social life worked.
1.2. Aims and research questions
The aim of this study is to analyze the purpose and function of brothel tokens. The main question is whether they have been used as payment in brothels and directly to prostitutes in the 1st century A.D. in Pompeii.
The archaeological material which is central in this study are the four spintriae kept at Uppsala University Coin Cabinet (hereafter referred to as UMK).5 Throughout this thesis the word spintriae should be used with caution, when describing the archaeological material, the word spintria(e) should be applied. When speaking of spintriae in general the word tokens should be applied as much as possible. The spintriae at UMK are said to have been discovered at the Lupanar in Pompeii. The only documentation verifying that the spintriae from UMK are from the Lupanar is a hand-written note in the coin cabinet saying so. Due to the lack of
1 Buttrey 1973, 52.
2 Jacobelli 1995, 71; Clarke 1998, 244.
3 E. Spanheim, De nummis vulgo Spintriis Tiberi, in Dissertatio de praestantia et usu Numismatum antiquorum,
Romae, apud Deversin et Cesarettum, 1664, p. 285, non vidi; Campana 2009, 44–45.
4 McGinn 2010, 196–98; Wallace-Hadrill 1995, 53.
archaeological context and information, the artifacts must be analyzed critically. The hypothesis which this thesis is based upon is that the place of origin, in this case the Lupanar, can shed some light on the function of the archaeological material from UMK in relation to economy and society. Even if the origin of the tokens at UMK is dubious, it should be possible to conceptualize and make interpretations about them on the basis of their place of origin and their specific characteristics. The archaeological material can still be discussed in relation to the economy of prostitution and brothel business, regardless of the data. However, it should be analyzed critically.
To be able to acquire new knowledge about the purpose and use of brothel tokens in relation to economy and prostitution in Pompeii, the following questions are elaborated: can graffiti be used to determine a value on erotic tokens? Were these tokens used in a distinct sub-economy? What was the function of the tokens?
1.3. Material and method
The material used in this study are the four spintriae from UMK. Together with 56 inscriptions (see Appendix) mentioning the value of prostitutes and their services, and erotic art found in various buildings in Pompeii, a basis for further analytical studies of the material is made. The material will be analyzed and compared in an attempt to approach the function of erotic tokens. Through this kind of analysis, the aim is to study the material through economy and prostitution. This study does not have a specific theoretical approach, instead it is supposed to approach a way to discern how the economy of prostitution in Pompeii is connected to erotic tokens. One of the largest problems when studying archaeological material like spintriae, is the lack of a certain provenance. In this case the place of origin, Pompeii, can tell more about erotic tokens than first thought. Since the study concerns the purpose and use of tokens, I have chosen to select places and buildings in Pompeii where brothel tokens, graffiti and iconography regarding economy and prostitution have been discovered. The buildings are supposed to be either private, semi-private or public. Buildings and places that show any evidence of erotic tokens, erotic iconography and inscriptions regarding the value of prostitutes, and are of significant value for the analysis are:
1) Lupanar – public/semi-private (VII.12.18-20);
2) Suburban Baths – private (outside of the Marina gate);
3) Graffiti regarding prostitute in the Lupanar– public (Reg. VII. Ins. 12.18-20. Inscription; CIL 4. 2193);
4) House of the Vettii brothers – private (Reg VI Ins. 15.Inscriptions; CIL 4. 4592, 4593).6
Graffiti which involves prices about prostitution are important to take in consideration and compare with the tokens. This is of importance to better understand the tokens in a context regarding monetary value and as a substitute to real money. It also gives an idea how much a token could possibly be worth, depending of the sexual activity. We also get valuable information considering the price of specific prostitutes and what they offered to their customers in return.
Iconography in this case erotic wall-paintings found in e.g. brothels, inns or private homes are necessary to use as comparative material to the erotic scenes on the tokens. The aim is to better understand the correlation between erotic art on the tokens and in buildings, which features similar sex scenes as the ones depicted on the tokens.
Ancient literature which treats the value of prostitution may to some extent contribute to a better understand of the function and monetary value of the tokens. Martial (Epigrams) Petronius (Satyricon) Dio Cassius (Roman History) Suetonius (Lives of Caesars) and Tacitus (Annals)
7 will be taken in considerations when comparing and analyzing prostitution and economy. Other literature mentioning the word spintria regarding male and female prostitution in various ways is to some extent relevant. The correlations which have been made by scholar between the Latin word spintria in literature and spintria as archaeological material can be studied.
1.4. Previous research
Some extensive cataloguing has been accomplished on erotic tokens and a great number of tokens have been studied and inventoried. Research concerning the function of tokens has been carried out by scholars, and the material itself is quite controversial. The tokens are controversial in the sense that their use of purpose divide scholars. And due to of the lack of provenance. Jean-Claude Ralite even imply that that no spintriae have ever been found either from Pompeii or Herculaneum, a statement supported by several scholars.7 The three theories about the function of erotic tokens which have been in circulation since the mid-1600s have been studied until today, through various aspects. Spanheim’s hypothesis about spintriae was that they were used as admission tokens to theatres and circuses, after the readings of the Epigrams of Marital.8 A century later Joseph Eckhel, a German numismatic, developed a new hypothesis with Spanheim’s hypothesis as a base. He made the suggestion that the tokens were used as admission tokens for Floral games or clandestine games related to sex.9 The hypothesis about the tokens being used in brothels was introduced by Michail I. Rostovtzeff (1905) after a reading of a passage in Suetonius Lives of the Caesars.10 M. Nadrowski11 opposed the classical dating of Tiberius, he suggested that the tokens had a later dating, to the time of Domitian. This hypothesis was based on a passage in the Epigrams of Martial, where he presumed that the tokens were used in brothels.12 Nadrowski emphasized that the tokens preceded with the legend A would be authentic while the rest would imitations from the Renaissances.13 A. Gnecchi was the first to propose that the erotic tokens correspond with a currency.14
Since most of the tokens have mainly been retrieved from public and private collections, the archaeological contexts are often dubious. The latest discovery of one spintria was made in 2010 in the mud of the Thames near Putney Bridge, London.15 It is difficult to estimate a total number of tokens found. However, several scholars have created extensive catalogues in an attempt to collect and analyze spintriae from different museums and private collections. The most extensive inventory of tokens created to this day, was made by Antonio Campana. A total number of 311 erotic tokens from different collectors and museums were characterized, compared and inventoried.16 Other known locations where spintriae have been discovered
throughout the territories of the Roman Empire are listed in the table below;
Table 1. Indicating the place of discovery of other known tokens in the Roman Empire.
7 Ralite 2009, 196; Campana etc. 8 Mart. Epigr. 8, 78.9.
9 E. Spanheim, De nummis vulgo Spintriis Tiberi, in Dissertatio de praestantia et usu Numismatum antiquorum,
Romae, apud Deversin et Cesarettum, 1664, p. 285. Non vidi; Io. Eckhel, Doctrina numorum veterum, Vindobonae, Typis Kurtzbekianis, vol. VIII, 1798, p. 315. Non vidi; Martínez Chico 2018; Campana 2009.
10 Rostovtzeff 1905: M. I. Rostovtzeff, Römische Bleitesserae: ein Beitrag zur Social- und Wirtschaftsgeschichte
der römischen Kaiserzeit, (Klio Beiträge zur alten Geschichte, 3), Aalen, 1905. Non Vidi; Le Guennec 2017, 424.
11 No first name has been found.
12 Mart. Epigr. 8, 78, 9.; Nadrowski, M., Welchen Zweck hatten die römischen Spintrien?, «Berliner Münzblätter»
52 (1906), pp. 287–289. Non vidi.
13 Campana 2009, 46.
14 Gnecchi, F., I numeri I-XVI nelle tessere di bronzo, «Rivista Italiana di Numismatica» 20 (1907), pp. 515–516.
Non Vidi; Martinéz Chico 2018, 541
Territory (modern)
Site/place of discovery Quantity of tokens found Roman numerals
Britain Chelsea 1 token VIII
France Sallé les-d'Aude (from arch. context)
1 token Unknown
Argenton-sur-Creuse 1 token Unknown
Germany Roman fort of Saalburg 1 token Unknown Croatia Salona 1 token (made from clay) V
Majsan Total number of tokens found = unknown.
VII Narona Total number of tokens found =
unknown.
VIII
Israel Casearea Maritima 1 token Unknown
In 1973 Theodore V. Buttrey made a survey on 43 tokens from the collection in the British museum which were compared to 81 non-erotic tokens. Buttrey was the first to propose exact dates when erotic tokens were used. Buttrey compared imperial portraits on non-erotic tokens with the erotic tokens. He compared the portrait busts of Augustus, Tiberius and Livia. The tokens with imperial portraiture was made of the same material and bear the Roman numeral on the reverse. The tokens were dated to 22-37 A.D.17
Bono Simonetta and Renzo Riva made a survey on 128 erotic tokens and date them a little later than the reign of Tiberius and propose them to still be in use during the reign of Domitian.18 On the basis of their analysis they concluded that the function of the tokens was to pay prostitutes in brothels.19 Their analysis is based on the same hypothesis Nadrowski proposed from reading Martial’s Epigrams.
The survey Campana made of 311 erotic tokens was a metallurgical analysis, where Campana discussed the credibility of function of erotic tokens. Campana also made a survey of the distribution of erotic tokens, which confirmed that the discovery data was too scarce. He rejects the hypothesis Simonetta and Riva made that the dating of the tokens would correspond with the reign of Domitian. Instead he agrees with the time of dating to be during the reign Tiberius.20
Many scholars question whether the erotic tokens should be linked to brothels, sexual activity or a monetary value. More recent studies that have been carried out are instead trying to address the correlation between (board)games and tokens. The erotic depiction is not relevant here, instead it focuses on the Roman numerals on the die-axis. The numerals on the reverse would indicate scoring, positions or moves.21 David Martínez Chico suggest that the tokens
could have been used in a game called Morra.22 The erotic tokens are in this case considered as gaming tokens of no economic value. Researchers have also tried to make further suggestions about the tokens and their use in Imperial games. Apart from the idea that the tokens served as entrance tokens, suggestion that they could correspond to seating at the theatre and games has been made.23 The etymology of the Latin word spintria is uncertain and is not related to the tokens itself. In ancient literature the word spintria together with the Latin word sellarii (pl.) refer to male and female prostitutes’ practicing sodomy.24 Since the word spintria is a Latin
word applied to an early modern interpretation of erotic tokens, an inconsistency is made. Generally, when speaking about tokens with no monetary value they are referred to as tessera
17 Buttrey 1973, 56; Schmieder 2008. 18 Simonetta & Riva 1981.
19 Simonetta & Riva 1981; Simonetta and Riva 1984, 89; Jacobelli 1997, 71; Campana 2009. 20 Campana 2009, 48.
21 Fishburn 2007.
22 Martínez Chico 2018, 546; Morra is a game, which dates back to both ancient Rome and Greece. The players
are simultaneously supposed reveal their hand and a number of fingers, while the opponents call out a number.
23 Fishburn 2007, 232.
24 Suet. Vit. 3, 5; Petr. Sat. 113, 11; Melville Jones 1990, 295; see Champlin (2011) for further discussion and
9 from the Greek tessares or tettares.25 The difference between spintria and tessera is the erotic nature of spintria. These erotic tokens are a subcategory of the tessera.
The material of which the tokens are made is not very diverse. Buttrey mentions tokens made of brass or bronze, while Simonetta and Riva speak about tokens made of bronze.26 The
token found in Salona was made of clay, but no evidence of tokens made of clay has been reported elsewhere.27
Other erotic tokens similar to the coin-like tokens have been found at the Suburban bathhouses in Pompeii; these are made of bone but does not have the same coin-like shape. These similar tokens depict Roman numerals on one side and on the die-axis erotic scenes, just like the erotic tokens.28 If the erotic tokens of the Suburban bathhouses can be considered to
have the same function as the spintriae from UMK, will not be discussed here. It should however be discussed later.
25 Göbl 1978, 31–32; Melville Jones 1990, 301. 26 Buttrey 1973, 52; Simonetta & Riva 1981.
27 Buljević 2008; See Martínez Chico (2018) for further explanation about spintria and the likelihood of clay
tokens in Salona.
2. Spintriae in the Uppsala University Coin Cabinet (UMK)
2.1. The four spintriae and their relation to prostitution
In this chapter a presentation of the archaeological material and a discussion on their relation to brothels will be made. With regard to erotic tokens in general, the spintriae kept in Uppsala University Coin Cabinet are of substantial value when analyzing the archaeological material through a socio-economic aspect. Why so? The spintriae from UMK, as previously mentioned, are said to be from the Lupanar in Pompeii. Even if this information is dubious, a basis is made where further analysis of the material can be carried out. The Roman numerals on the spintriae from UMK range between A•II-XIIII (2-14) which corresponds to the monetary value of asses (s. as).29 The table below give a demonstration of the four spintriae from UMK:
Table 2. Measurement of the spintria from UMK.
Spintria 1
Token number 1 (Fig. 1) has the Roman numeral A•II on the front. The obverse depicts a couple engaged in intercourse on a bed. The arm of the male seems to be holding some kind of rod, due to the abrasion of the token it might be hard to distinguish.30 Below the bed we can discern
drinking vessels. Both the front and the obverse are encircled with dots. This token stands out from the rest of the spintriae at UMK since the Roman numeral is preceded by the legend A. According to Buttrey this token belongs to the uncommon group of erotic tokens (see section 2.1.1. for further discussion).31
29 Asses was one of the currencies during the Roman Republic and during the Empire.
30 Campana 2009, 57. A comparison with other erotic tokens with the same erotic scene indicate that the male is
holding a rod.
31 Buttrey 1973.
Spintria from UMK (Roman numerals) Weight – Æ (grammes) Diameter – Ø (millimeter) Die-axis (obverse) Material 1. Spintria – A•II 3.79 gr. 19.93 mm.
12 o’clock Copper alloy – Brass or bronze
3. Spintria – III 5.03 gr. 21.81 mm.
12 o’clock Copper alloy – Brass or bronze
2. Spintria – VIIII 5.90 gr. 20.28 mm.
5 o’clock Copper alloy – Brass or bronze
4. Spintria – XIIII 4.00 gr. 18.26 mm.
11
Fig 1. Spintria. Left: Reverse, Roman numeral. Right: Obverse, erotic scene. Place of origin; Pompeii, Lupanar. Courtesy of Uppsala University Coin Cabinet. Photo: Emilia Wall & Ragnar Hedlund.
Spintria 2
Token number 2 (Fig. 2) has the Roman numeral III. The Roman numeral is encircled by both a laurel-wreath and an inner circle with dots. The obverse depicts a couple engaged in having intercourse on a bed. The dominant partner entering from behind with the receiving partner crouching on all fours, while holding what seems to be some kind of drinking vessel. The male wearing a cloak and his right arm is holding up the garment of the partner. Below the bed a drinking vessel and a decanter (probably for wine) can be seen. Next to the bed in the right-side corner, a person who is watching the couple while having intercourse can be discerned. This token is highly decorative with drapery and the bed also seems to be richly decorated with a drapery and a mattress.
Fig 2. Spintria. Left: Reverse, Roman numeral. Right: Obverse, erotic scene. Place of origin; Pompeii, Lupanar. Courtesy of Uppsala University Coin Cabinet. Photo: Emilia Wall & Ragnar Hedlund.
Spintria 3
Token number 3 (Fig. 3) has the Roman numeral VIIII on the front. The Roman numeral is encircled with a laurel-wreath on the reverse. The obverse depicts a couple on a bed or couch where the prostitute perform fellatio on his/her customer. The male customer is in reclining position, resting his left arm on a pillow. He is holding his right arm in an upright position as if he finds pleasure in the moment. The token is quite worn but does not have any indications of being very decorated. On the far left on the obverse side of the token a door can be recognized, indicating that the couple are in a room.32
32 Campana 2009, 87. A comparison with other erotic tokens with the same erotic scene indicate that a door can
Fig 3. Spintria. Left: Reverse, Roman numeral. Right: Obverse, erotic scene. Place of origin; Pompeii, Lupanar. Courtesy of Uppsala University Coin Cabinet, Photo: Emilia Wall & Ragnar Hedlund.
Spintria 4
Token number 4 (Fig. 4) is the last one of the spintriae from UMK to be examined. It has the Roman numeral XIIII. The token is worn out and it is difficult to distinguish any encircling of the Roman numeral. Due to the wearing it is difficult to distinguish any gender. The obverse depicts a couple engaged in intercourse on a bed. The receiving partner lays flat on the bed while turning his/her upper torso to face the partner (Fig. 4). The token is not very decorated, the bed has some kind of drapery and the bed has a mattress.
Fig 4. Spintria. Left: Reverse, Roman numeral. Right: Obverse erotic scene. Place of origin; Pompeii, Lupanar. Courtesy of Uppsala University Coin Cabinet. Photo: Emilia Wall & Ragnar Hedlund.
2.1.1. Interpretation of sexual activities
The four tokens differ in various ways. Both with regard to the erotic scenes, but also the Roman numerals indicating a value differ from each other. On the obverse we can distinguish four different erotic scenes where couples are engaged in intercourse or fellatio. It is a difficult task to make any interpretations whether the sex scenes depict hetero- or homosexual couples. The study of gender through the sexual scenes on the tokens should be made with caution, since there is no certainty that it depicts either male or female.
Spintria nr 1 (Fig. 1) – has the Roman numeral II, which would indicate a value of two asses. It is difficult to tell whether it depict a hetero- or homosexual couple. The interpretation made here, however, is that the dominant person kneeling is male. This interpretation is made by comparing a similar token analyzed by Campana, with the same Roman numeral and erotic scene.33 The receiving crouching partner can be either male or female, there are no visible genitals that would indicate a specific gender. According to Campana the rod which can be distinguished in this scene is problematic; it would indicate sexual abuse. L. Jacobelli does not believe that the rod represents sexual violence, since the depiction of sexual abuse in Roman
13 erotic art is extremely rare.34 Instead the rod could be a manumissio vindicta, which was used to give freedom to servants from slavery.35
Spintria nr 2 (Fig. 2) – has the Roman numeral III, which indicate a value of three asses. This scene could depict a heterosexual couple. The interpretation that support a heterosexual sex act is mainly the body shape of the receiving partner. The body shape correlates with that of a woman due to the larger hips and small chest. Campana makes the observation that this type of erotic scene is very common in Roman art.36
Spintria nr 3 (Fig. 3) – has the Roman numeral VIIII, which indicate a value of nine asses. It could depict either a hetero- or homosexual couple. Due to the abrasion of the token it is difficult to distinguish any special features. It could, however, be a homosexual couple since the body types correspond more to the ones of male body types. In Roman society oral sex was considered disgusting and genitalia was believed to be unclean. Since oral sex was considered unsanitary the price for it was higher than other sexual favors in brothels.37
Spintria nr 4 (Fig. 4) – has the Roman numeral XIII, which indicate a value of fourteen asses. It is very difficult to distinguish any special body features of the couple. The couple can be interpret as interacting in either a male-male-, female-female- or male-female intercourse. Since no specific genitals can be distinguished on either person, any discussions of the gender of the couple should be left out.
According to Buttrey, Simonetta and Riva the erotic scenes on the material they analyzed, depict heterosexual couples, with exception of a few scenes which would depict homosexual couples.38 In this case the interpretations of the tokens are mainly based on the body shape that can be distinguished and other erotic iconography, which corresponds with the sexual theme of the tokens.
2.1.2. Grouping of the tokens
While analyzing the material from UMK four different erotic scenes could be discerned. Buttrey distinguished 13 different erotic scenes on the obverse and divided the tokens in two groups: (A) the more common group which is struck in brass; (B) uncommon group struck in copper. The measurement differs significantly from each other. Tokens in group (A) measure 20–4 mm. in diameter and those in the more uncommon group (B) measure 16-19 mm. in diameter.39
Simonetta and Riva divided the erotic tokens into three main groups (A, B and C) and distinguished 15 different scenes on the obverse of the tokens. According to Simonetta and Riva the Roman numerals on the tokens in group A and B would correspond with a specific value.40 The tokens in these group would also be the most uncommon, like the tokens analyzed by Buttrey in group B. While the more common tokens belong to group C. In all of the more uncommon group of tokens analyzed by Buttrey (B) Simonetta-Riva (A and B) the Roman numeral is preceded with a legend.41
The scenes do not typically correspond to a specific Roman numeral. It has been demonstrated that the scenes are repeatedly found on tokens with different Roman numerals. A comparison was made by Campana of 311 erotic tokens. He divided the erotic scenes into different groups depending on the frequency of the Roman numeral on the reverse.
If any conclusions should be drawn on the material from UMK in relation to the research from scholars on other erotic tokens, spintria nr 1 (Fig. 1) would belong to the more uncommon group (A and B), while the rest of the tokens (Fig. 2, 3 & 4) belong to the more common group. The measurements given by Buttrey regarding the uncommon group of tokens do not, however,
34 Sexual abuse was more common to portray in Greek erotic art than in Roman art. 35 Campana 2009, 59.
36 Campana 2009, 64. 37 Skinner 2005, 18.
38 Buttrey 1973; Simonetta & Riva 1981, 10; Jacobelli 1995, 70. 39 Buttrey 1973, 52.
40 Simonetta & Riva 1981.
correspond to spintria nr 1 (Fig. 1) at UMK (see Table 2). Spintriae (Fig. 2&3) fit the measurements given by Buttrey. The last spintria (Fig. 4) differ a little bit from the measurements of the more common group (A). Since there is no similar material available at UMK a comparison of specific measurements on spintria nr 1 (Fig. 1) with the legend A, cannot be made.
2.1.3. The legend of the tokens
A legend is used on coinages as part of its design. As opposed to mint marks which usually give the official responsible for a certain batch of coins or place of manufacture, the legend normally conveys a message.42 The Roman numerals in the latter more uncommon group presented by scholars are usually preceded by the legend A on the reverse (see 2.1.2).43 Scholars can only
speculate as to what the legend A could possibly indicate. Some researchers say the A stand for As or Amor. Gnecchi was the first to emphasize that the tokens corresponded to a currency which was current during the 1st century A.D. Gnecchi made the suggestion that A was equivalent to asses.44 Nadrowski suggested that the legend A would indicate Amor.45 The first
explanation would correspond with the contemporary Roman coinage. While the latter explanation would correspond with the erotic nature of spintriae and its supposed purpose.46
Since the tokens are not believed to have the same monetary value as real money, the legend on the reverse could still indicate that it would have some kind of significance. Another legend which has been identified on the erotic tokens is AVG. This legend is unusual. It has been found on non-erotic tokens and it has been connected with the initials of Augustus. This connection does not make sense according to some scholars, since it was considered a capital crime to bear coins with imperial effigy into brothels during the time of Augustus (see 2.3. for further discussion).47 The legend AVG is believed to stand for Ludi Augustales, a festival in honor of Augustus.48 This suggestion would support the hypothesis that the tokens were used for imperial games and festivals.
In the chapters that follow, the erotic tokens will be analyzed on the basis of graffiti, iconography and literature. Comparisons with the material which is central in the thesis will be carried out to be able to make further interpretations regarding value, function and purpose.
42 Melville Jones 1990, 162, 190–91. 43 Buttrey 1973, 52.
44 Campana 2009, 46; Martínez Chico 2018, 541;
45 Nadrowski, M., Welchen Zweck hatten die römischen Spintrien? «Berliner Münzblätter» 52 (1906), pp. 287–
289. Non vidi.
15
3. Identifying the value of erotic tokens on the basis of graffiti
3.1. The symbolic value of erotic tokens and the value of a prostitute
The tokens are presumed to symbolize a value indicating a real monetary value. The tokens would in that case be a substitute for contemporary coinage and it would also support it to be a part of a distinct sub-economy. Throughout the thesis, we have been acquainted with a possible value of the erotic tokens equivalent to one of the Roman coinages of Imperial Rome – As. This coinage had a low monetary value in the Roman monetary system during the Roman Empire.49
The Roman numeral on the tokens from UMK range between II-XIIII, while in other collections tokens ranging between I-XVI can be found. 16 asses would in this case be equivalent to 1 denarius and 1 as would equal one-sixteenth of a denarius.50 Prostitution was a low-status profession. The prices for a prostitute usually ranged between 1-16 asses, this corresponds with the numerals on the tokens. The hypothesis that the legend A would indicate the monetary value in asses, would support this (see 2.1.3).
3.2. Graffiti, prostitution and erotic tokens
Brothels and prostitution played an important role in the economic life of Pompeii and it was a thriving city for sex trade.51 Through the study of graffiti which indicates a cost of the prostitute and their clients, a better understanding of the presumed function of erotic tokens can be gained. Correlations between the numerals, erotic scenes and graffiti, can give further evidence about the value of the prostitute. Some graffiti only indicate a name and a price, while others may also give indications of sexual services. Evidence of graffiti and prostitution can be identified throughout the city, both in private, public and semi-public buildings. Graffiti is presented in various ways depending on its purpose and what the prostitutes offer their customers. Prostitution was not an illegal profession during Roman antiquity. It was looked upon as shameful but accepted. According to graffiti the brothel clientele belonged to the lower class of the society, especially younger males.52 The social background of the brothel clientele is
defined in the graffiti. Names belonging to slaves or freedpersons (freeborn citizens) can be distinguished. The names also indicate people of foreign origin. There is no evidence that local elite families can be identified in the graffiti.53
Some of the graffiti give explicit information about the services which is provided by the prostitute. Whilst several erotic scenes seem to reappear on different tokens, these do not necessarily correlate with a specific Roman numeral (see. 2.1.2.). The erotic scenes of the tokens only give an illustrative insight into the kind of services the prostitute might perform, or what the customer in question might expect. The numeral on the tokens can be linked to a specific value but does not correlate with a certain sexual activity, while graffiti in general indicates a certain cost.54 The only sexual services mentioned in the graffiti are services pertaining to oral stimulation, such as fellatio and cunnilingus. The tokens, however, give a more varied selection of sexual activities.
3.2.1. Inscriptions
The inscriptions can give a lot of information about the person offering sexual services and their social status. There is plenty of evidence indicating that the people working as prostitutes were slaves. Moreover, the graffiti which mentions different names, often indicate that the prostitutes were slaves and of eastern origin.55 According to Antonio Varone’s ‘Erotica Pompeiana: love inscriptions on the wall of Pompeii’, a prostitute with a name of a more eastern origin could ask for a higher price than one with an indigenous name. The foreign names made the prostitute more appealing. La(h)is ask for fellatio and demands a low price even if the names have a more exotic origin. While Euplia demands a higher fee for fellatio:56
Lahis felat A II:
Lahis sucks it for 2 asses.57
Eupla f(ellat) a(ssibus) V n(ummun):
Euplia sucks it for five asses.58
Eutychis <<Graec>>a a(ssibus) II moribus bellis;
Eutyches, Greek, nice mannered for 2 asses.59
The letter A (asses) which is demonstrated in the first inscription, can be connected to legend A on the erotic tokens. It also corresponds well with the legend and numeral on spintria 1 (Fig. 1) at UMK. Even if the names are of eastern and Greek origin the first and last inscriptions which mentions a price are rather low. While the second inscription which mention a person with a name of Greek origin is higher.60 The explanation as to why the price of fellatio is
relatively low, might be because of the unsanitary view on performing oral stimulation.61 However, scholars say that the price of oral stimulation would be higher, due to it being look at as unsanitary. By looking at the graffiti a lower price of oral stimulation can be discerned. It might also depend on the time period, since the popularity of foreign names varied.62 The last inscription, which has a name of Greek origin does not mention any sexual services, but the price is still low. This inscription can be found in the house of the Vettii brothers and might be the subject of advertisement within the private sphere (see 4.1.2). The inscription can indicate that the prostitute is a slave, owned by the Vettii brothers. Varone also state that moribus bellis might be a trademark for prostitutes.63 The prices mentioned are more or less the same as the cost of the daily ration of bread or a jug of wine.64
Thick lees of red Veientan is your wine, your warm pea soup costs you a copper, your sex the same amount. Cheat and fraud that you are, let us go to court.65
This passage corresponds well to price, prostitution and the ration of food and is extracted from the Epigrams of Martial. It indicates that the cost of sex is the same amount as getting a warm bowl of soup. Through the reading of this passage interpretations can be made. This is probably about a person, who might be a prostitute, or a slave and the sex he/she demands for the sex, is at a low cost. The sexual services provided by the prostitute are not mentioned. However, the
55 Varone 2002, 146. 56 Varone 2002, 147.
57 CIL IV 1969 (Appendix, 31): Inscription found near the Forum.
58 CIL IV 5048 (Appendix, 11): (other inscriptions mentioning the same name: 2310b; cf. 10004). Inscription found
by Strada Stabiana & Reg. IX Ins. 2.
17 combined information from inscriptions and tokens might help to distinguish a sexual service which correspond to the price mentioned in the passage.
Rebecca Flemming mentions that a prostitutional price scale was current throughout the Roman Empire. With the help of inscriptions, a value which correspond with the price scale can be found. Flemming suggest that a prices scale ranging between 1–23 asses can be discerned. Prostitutes in Pompeii were rather cheap, and two asses seem to have been the most common amount asked by a prostitute.66
…if you go with a vulgar tart for a couple of asses, if you can’t get into quarters without stooping.67
This reading from the Epigrams of Martial is a further indication the low price offered by several prostitutes. In Pompeii the cost of a prostitute seems to have been recognized throughout the city, even though the prices vary depending on the prostitute and the sexual activity. The prices mainly range between 1-16 asses. However, evidence of prices higher than 10 asses from Pompeii is lacking (see Appendix). There is evidence of two inscriptions which mentions a price between 10-16 asses:
Arphocras hic cum Drauca bene futuit dinario;
Harpocras has had a good fuck here with Drauca for a denarius.68
Siquis his sederit Legat hoc ante omnia: Siqui future volet Atticen quaerat a(ssibus) XVI;
Anyone who sits here should read this before everything else: Anyone who wants a fuck should ask for Attica. Costs sixteen asses.69
The first inscription is an example from the Lupanar, where a customer paid the prostitute one denarius (=16 asses) for the services of the prostitute. Rather than the prostitute herself offering a price. The price is rather high and corresponds to the highest Roman numeral on the erotic tokens. Since the inscription is found in the brothel and the price is comparable with the tokens, a suggestion about the use of tokens in brothels can be made. The probability that the prostitutes did not handle the money themselves, is high. Especially in brothels which were managed by lenos.70 The use of erotic tokens in brothels might have been a way to facilitate the work of the lenos. It would also be a safer way to handle the money which was circulating in and out brothels. Another hypothesis could be that the prostitutes themselves would not get any access to the money with the help of tokens. It would only be profitable for the owners or the lenos who managed the brothels, since the token in some way needed to be exchanged for real money. There is no evidence whether this was the case or not and the exchange of tokens for money cannot be proved.
The second inscription, which can be found outside of the Marina Gates, might be a way for the prostitute to advertise herself for the visitors coming to Pompeii. The price is high in comparison to other prices asked from prostitutes in Pompeii (see Appendix). The high price might indicate that Attica was a well-known prostitute. It is not clear whether she worked in a brothel or in the streets. From this inscription assumptions of her working in the streets is more likely. Prostitutes who worked in the streets was not uncommon in Pompeii.71 With regards to the tokens in this case. The likelihood that a prostitute working in the street would accept tokens in place of money, might be low. If the tokens only symbolize a value, it would not be of
66 Clarke 1998, 199; Flemming 1999, 48.
67 Mart. Epigr. 2, 53.7; The Latin words plebeian Venus in this passage refers to a prostitute. 68 CIL IV 2193 (Appendix, 8); Found by the Lupanar.
importance to a regular person selling sex. Since a prostitute working in the streets most likely needed real cash, rather than coins which only symbolize a real value.
There are only two inscriptions which mentions a price higher than 16 asses on the compiled list (Appendix):
Mentula V hs (quinque sestertiis?);
Mentula will suck you for five sesterces.72
Fortunata a(ssibus) vel a(sses) xxiii;
Fortunata, 23 asses.73
Unlike the inscriptions above, which give a lower price regarding oral stimulation, we get introduced to a price of 5 sesterces for fellatio. The value of sesterces is equivalent to 4 asses, which would equal a cost of 20 asses.74 The latter inscription mentions a female prostitute at
the high price of 23 asses. There is no evidence that there are any erotic tokens, either in UMK or in general which range higher than 16 asses. Especially none with the specific characteristics of the tokens presented in the thesis. The high prices might indicate that the people offering their service, were prostitutes with a higher status or a prostitute which was known for their good services.75
From the analysis of graffiti and its relation to the spintriae at UMK, the most common value for sexual services is two asses. This corresponds to spintria nr 1 (Fig. 1). On the basis of the analysis the presence of the legend A on spintria nr 1 (Fig. 1) is also present in the same way in graffiti (e.g. CIL 4. 1969;2028). However, the reading of asses in graffiti might differ depending on the formulation of the inscription and the engraver. Even though the correlation between graffiti and a value of erotic tokens seems clear, further analytical studies of graffiti and other tokens are needed.
72 CIL IV 8483 (Appendix, 37); inscription found in a latrine at the house of Loreius Tiburtinus. Translated by
Conde Feitosa; Mentula (f) can be translated in various ways. Either indicating a person or the male genital organ. Here it should be referred to as a person and not the male genital.
19
4. Identifying the purpose and function
4.1. Identify a purpose of erotic tokens on the basis of iconography
When scholars identify a purpose and function of archaeological material, they often tend to study specific characteristics which can be compared with other material. In this case the erotic scenes of the tokens form a basis. The erotic scenes give an illustrative feeling of being inside and that the scenes belongs to something bigger. It is not clear, however, if the scenes depict a specific establishment. But through the study of similar erotic scenes in specific venues, it might be possible to distinguish what that establishment was used for. All of the erotic scenes on the tokens have one thing in common, the similar visual design. The question that has to be asked is whether or not the design of the erotic scenes might show us the place of a brothel. Wallace-Hadrill list three different criteria that should be applied when identifying a brothel: 1) masonry beds; 2) wall paintings which depict sex scenes; 3) the presence of graffiti regarding sexual favors. The first two correspond well with the visual representation of the tokens, whilst the latter of the three criteria cannot physically be applied. Through this kind of analysis, it is possible to approach a way to distinguish a specific venue where prostitution might have taken place. The criteria should be applied and discussed critically, since any venue or iconographic depiction which fulfill these criteria in this case can be identified as a brothel.
4.1.1. The Lupanar and the Suburban Baths
The erotic scenes on the tokens have close parallels to erotic wall paintings from Pompeii. Especially with the wall paintings in the Lupanar and with the wall paintings of the apodyterium in the Suburban Baths.76 All of the erotic art in the Lupanar depicts heterosexual couples engaged in sexual intercourse, performing various sex positions. The erotic scenes correspond well with the scenes of the tokens and some of the scenes are richly decorated in the same stylistic manner. Goods such as, lamps and drinking vessels is also present. The wall paintings have been suggested to be some kind of sex menu for the customers visiting the brothel. This interpretation has also been applied to the tokens.77 If the wall paintings of the Lupanar would be a sex menu, a specific value of the sexual services would also be illustrated. Any value has not been found in relation to the paintings. With regards to the tokens, the correlation between the erotic scene, numeral and a value, would be easier to envision. The problem with the tokens as sex menus is the appearance of the same sex act on tokens with different numerals (see 2.1.2.). Hence, any correlations between sexual acts and prices as a sex menu, is a dubious interpretation.
John Clarke stress the fact that some of the erotic art in the Lupanar does not represent the reality of the brothel. It only gives the customers an upper-class imagination of sexual luxuries, which the customers most likely could not afford.78 It can be stressed with this argument that some of the spintriae (Fig. 1 & Fig. 2), also present an upper-class fantasy through their decorative attributes. According to the Roman numerals on the reverse, these two tokens would indicate a value of two and three asses respectively. The low value of the tokens could in this case correspond with the idea of encoding fantasies of an upper-class and social mobility in the material for the poorer clientele.79
76 Jacobelli 1995, 72.
In the apodyterium (changing rooms) of the Suburban Baths erotic wall paintings were discovered by Jacobelli. Because of the presence of erotic art, a connection linking the baths to the business of prostitution were made.80 The erotic scenes differ in one aspect from the scenes of the tokens. Instead of specific illustrations of couples engaging in intercourse, sex scenes which illustrate people having group sex are present. Some of the scenes depicted in the apodyterium are rare in known erotic iconography. Scene IV and VII are two of the erotic scenes in the apodyterium that is more uncommon in their erotic depiction in relation to other erotic scenes found in Pompeii and Roman art.81
A further connection to the erotic tokens and the Suburban Baths can be made. Below the erotic scenes in the Suburban Baths, numbered boxes can be distinguished. These boxes range between the number I-XVI. The numerals correspond well with the Roman numerals of the erotic tokens, but a connection between the function of the erotic tokens and the use in the apodyterium is not very likely according to Jacobelli.82
In section 1.5. we were introduced to erotic tokens made of bones. The tokens were found in the Suburban Baths and are similar to the spintriae analyzed in the text. The only thing which separate the spintriae and the tokens of the Suburban Baths is the shape. It still depicts couples engaged in similar sexual activities, and they also range between number I-XVI, just like the boxes and the erotic tokens. Even if the tokens fit well with the characteristics of the spintriae, they are not proposed to have the same function. Instead it is suggested to be a help for illiterate people to help them remember where they left their clothes, after taking a bath. They should simply be considered as locker tokens.83 Thomas McGinn imply that it is questionable whether the erotic art presented in the Suburban baths can be linked to the business of prostitution at all.84 The apodyterium of the suburban baths were normally segregated between men and women. The correlation that the changing rooms worked as a space where sexual activities took place might be implausible. Some scenes have homosexual representations and suggestions of activities of the more homo erotic nature might have taken place.
4.1.2. Tokens in the private sphere
The tokens are suggested to be used in purpose-built brothels, such as the Lupanar, and in baths where tokens could have played an active role for either illiterate people or as locker tokens. Private households also constitute evidence of activities regarding prostitution. It has already been stated why erotic tokens can be connected to places such as the Lupanar and the Suburban Baths. Another question that has to be asked in relation to tokens is; why are the tokens not suggested to be used in private households? One of the most notable houses that should be discussed, is the house of the Vettii brothers. A house owned by two freedmen.85 Firstly, this house features an inscription at its entrance, an advertisement for the sexual services of a slave. A slave owned by the Vettii brothers (see 3.2.). Secondly, in the house, behind the kitchen, a smaller room with erotic wall paintings can be found. These wall paintings correspond to the same quality and style to those in the Lupanar.86 However, it is questionable whether the room were used as a place for prostitution.87 Due to the evidence of both graffiti and erotic art similar to the art in the Lupanar, it can be safe to say that some kind of sexual services were carried out. It should also be mentioned that even if sexual services were present, it might not have been for profitable purposes.
80 Apodyterium = changing room of the Suburban Baths.
81 Jacobelli, 1995, 54, 74. Erotic scenes with multiple partners was more common in Greek art (Attic ceramics)
than in Roman art.
5. Ancient literature and its correlations to erotic tokens
Ancient literary sources owe most of the speculation on the purpose of the tokens. As mentioned earlier Spanheim was the first to apply the Latin word spintriae in the mid-1600s.88 Even if ancient authors do not explicitly mention the tokens and their function, interpretations through different passages has been made to make further assumptions on the material. Scholars have even relied on ancient authors to make chronologically dating of the tokens and their purpose. It can be argued that reading ancient sources can give a better understanding of prostitution during the time that these tokens were manufactured. Even if it might not have any correlations to the tokens themselves.
Two of the passages which would support the use of tokens in brothels and is in my opinion the most reliable, is found in Suetonius ‘Life of the Caesars’ and ‘Roman History’ by Dio Cassius:
…capital crimes: to beat a slave near a statue of Augustus, or to change one’s clothes there; to carry a ring or coin stamped with his image into a privy or a brothel, or to criticize any word of act of his.89
A young knight carried a coin [bearing] his image into a brothel, and [informers] reported [it]; for this the knight was at the time imprisoned to await execution, but later was released, as the emperor died in the meantime.90
The interpretation made here, is that it would be a capital crime to use coins with the portrait of the emperor in brothels and in latrines. This would be punishable with death or torture. This reading of Suetonius was first proposed by Rostovtzeff and that the tokens through this passage would be solely used in brothels.91 The latter passage derives from Dio Cassius and give the
same kind of information about capital crimes that Suetonius do. No hypothesis derives from the reading of Cassius in the same way hypothesis made by scholars after reading Suetonius. These extractions do in fact correspond to why these kinds of tokens would be manufactured. The reading of Cassius is, however, noteworthy to take it in consideration when analyzing tokens in relation brothels. Most of the works from Cassius are lost but the parts that is left, encompasses the period B.C. 68–47 A.D. This corresponds well with the alleged time of the erotic tokens. We have to keep in mind when reading Suetonius and Dio Cassius, that these authors were not contemporary with Tiberius. For that reason, all interpretations have to be made with caution.
Other readings from Suetonius, Petronius and Tacitus have been made to try and connect the tokens and the word spintria(e) to the time of Tiberius and its relation to prostitutes:
88 E. Spanheim, De nummis vulgo Spintriis Tiberi, in Dissertatio de praestantia et usu Numismatum antiquorum,
Romae, apud Deversin et Cesarettum, 1664, p. 285. Non vidi; Io. Eckhel, Doctrina numorum veterum, Vindobonae, Typis Kurtzbekianis, vol. VIII, 1798, p. 315. Non vidi.
89 Suet. Tib. 58, 3. 90 Cass. Dio. 78.16.5.
91 Rostovtzeff 1905: M. I. Rostovtzeff, Römische Bleitesserae: ein Beitrag zur Social- und Wirtschaftsgeschichte
23 On retiring to Capri he devised “holey places” as site for his secret orgies; there select teams of girls and male prostitutes, inventors of deviant intercourse and dubbed analists, copulated before him in triple unions to excite his flagging passions…92
He spent his boyhood and early youth at Capreae among the wantons of Tiberius, being branded for all time with the nickname Spintria and suspected of having been the cause of his father’s first advancement at the expense of his own chastity.93
He banished from the city the sexual perverts called spintriae, barely not to sink them to the sea94
If you have a drop of honest blood in you, you will not think no more of her than of a whore. If you are going to be a man, you won’t go to a pansy-boy.95
Nor were beauty and physical charm his only incitements to lasciviousness, but sometimes a boyish modesty and sometimes of noble lineage. And now were coined the names, hitherto unknown, of sellarii and spintriae…96
All of the passages above have been used to make correlations between the tokens and the time of Tiberius. Here the word spintria(e) is used in various ways to describe sexual relations with prostitutes, both male and female. According to Tacitus the word spintria was first in use in the times of Tiberius. This idea derives from the emperor fondness of lustful desires. He was thought to be involved in sexual activities with young men.97 The word, however, was first used
by Petronius and later used by Suetonius. These authors used the word to describe the young people who were involved in erotic feasts in Capri supposed to be arrange by Tiberius.98
As mentioned in section 1.1. the use of spintriae in accordance to brothel tokens should be made with caution. Through these five passages, there is no evidence of the use of tokens in relation to the Latin word spintria or in relation to payment of prostitutes. These passages are still in use by scholars to make correlations to sexual activities and brothels.
Each day provides its own gifts; the cord’s rich burden fails not, and full-laden spoil falls upon the people; now come in sudden showers sportive tokens.99
The last extracted passage can be found in the Epigrams of Martial. The Epigrams were written on the occasion of the games, which was held in celebrations of Domitian’s victory over the Dacians.100 The tokens would have been thrown by the emperor to the crowd who watched the games as a substitute to real money. The crowd could in return exchange the tokens for gifts.101
When Spanheim made the interpretation that the tokens would be used as admission tokens for imperial games, it was through this reading. Spanheim made his conclusions on the Latin words lasciva nomismata.102 Both Nadrowski, Simonetta and Riva used the words lasciva nomismata
92 Suet. Tib. 48.; Champlin 2011, 316. This passage has been rendered into English by D.W. Hurley in a revision
of Loeb translation of J. C. Rolfe (1998[1913]), this passage was left in Latin.
93 Suet. Vit. 3, 5. 94 Suet. Calig. 4, 16.
95 Petr. Sat. 113, 11.; Pansy-boy is referred to as spintriam. 96 Tac. Ann. 6, 1.
97 Campana 2009, 43. 98 Campana 2009, 43. 99 Mart. Epigr. 8, 78.9.
100 R. Nadrowski, Welchen Zweck hatten die römischen Spintrien?, Berliner Münzblätter, 52, April 1906, p. 287.
Non Vidi; Simonetta & Riva
101 Campana 2009, 50; Simonetta & Riva 1981.
102 Lasciva nomismata = Sportive/playful tokens has been interpreted as a token which gives free access to
as evidence for the tokens being used in brothels.103 Campana oppose the latter hypothesis that the tokens in this passage would concern it ever to have been used in brothels. Since the real intend of this kind of tokens are unknown. Instead Campana support the prevailing hypothesis that the tokens in this reading would be tesserae frumentariae and not tokens for prostitutes.104
The use of literary sources when interpreting a purpose regarding archaeological material may be a debatable method. In this case it has given scholars a basis where further analytical studies have been carried out.
103 R. Nadrowski, Welchen Zweck hatten die römischen Spintrien?, Berliner Münzblätter, 52, April 1906, p. 287.
Non Vidi; Simonetta & Riva 1981.
104 Campana 2009,51; OCD – search word: tessera = Tesserae frumentariae – tokens issued to the privilege
25
6. Discussion and conclusion
The aim of this study was to examine a connection between erotic tokens (spintriae) and a possible purpose, function and value, in relation to the business of prostitution. The four spintriae from Uppsala University Coin Cabinet has been analyzed on the basis of graffiti, iconography and ancient literary sources. According to scholars, no erotic tokens except from the tokens in the Suburban baths has ever been found in Pompeii.105 It is also questionable whether a specific value can be discerned by analyzing the Roman numerals on the tokens. Due to the lack of research of the erotic tokens at UMK and their presumed provenance, it constituted a basis where an analysis took form. The archaeological material was first presented to better understand as to why it is relevant to do research on erotic tokens. Tokens in general do not represent a monetary value, instead they only indicate a symbolic value. If the tokens do not represent a monetary value, the question could be as to why tokens and the connection to brothels are made.
Three main hypotheses regarding the function of the tokens has been presented in the text, to better understand a possible function. The argument that the tokens were used as entrance tokens for theatres and games or for seating, is in my opinion rather unclear. Marie-Adeline Le Guennec stress the fact that it is difficult to explain why entry fees would go up to the high amount of 16 asses (1 denarius). Although the price scale could be dubious, Le Guennec highlight that we do not know the prices of Roman shows.106 Another argument is as to why entrance or seating tokens would have an erotic depiction. Why would anyone like to use such erotic tokens in connection to public entertainment? However, ancient literature gives some information as to why erotic tokens can be connected to places of entertainment. With regards to the literature, it is not enough evidence to support this. The literature, however, explains how the tokens were thrown at the audience. This could mean that the tokens were a gift to be used in specific venues or to be exchanged for something else. With regards to the seating hypothesis, there are evidence which support that the Roman numerals on the reverse can not be connected to seating. Since seating usually went higher than 16.107
The arguments that the tokens were used for board games is also rather dubious and should be analyzed critically. Moreover, the connection to scoring, positions and moves should not be rejected. Since no examples of multiple erotic tokens has been found in a context connected to board games, it is highly unlikely that it can be connected to board games.108
In my opinion the hypothesis regarding erotic tokens as a means of payment in brothels is the most plausible one out of the three. There is more evidence available which can indicate a connection between the tokens and brothels. Even if there is more evidence which support the brothel hypothesis, it should be analyzed critically.
Firstly, the main question to answer was whether a value of the tokens can be discerned with regards to the graffiti from Pompeii. Since no comparisons of erotic tokens and graffiti has been carried out by researchers, a list of relevant inscriptions which mentions a value of the prostitutes had to be put together (see Appendix). The results which was gathered from the inscriptions gave a better view of the most common prices offered by the prostitutes in Pompeii. Along with this information a comparison of the erotic tokens could be made. The outcome by comparing the Roman numerals on the four spintriae and prices regarding sexual services did distinguish a pattern. The most common price asked by prostitutes was two asses, 23
105 Varone 2001, 37.
inscriptions can be found, this correspond with the Roman numeral on spintria nr. 1 (Fig. 1). Only four inscriptions mention a price of three asses which would correspond to spintria nr. 2 (Fig. 2). Only one inscription mentions the price of nine asses which correspond to spintria nr 3. (Fig. 3). No inscriptions regarding a price of fourteen asses (Fig. 4) could be discern. We know that the price for a prostitute in Pompeii was rather low and a connection to spintria nr. 1 (Fig. 1) could support this. The legend A which can be found on spintria nr. 1 (Fig. 1) should be considered to stand of asses. Plenty of evidence in the graffiti supports this. The inscriptions were also analyzed in an attempt to discern whether the erotic scenes of the tokens could correlate to any sexual activities offered by prostitutes. 10/56 inscriptions mention a specific sexual service. The inscriptions only mention sexual activities which regards oral stimulation, such as fellatio and cunnilingus. The only spintria from UMK which corresponds to sexual services was spintria nr. 3 (Fig. 3). No other connections to the erotic scenes of the tokens and sexual services mentioned in the inscriptions could be made. There is no evidence that the tokens could function as a sex menu, since the theme of erotic scenes on the tokens differs depending on the Roman numeral. No correlation between a specific value and sexual services can be discerned. As discussed previously in the text, the erotic scenes could be a way to let the customer know what to expect from their visit. If the tokens were used in a sub-economy is difficult to discern. Further studies of erotic tokens and graffiti has to be carried out to be able to connect them to a sub-economy.
The second analysis of the tokens was on the basis of iconography. This analysis was carried out to find out whether erotic wall paintings can be used to distinguish a certain venue, only by comparing erotic art. The idea was derived from previous studies by researchers who made the connection of erotic art in specific establishments to erotic tokens. A connection to the erotic wall paintings in the Lupanar and the Suburban baths was made in relation to the erotic scenes of the tokens. The results indicate that erotic wall paintings which have close connections to the erotic illustrations of the tokens can be made. In my opinion the sex scenes can discern a specific venue, in this case a venue which is connected to sexual activities. However, the venue does not have to be a brothel. It can be either a private, semi-private or public establishment. One thing that has not been taken in consideration when studying erotic wall paintings is the art style that they are painted in. In Pompeii four different art styles can be found.109 Depending on the style of the erotic wall paintings it might be possible to make a connection to the erotic tokens and during what time period they were manufactured. On the basis of iconography further studies about gender can be made. A study of the gender of the tokens in relation to society and societal structures could give further understanding of the material.
The third analysis which was carried out was on the basis of ancient literary sources. Ancient authors which mentions the Latin word spintria was analyzed to give a better understanding as to why scholars have made the connections to the erotic tokens. The connection of the word spintria in literature and to these specific tokens should be made with caution. It should not be associated to erotic tokens. Whenever this word is found in ancient sources it should only be associated to people performing sexual activities. There are sources which indicate that erotic tokens might have been manufactured to be used in brothels. Especially the sources, such as Suetonius and Dio Cassius, which mention it to be a capital crime to bring coins with imperial portraits into brothels or latrines. These are the only evidences in literary sources as to why erotic tokens could have been used to pay prostitutes. Most of the ancient source should be studied critically, due the problem that most ancient authors were not contemporary to the time the tokens are said to be manufactured.
The results from analyzing the erotic tokens on the basis of graffiti, iconography and literature, has given a ground where further studies can be made. If any conclusions can be drawn, the erotic tokens had a symbolic value which corresponded to the monetary value in asses. However, whether it can be said to be used in a distinct sub-economy is still arguable. The evidence of erotic tokens in connection to brothels are too scarce to make a definite
27 conclusion about its economic impact. When studying this kind of material, only speculations can be made. It has to be pointed out, that the material presented in the thesis is rather scarce. To be able to make further studies, a larger collection of the erotic tokens needs to be studied together. Even if no erotic tokens, such as spintriae, is said to be found in Pompeii, the provenance of the material at UMK can be questionable. It can be stressed that even if the provenance is dubious, Pompeii is a great city to study to understand the tokens through both economy and society. The results from this analysis has given some new understanding about a possible purpose, function and value.
