The complexity of seafood trade relations across scales
Laura G. Elsler
Laura G. Elsler The complexity of seafood trade relations across scales
Stockholm Resilience Centre
ISBN 978-91-7911-192-2
Laura G. Elsler
is a social-ecological systems scientist focusing on social structures that promote sustainability. She worked in a diversity of contexts including sustainable fisheries in Sulawesi and Baja California, rain forest conservation in Borneo, and climate adaptation in Venice.
There is growing concern about the unprecedented rise in international seafood trade that relies on increasingly overused and climate-driven fisheries. Seafood trade relations, the multi-dimensional relations between fishers, traders, and countries for seafood exchange and other interactions, are central in the process of globalization. Here, I aim to understand better the role of seafood trade relations for models that guide the sustainable and equitable management of globalizing fisheries, thereby, filling a gap in bio-economic models that usually reduce trade relations to price dynamics. I studied traders' collusion in Mexico (Paper I), fisher-trader relations in Indonesia (Paper II), countries trade relations in a global network study (Paper III), and fisher-market relations in a theoretical model (Paper IV). I demonstrate that seafood trade relations are affected by social-ecological change (SEC), such as climate change. Their responses, in turn, influence how other fishery actors, such as fishers, are affected. Together these interactions shape the importance of seafood trade relations to SEC.
These insights suggest that seafood trade emerges from, interacts, and co-evolves with seafood trade relations across scales, which needs to be represented in management models that analyze the 'interplay of seafood trade relations with globalizing fisheries'.
The complexity of seafood trade relations across scales
Laura G. Elsler
Academic dissertation for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Sustainability Science at Stockholm University to be publicly defended on Wednesday 9 September 2020 at 15.00 in Vivi Täckholmsalen (Q-salen) NPQ-huset, Svante Arrhenius väg 20 and digitally https://
stockholmuniversity.zoom.us/j/69402590388.
Abstract
There is growing concern about the unprecedented rise in international seafood trade that relies on increasingly overused and climate-driven fisheries. Seafood trade relations, the multi-dimensional relations between fishers, traders, and countries for seafood exchange and other interactions, are central in the process of globalization. Despite empirical evidence of their importance, (bio-)economic models that inform fisheries management usually reduce trade relations to price dynamics.
Here, I aim to understand better the role of seafood trade relations for models that guide the sustainable and equitable management of globalizing fisheries. I studied traders' collusion in Mexico (Paper I), fisher-trader relations in Indonesia (Paper II), countries trade relations in a global network study (Paper III), and fisher-market relations in a theoretical model (Paper IV). I demonstrate that seafood trade relations are affected by social-ecological change (SEC), such as climate change. Their responses, in turn, influence how other fishery actors, such as fishers, are affected. Together these interactions shape the importance of seafood trade relations to SEC. These insights suggest that seafood trade emerges from, interacts, and co-evolves with seafood trade relations across scales, which needs to be represented in management models that analyze the 'interplay of seafood trade relations with globalizing fisheries'.
Stockholm 2020
http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:su:diva-182268
ISBN 978-91-7911-192-2 ISBN 978-91-7911-193-9
Stockholm Resilience Centre
Stockholm University, 106 91 Stockholm
THE COMPLEXITY OF SEAFOOD TRADE RELATIONS ACROSS SCALES
Laura G. Elsler
The complexity of seafood trade relations across scales
Laura G. Elsler
©Laura G. Elsler, Stockholm University 2020 ISBN print 978-91-7911-192-2
ISBN PDF 978-91-7911-193-9
Printed in Sweden by Universitetsservice US-AB, Stockholm 2020
To my family.
'Listen to me as one listens to the rain, not attentive, not distracted,
light footsteps, thin drizzle, water that is air, air that is time, the day is still leaving,
the night has yet to arrive, figurations of mist
at the turn of the corner, figurations of time
at the bend in this pause,
listen to me as one listens to the rain, without listening, hear what I say with eyes open inward, asleep with all five senses awake'
Octavio Paz, 1987
Summary
The Anthropocene is characterized by rapid increases in the speed, scale, and spread of human activities, affecting the sustainability of ecosystems and the equity of societies. An unprecedented rise in international trade in products from marine environments has occurred in recent decades.
At the same time, the marine resource base needed to support this trade is dwindling, with many marine fisheries becoming overfished and threatened by climate change while issues of equity persist. The formation and dynamics of seafood trade relations between fishers, traders, and other fishery actors, from local to global scale, are central processes in globalizing fisheries. Empirical insights from social-ecological systems (SES) research highlight the different ways in which seafood trade relations influence and are influenced by globalization. Seafood trade relations are diverse and multi-dimensional relations between fishers, traders, and countries involved in the exchange of seafood and also in other interactions such as collective price-setting, providing credit, advice, and support. Yet, this diversity of relations and interactions is not often incorporated into (bio)economic models that analyze 'trade impacts on fisheries' to inform fisheries management.
More frequently, seafood trade relations are simplified and reduced to price dynamics.
The overarching aim of this thesis is, therefore, to contribute knowledge on the dynamics and influence of diverse seafood trade relations in fisheries globalization that can guide more realistic models that help achieve equitable and sustainable fisheries management. To this end, I employed a multi-method, social-ecological modeling approach considering multiple stylized types of seafood trade relations, in a new methodological contribution that advances social- ecological modeling by weaving theoretical and empirical insights from SES research and economics. I studied traders' collusion in Baja California, Mexico (Paper I), fisher-trader relations in Spermonde, Indonesia (Paper II), countries trade relations in a global network study (Paper III), and fisher-market relations using a theoretical model (Paper IV). In these studies, I analyzed how dynamic, multi-scale SES interactions affect the influence of seafood trade relations on the sustainability and equity of fisheries, and the consequences of the formation of seafood trade relations on fisheries' sustainability, locally and globally. I also evaluated the importance of including seafood trade relations in models and analysis used in contemporary fisheries management.
Overall, this thesis shows that seafood trade emerges from, interacts, and co-evolves with seafood trade relations across scales, making these relations critical components in studies of sustainability and equity in globalizing fisheries. I synthesized the diversity of dynamics and influence of seafood trade relations identified in the field studies into a generic conceptualization and six stylized types of interplay between seafood trade relations, globalization, and climate change. Seafood trade relations are affected by social-ecological change, such as the impact of climate change. Their responses, in turn, influence how other fishery actors, such as fishers, are affected. Together these multiple interactions shape the importance of seafood trade relations to SES change. In combination, these insights move the focus from 'trade impacts on fisheries' to the 'interplay of seafood trade relations with globalizing fisheries' – a shift in perspective that recognizes feedbacks between fisheries and trade, local and global, and provides a more dynamic understanding of globalization.
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Sammanfattning
Antropocenen kännetecknas av snabba ökningar av mänskliga aktiviteters hastighet, omfattning och spridning som påverkar ekosystemens hållbarhet och rättvisan i samhället. De senaste årtionden har ökningen i den internationella handeln med produkter från marina miljöer varit utan motstycke. Samtidigt minskar den marina resursbasen som behövs för att stödja denna handel.
Många marina fiskarter överfiskas och hotas av klimatförändringar medan rättvisefrågor kvarstår.
Marknadsförhållandena mellan fiskare, handlare och andra fiskeaktörer, hur de bildas och deras dynamik från lokal till global skala, är centrala processer i globaliseringen av fisket. Empiriska insikter från forskning om socialekologiska system (SES) belyser på vilka olika sätt relationerna inom sjömathandeln påverkar och påverkas av globaliseringen. Relationerna inom sjömathandeln är varierade och multidimensionella relationer mellan fiskare, handlare och länder som är involverade i utbyte av sjömat samt i andra interaktioner som kollektiva prissättningar, lån, rådgivning och stöd. Ändå är denna mångfald av relationer och samspel sällan integrerad i bioekonomiska modeller som analyserar 'effekterna av handel på fisket' för att informera fiskeriförvaltningen. Oftast förenklas relationerna inom sjömathandeln till att enbart omfatta prisdynamik.
Det övergripande syftet med denna avhandling är därför att bidra med kunskap om dynamiken och inflytandet av olika relationer inom sjömathandeln på globalisering av fisket. Sådan kunskap kan vägleda mer realistiska modeller som bidrar till en rättvis och hållbar fiskeriförvaltning. För detta ändamål använde jag en ansats som bygger på multipla metoder och socialekologisk modellering som betraktar flera kategorier av relationer inom sjömathandeln. Denna ansats utgör ett nytt metodologiskt bidrag som främjar socialekologisk modellering genom att väva ihop teoretiska och empiriska insikter från forskning inom SES och ekonomi. Jag studerade otillbörliga samarbetet mellan handlare i Baja Kalifornien, Mexiko (Uppsats I), förhållanden mellan fiskare och handlare i Spermonde, Indonesien (Uppsats II), länders handelsrelationer i en global nätverksstudie (Uppsats III) och relationerna mellan fiskare och marknaden med hjälp av en teoretisk modell (Uppsats IV). I dessa studier analyserade jag hur dynamiska och flerskaliga SES-interaktioner påverkar effekten av relationerna inom sjömathandlen på fiskeriets hållbarhet och rättvisa samt vilka konsekvenser bildandet av relationerna inom sjömathandlen kan få på fiskeriets hållbarhet, lokalt och globalt. Jag utvärderade även betydelsen av att innefatta relationer inom sjömathandel i modeller och analyser som används i dagens fiskeriförvaltning.
Sammantaget visar denna avhandling att handel med produkter från havet uppstår från, interagerar med och utvecklas tillsammans med relationerna inom sjömathandeln över multipla skalor, vilket gör dessa relationer till avgörande komponenter i studier av hållbarheten och rättvisan i globaliseringen av fisket. Jag syntetiserade mångfalden i dynamiken och inflytandet av relationer inom sjömathandeln som identifierades i fältstudierna till ett generiskt koncept och sex kategorier av samspel mellan relationer inom sjömathandeln, globalisering och klimatförändringar.
Relationerna inom sjömathandeln påverkas av social-ekologisk förändring, till exempel effekterna av klimatförändringar. Deras svar påverkar i sin tur hur andra aktörer inom fisket, såsom fiskare, påverkas. Tillsammans bidrar dessa multipla interaktioner till att bestämma hur stor roll relationerna inom sjömathandeln spelar för SES-förändringar. Dessa kombinerade insikter flyttar fokus från 'handelns påverkan på fisket' till 'samspelet mellan relationerna inom sjömathandeln och globaliseringen av fisket' - en förändring i perspektiv som erkänner samspelet mellan fisket och handel, lokalt och globalt, och erbjuder en mer dynamisk förståelse av globaliseringen.
Resumen
El Antropoceno, se caracteriza por aumentos rápidos en la velocidad, escala y propagación de las actividades humanas, lo cual afecta la sostenibilidad de los ecosistemas y la equidad de las sociedades. En las últimas décadas, se ha producido un aumento sin precedentes en el comercio internacional de productos del mar. A su vez, los recursos marinos necesarios para apoyar este comercio están disminuyendo, ya que muchas pesquerías marinas están sobreexplotadas y se ven amenazadas por el cambio climático y los problemas de equidad persistentes. La formación y la dinámica de las relaciones comerciales entre pescadores, comerciantes y otros actores de la pesca, desde la escala local hasta la global, es un proceso central en la globalización de las pesquerías.
Las ideas empíricas procedentes de la investigación de los sistemas socio-ecológicos (SES, por sus siglas en inglés) destacan las diferentes formas en las que las relaciones comerciales de productos del mar influyen, y están influenciadas por la globalización. Estas relaciones comerciales son relaciones diversas y multidimensionales entre pescadores, comerciantes y países, los cuales participan en el intercambio de productos del mar y también en otras interacciones, como la fijación de precios colectivos, el suministro de crédito, asesoramiento y apoyo. Sin embargo, esta diversidad de relaciones e interacciones a menudo no se incorpora a los modelos (bio)económicos que analizan "el impacto del comercio en la pesca" para informar la gestión pesquera. Con mayor frecuencia, las relaciones comerciales de productos del mar se simplifican y se reducen a la dinámica de precios.
El objetivo general de esta tesis es, por lo tanto, aportar conocimiento sobre la dinámica e impactos de las diversas relaciones comerciales de productos del mar en la globalización de las pesquerías, que pueda guiar modelos más realistas que ayuden a lograr una gestión pesquera equitativa y sostenible. Con este fin, he empleado un enfoque de modelización socioecológica basado en múltiples métodos, que considera múltiples tipos de relaciones comerciales, en una nueva contribución metodológica que avanza la modelización socioecológica al entrelazar ideas teóricas y empíricas de la investigación de socioecosistemas y economía. He estudiado la colusión de los comerciantes en Baja California, México (Manuscrito I), las relaciones entre pescadores y comerciantes en Spermonde, Indonesia (Manuscrito II), las relaciones comerciales entre países en un estudio de redes globales (Manuscrito III) y las relaciones entre el mercado y los pescadores utilizando un modelo teórico (Manuscrito IV). En estos estudios, he analizado cómo las interacciones dinámicas e inter-escalares de los SES afectan la forma en la que las relaciones comerciales de productos del mar influyen en la sostenibilidad y la equidad de las pesquerías, y las consecuencias de la formación de estas relaciones comerciales en la sostenibilidad de las pesquerías, local y globalmente. También he evaluado la importancia de incluir las relaciones comerciales en los modelos y análisis utilizados en la gestión pesquera contemporánea.
En general, esta tesis muestra que el comercio de productos del mar surge, interactúa y evoluciona conjuntamente con las relaciones comerciales que ocurren entre escalas, lo que hace que estas relaciones sean componentes críticos en los estudios de sostenibilidad y equidad en la globalización de las pesquerías. He sintetizado la diversidad de dinámicas e impactos de las relaciones comerciales de productos pesqueros identificadas en los estudios de campo, en una conceptualización genérica y seis tipos de interacción entre las relaciones comerciales, la globalización y el cambio climático. Las relaciones comerciales de productos del mar se ven afectadas por cambios socioecológicos, como el impacto del cambio climático. Sus respuestas, a su vez, influyen en cómo se ven afectados otros actores del sistema pesquero, como los pescadores.
Estas interacciones múltiples configuran la importancia de las relaciones comerciales de productos pesqueros en el cambio en los SES. En combinación, estos conocimientos trasladan el punto de
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atención desde los "impactos del comercio en la pesca" hasta la interacción de las "relaciones productos del mar con las pesquerías globalizadas", un cambio de perspectiva que reconoce retroalimentaciones entre la pesca y el comercio, local y global, y proporciona una comprensión más dinámica de la globalización.
Abstrak
Antroposen yang ditandai oleh peningkatan pesat dalam kecepatan, skala, dan penyebaran aktivitas manusia, mempengaruhi keberlanjutan ekosistem dan kesetaraan masyarakat. Peningkatan perdagangan internasional produk-produk dari lingkungan laut yang belum pernah terjadi sebelumnya telah berlangsung dalam beberapa dekade terakhir. Pada saat yang sama, basis sumber daya laut yang dibutuhkan untuk mendukung perdagangan ini semakin menipis, dengan perikanan laut yang mengalami penangkapan ikan berlebihan dan terancam oleh perubahan iklim dan isu kesetaraan yang tidak kunjung berkurang.. Pembentukan dan dinamika hubungan perdagangan makanan laut antara nelayan, pedagang, dan pelaku perikanan lainnya, dari skala lokal hingga skala global, adalah proses utama dalam globalisasi perikanan. Wawasan empiris dari penelitian sistem sosial-ekologis (SES) menyoroti berbagai cara hubungan perdagangan makanan laut mempengaruhi, dan dipengaruhi oleh, globalisasi. Hubungan perdagangan makanan laut adalah hubungan yang beragam dan multi-dimensi antara nelayan, pedagang, dan negara-negara yang terlibat dalam pertukaran makanan laut dan juga dalam interaksi lain seperti penetapan harga kolektif, pemberian kredit, saran, dan dukungan. Namun, keragaman hubungan dan interaksi ini tidak menjadi bagian dalam model bio-ekonomi yang menganalisa 'dampak perdagangan terhadap perikanan' sebagai masukan bagi manajemen perikanan pada umumnya. Sebaliknya, hubungan perdagangan makanan laut sering disederhanakan dan direduksi menjadi dinamika harga semata.
Oleh karena itu, tujuan umum dari tesis ini adalah untuk memberikan kontribusi pengetahuan tentang dinamika dan dampak hubungan perdagangan makanan laut yang beragam dalam globalisasi perikanan yang dapat memandu model untuk menjadi lebih realistis, sehingga pencapaianpengelolaan perikanan yang adil dan berkelanjutan dapat diwujudkan. Untuk tujuan ini, saya menggunakan pendekatan pemodelan sosial-ekologis multi-metode, yang mempertimbangkan berbagai jenis hubungan perdagangan makanan laut. Pendekatan ini memberikan kontribusi metodologis baru yang memajukan pemodelan sosial-ekologis dengan menjalin wawasan teoritis dan empiris dari penelitian dan ekonomi SES. Saya mempelajari kolusi para pedagang di Baja California, Meksiko (Makalah I), hubungan nelayan-pedagang di Spermonde, Indonesia (Makalah II), hubungan perdagangan negara-negara dalam studi jaringan global (Makalah III) dan hubungan anatara nelayan dan pasar perikanan menggunakan model yang teoretis (Makalah IV). Dalam studi ini, saya menganalisa bagaimana interaksi dinamis, multi-skala SES memegang peran dalam pengaruh hubungan perdagangan makanan laut pada keberlanjutan dan kesetaraan dalam perikanan, dan konsekuensi dari pembentukan hubungan perdagangan makanan laut pada keberlanjutan perikanan, secara lokal dan global. Saya juga mengevaluasi pentingnya memasukkan hubungan perdagangan makanan laut dalam model dan analisis yang digunakan dalam manajemen perikanan modern.
Secara keseluruhan, tesis ini menunjukkan bahwa perdagangan makanan laut muncul dari, berinteraksi, dan berkembang bersama dengan hubungan perdagangan makanan laut lintas skala, menjadikan hubungan ini sebagai komponen yang penting dalam studi keberlanjutan dan kesetaraan dalam globalisasi perikanan. Saya mensintesis keragaman dinamika dan dampak hubungan perdagangan makanan laut yang telah diidentifikasi melalui studi lapangan ke dalam konsep generik dan enam jenis interaksi timbal balik perdagangan makanan laut dengan globalisasi dan perubahan iklim. Hubungan perdagangan makanan laut dipengaruhi oleh perubahan sosial- ekologis, seperti dampak perubahan iklim. Pengaruh ini pada akhirnya akan menentukan bagaimana para pelaku perikanan lainnya, seperti nelayan, merasakan dampak sebaliknya.
Berbagai interaksi tersebut secara bersamaan membentuk pentingnya hubungan perdagangan makanan laut bagi perubahan SES. Secara beriringan, wawasan ini memindahkan fokus dari
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'dampak perdagangan terhadap perikanan' ke 'interaksi timbal balik antara perdagangan makanan laut dengan globalisasi perikanan'- sebuah peralihan perspektif yang mengakui umpan balik antara perikanan dan perdagangan, lokal dan global, dan memberikan pemahaman yang lebih dinamis tentang globalisasi.
Zusammenfassung
Das Anthropozän ist gekennzeichnet durch eine rasche Zunahme der Geschwindigkeit, des Umfangs und der Verbreitung menschlicher Aktivitäten, die sich auf die Nachhaltigkeit der Ökosysteme und die Einkommensgleichheit der Gesellschaften auswirken. In den letzten Jahrzehnten hat der internationale Handel mit Fisch und Meeresfrüchten einen beispiellosen Anstieg verzeichnet. Gleichzeitig schwinden die Meeresressourcen, die Basis dieses Handels sind.
Viele Fischereien sind durch den Klimawandel bedroht und überfischt und Probleme mit Einkommensgleichheit halten an. Die Bildung und Dynamik der Handelsbeziehungen zwischen Fischern, Händlern und anderen Fischereiakteuren auf lokaler und globaler Ebene ist ein zentraler Prozess bei der Globalisierung von Fischerein. Empirische Erkenntnisse aus der Forschung zu sozial-ökologischen Systemen (SES) zeigen, auf welche Weise die Handelsbeziehungen mit Fisch und Meeresfrüchten die Globalisierung beeinflussen und von ihr beeinflusst werden. Diese Handelsbeziehungen sind diverse und mehrdimensionale Beziehungen zwischen Fischern, Händlern und Ländern, die am Austausch von Fisch und Meeresfrüchten sowie anderen Interaktionen wie der Festlegung von Preisen, der Bereitstellung von Krediten, Beratung und Unterstützung beteiligt sind. Diese Vielfalt von Beziehungen und Interaktionen wird jedoch selten in (bio-)ökonomische Modelle einbezogen, die die 'Auswirkungen des Handels auf Fischerein' analysieren, um effektives Fischereimanagement zu informieren. Häufiger werden diese Handelsbeziehungen vereinfacht und auf ihre Preisdynamik reduziert.
Das übergeordnete Ziel dieser Arbeit ist es daher, Wissen über die Dynamik und die Auswirkungen der verschiedenen Handelsbeziehungen mit Fisch und Meeresfrüchten in der Globalisierung von Fischerein beizutragen, das realistischere Modelle für ein gerechtes und nachhaltiges Fischereimanagement liefern kann. Zu diesem Zweck habe ich Fortschritte zur sozial- ökologischen Modellierung beigetragen, die theoretische und empirische Erkenntnisse aus der SES-Forschung und -Ökonomie verwebt. In diesem sozial-ökologischen Modellierungsansatz kombiniere ich verschiedene Methoden um diverse Handelsbeziehungen mit Fisch und Meeresfrüchten besser zu verstehen. Ich habe Preisabsprachen und Kooperation von Händlern in Baja California, Mexiko (Papier I), die Beziehungen zwischen Fischern und Händlern in Spermonde, Indonesien (Papier II), die Handelsbeziehungen der Länder in einer globalen Netzwerkstudie (Papier III) und die Beziehungen zwischen Fischern und Märkten anhand eines theoretischen Modells untersucht (Papier IV). In diesen Studien analysierte ich, wie dynamische, mehrskalige SES-Interaktionen den Einfluss der Handelsbeziehungen auf die Nachhaltigkeit und Einkommensgleichheit der Fischerei sowie die Auswirkungen der Formation von Handelsbeziehungen mit Meeresfrüchten auf die Nachhaltigkeit der Fischerei auf lokaler und globaler Ebene beeinflussen. Ich habe auch bewertet, wie wichtig es ist, die Handelsbeziehungen mit Meeresfrüchten in Modelle und Analysen einzubeziehen, die im zeitgenössischen Fischereimanagement verwendet werden.
Insgesamt zeigt diese Arbeit, dass sich der Handel mit Fisch und Meeresfrüchten aus Handelsbeziehungen über Skalen bildet, mit diesen interagiert und sich mit ihnen zusammen entwickelt, was diese Beziehungen zu kritischen Komponenten in Studien zu Nachhaltigkeit und Einkommensgleichheit in der Globalisierung von Fischerein macht. Ich habe die Vielfalt der Dynamik und Auswirkungen der in den Feldstudien identifizierten Handelsbeziehungen mit Meeresfrüchten zu einer generischen Struktur und sechs Arten des Zusammenspiels der Handelsbeziehungen mit Meeresfrüchten mit der Globalisierung und dem Klimawandel zusammengefasst. Die Handelsbeziehungen mit Meeresfrüchten sind von sozial-ökologischen Veränderungen betroffen, beispielsweise von den Auswirkungen des Klimawandels. Ihre
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Reaktionen beeinflussen wiederum, wie andere Akteure wie Fischer betroffen sind. Zusammen prägen diese vielfältigen Wechselwirkungen die Bedeutung der Handelsbeziehungen mit Meeresfrüchten für den SES-Wandel. In Kombination verlagern diese Erkenntnisse den Fokus von den 'Auswirkungen des Handels auf die Fischerei' auf das 'Zusammenspiel von Handelsbeziehungen mit Fisch und Meeresfrüchten mit der Globalisierung von Fischerein' - ein Perspektivwechsel, der Rückmeldungen zwischen Fischerei und Handel auf lokaler und globaler Ebene berücksichtigt und ein dynamischeres Verständnis der Fischerei ermöglicht Globalisierung.
Table of contents
LIST OF PAPERS 10
INTRODUCTION 11
THEORETICAL FRAMING AND BACKGROUND 14
Theoretical framing and key concepts 14
Seafood trade relations 15
Cross-scale dynamics 16
SES and fishery management models 17
METHODS AND APPROACH 19
CASE STUDIES 20
Mexico 21
Indonesia 22
PAPERS AND INSIGHTS 23
Insights 30
Insight 1: Cross-scale dynamics interplay with seafood trade relations in ways relevant for sustainability 31 Insight 2: Seafood trade relations affect fisheries globalization 33 Insight 3: Fishery management models can be improved by SES modeling approaches 34
IMPLICATIONS AND NEXT STEPS 35
Implications for studying cross-scale dynamics in social-ecological systems 35
Implications for modeling SES 37
Implications for fisheries management 38
CONCLUSIONS 39
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 40
REFERENCES 41
THANK YOU 53
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List of papers
This thesis is based on the following papers, which are referred to by their Roman numerals in the text:
Paper I: Elsler LG, Frawley TH, Britten GL, Crowder LB, Dubois T, Radosavljevic S, Gilly WF, Crépin AS, Schlüter M. Social relationship dynamics mediate climatic impacts on income inequality: evidence from the Mexican Humboldt squid fishery. In review at Regional Environmental Change.
Paper II: Elsler LG, Neil M, Ferse S, Glaser M. Influence of fisher-trader relationships on fishing practices in a dynamic and multi-scale fishery: prospects for management. Draft manuscript.
Paper III: Elsler LG, Oostdijk MNT, Zhao J, Free CM, Tekwa E, Bochniewicz EM, Gephart JA, Johnson AF. Speed and scale of seafood trade indicative of marine population status. In review at Global Environmental Change.
Paper IV: Elsler LG, Drohan SE, Schlüter M, Watson JR, Levin SA. Local, global, multi-level:
market structure, and multi-species fishery dynamics. Ecological Economics 2019 Feb 1;156:185-95.
Contribution to papers
In Paper I, I coordinated the research team, designed the research with input from the co-authors, jointly performed the analysis, analyzed the empirical data, performed the modeling work, and wrote the majority of the text. In Paper II, I conceived and designed the study, jointly contributed to the literature review and data collection, and wrote the paper with input and comments from the co-authors. In Paper III, I conceived and designed the research jointly with the co-authors, contributed to the preparation of the dataset, together performed the analysis, and led the writing process. In Paper IV, I designed the research with input from the co-authors, jointly performed the analysis, and wrote the majority of the text.
Publications outside this thesis
Elsler LG, Giron A, Stefanski S, Tekwa E, Nenadovic M, Basurto X, Quintana A. Draft manuscript. Strong fishing cooperatives mediate impacts on marine species from international trade.
Introduction
Rapid changes in the speed, scale, and spread of anthropogenic activities on Earth raise serious concerns but may create novel opportunities for sustainable development. For example, globalization links local social-ecological systems (SES) with global processes and actors, with profound effects on local SES and their interdependence. Rapid exploitation of the world's oceans (Jouffray et al., 2020; Nyström et al., 2019; Steffen et al., 2015), including an unprecedented increase in international trade in products from marine environments, has occurred in recent decades (Bellmann et al., 2016; Gephart and Pace, 2015). Seafood is today the world's most traded food commodity (Asche et al., 2015), with 60 million metric tons of seafood products exported in 2016, a 245% increase in the past four decades (FAO, 2020). At the same time, the marine resource base needed to support this trade development is dwindling, with many marine fisheries becoming overfished (FAO, 2020; Rosenberg et al., 2018). These trends may together compromise fishery livelihoods and global food security, and thus create an urgent need to understand how changes in the speed, scale, and spread of trade may affect the sustainability of local fisheries.
Understanding globalization to guide equitable and sustainable fisheries management is a complex and multi-scale endeavor. First, expansion of seafood trade can lead to cascading effects, such as serial exploitation and depletion (Berkes et al., 2006; Crona et al., 2016; Eriksson et al., 2015).
Serial exploitation refers to the rapid global expansion of fisheries development through trade in which importers consecutively contract new suppliers, often to cater to increasing domestic demand (Anderson et al., 2011; Eriksson and Byrne, 2015). As a result, new cross-scale trade relations form, and the global trade network becomes increasingly connected (Gephart and Pace, 2015; Table 1). In this process, the decline in catches of an existing supplier can drive the formation of trade relations, potentially leading to serial depletion (Berkes et al., 2006; Cardinale et al., 2011;
Copeland and Taylor, 2006). Second, the structure of the trade network emerges from the development of trade relations, with further development of new trade relations constrained by the trade network (Cook and Whitmeyer, 1992; Levin et al., 2013). Seafood trade relations (henceforth: interchangeably used with trade relations) are diverse and multi-dimensional relations between fishers, traders, and countries involved in the exchange of seafood and also in other interactions such as collective price-setting, providing credit, advice, and support (Table 1). A trade network is a network composed of trade relations. The four types of relations considered here are trader collusion, fisher-trader relations, countries' trade relations, and fisher-market relations.
Third, the expansion of the international seafood trade is occurring in the context of a rapidly changing world in which disturbances such as climate change can dramatically alter trade relations (Bennett et al., 2020; Cheung et al., 2013; Fleming et al., 2014; Troell et al., 2019).
Bioeconomic models
Scientific analysis and discourse of fisheries globalization that guide contemporary fisheries management are dominated by natural resource economics. Fisheries globalization is investigated by studying 'trade impacts on fisheries' using general equilibrium and bioeconomic models (referred to here in combination as 'bioeconomic models'). In bioeconomic models, 'trade impacts on fisheries' are modeled through changes in price (Brander and Taylor, 1997; Copeland and Taylor, 2006; Eisenbarth, 2017). The price change is expected to drive fishing, which can lead to declines in fish biomass (Clark, 1985; Gordon, 1954). The models and analyses common to natural resource economics often simplify social processes. For example, this type of analysis typically
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reduces trade relations to price dynamics. Omitting other dimensions of trade relations allows these models to capture only a strictly isolated set of cases in which trade networks are fully connected, trade relations form randomly, and trade partners only engage in commercial exchange. Hence, they assume a social vacuum. In this thesis, I argue to understand fisheries globalization better, it is necessary to include trade relations and networks in the analysis that guide contemporary fisheries management.
Social-ecological systems research
Research in SES shows that trade relations can influence fishing and prices associated with fishing.
In contrast to subsistence fisheries, trade relations between a fishery and the global market can introduce demand for new target species, higher catch volumes, and new fishing practices (Crona et al., 2015; Máñez and Ferse, 2010). In bioeconomic theory, these changes are explained through price dynamics (Brander and Taylor, 1997; Copeland and Taylor, 2006; Nielsen et al., 2018). In small-scale fisheries, empirical evidence suggests that fisher-trader relations can affect benefit distribution and fishing practices (Drury O’Neill et al., 2018; Kirman and Vignes, 1991; Miñarro et al., 2016; Wamukota et al., 2014). These fisheries provide 90 percent of the employment in the marine fisheries sector (FAO, 2020). Ocean equity is a topic of rising concern in those fisheries, and the influence of trade relations on prices is a critical element concerning who benefits from fisheries globalization (Bennett et al., 2019; Crona et al., 2015; Drury O’Neill et al., 2018;
Österblom et al., 2020; Wamukota et al., 2014). The influence of these relations is linked to enabling and constraining conditions. Traders can, for example, enable fishing practices by providing gear (Acciaioli, 2000; Ferrol-Schulte et al., 2014; Ferse et al., 2014) or interacting with formal governance processes (Basurto et al., 2013; Ferrol-Schulte et al., 2014; Frawley et al., 2019;
Pelras, 2000). However, the current understanding of enabling and constraining conditions is limited. Initial research shows that interactions within fisher-trader relations (Crona et al., 2010) and changes driven by cross-scale dynamics (CSDs), such as trade and climate (Bennett and Basurto, 2018; Frawley et al., 2019), affect these conditions.
In bioeconomic models, trade networks are implicitly assumed to be randomly mixed or fully connected (Copeland and Taylor, 2006; Merino et al., 2011). In real life, trade relations do not form randomly, but instead, follow specific patterns, and networks are not fully connected.
Previous studies have identified profitability (Sethi et al., 2010), market dominance (Saavedra et al., 2008), governance (Brander and Taylor, 1997; Fischer and Laxminarayan, 2005), and access constraints to be key forces driving pattern variations in the formation of trade relations across countries (Asche et al., 2015; Crona et al., 2016). These drivers determine the structure of the trade network (Gephart and Pace, 2015; Saavedra et al., 2008). This structure is vital because trade enables substitution at importer level, which influences how changes propagate through the network (Gephart et al., 2016). In highly connected networks, for instance, shocks can propagate freely (Cottrell et al., 2019; Gephart et al., 2016). Fisheries and the communities they support are therefore likely to suffer more or less from serial exploitation depending on their connectivity to other countries and the connectivity of their trade partners to the trade network (Gephart and Pace, 2015; Watson et al., 2017). Consequently, assessing countries and species at risk of decline or collapse resulting from trade requires information about the conditions under which differences in trade relations influence fishing and the sustainability of fisheries across scales.
Current work
In this thesis, I analyzed the interplay of trade relations with fisheries globalization, in order to improve understanding of the dynamics and influence of trade relations and to provide novel insights for effective and sustainable fisheries management. To this end, I employed a multi- method, social-ecological modeling approach considering multiple types of trade relations, in a novel methodological development that advances social-ecological modeling by weaving theoretical and empirical insights from SES research and economics. I studied traders' collusion in Baja California, Mexico (Paper I), fisher-trader relations in Spermonde, Indonesia (Paper II), countries trade relations in a global network study (Paper III), and fisher-market relations using a theoretical model (Paper IV). In these studies, I analyzed how dynamic, multi-scale SES interactions affect the influence of trade relations on the sustainability and equity of fisheries, and the consequences of the formation of trade relations on fisheries' sustainability, locally and globally. I also evaluated the importance of including trade relations in models and analysis used in contemporary fisheries management.
In particular, I addressed the following research questions in the analyses:
RQ1: How are diverse, multi-dimensional seafood trade relations and trade networks affected by, and how do they affect, cross-scale dynamics such as price transmission or climate change impacts?
RQ2: How, and under what conditions, do trade relations and their formation influence price, fishing, and fisheries' sustainability and equity across scales?
RQ3: How can fisheries management models integrate the dynamics and influence of trade relations?
Table 1. Glossary of terms used in the thesis
Term Definition
Social-ecological systems (SES)
Complex adaptive systems (Folke, 2016; Levin et al., 2013; Schlüter et al., 2019b, 2019a) of tightly linked interactions between ecosystems and human societies (Folke, 2016).
(Seafood) trade
relations Diverse and multi-dimensional relations between fishers, traders, and countries involved in the exchange of seafood and in other interactions, such as cooperating on price-setting or providing credit, advice, and support. The four types of relations considered here were: trader collusion, fisher-trader relations, countries' trade relations, and fisher-market relations.
Trade network A network composed of trade relations.
Cross-scale &
horizontal trade relations
In cross-scale trade relations, trade partners operate at different scales, such as local and global scale. In a horizontal trade relation, trade partners operate on the same scale.
14 Cross-scale dynamics (CSDs)
Cross-scale drivers and cross-scale interactions together represent CSDs. Variables, processes, and actors can constitute drivers and interactions across scales.
Cross-scale dynamics (CSD) type I
Drivers or interactions with lower and higher scales that generate patterns at the focal scale. Examples include global climate changes that affect local SES and fishing practices that emerge in a fishery from interactions between individuals.
Cross-scale dynamics (CSD) type II
Interactions across multiple systems, which create interdependencies that can trigger cascading effects. Local suppliers of seafood, for example, can be interdependent through their shared relation to an importer.
Cross-scale trade
interactions One type of cross-scale interaction that constitutes a trade interaction between higher and lower scale actors.
Serial exploitation
The rapid global expansion of fisheries development through trade in which importers consecutively contract new suppliers, often to cater to their increasing domestic demand (Anderson et al., 2011; Crona et al., 2015; Eriksson and Byrne, 2015).
Serial depletion A type of serial exploitation in which the formation of new trade relations is driven by the decline in catches of an existing supplier (Anderson et al., 2011; Copeland and Taylor, 2006).
Price asymmetry Refers to price differences along the supply chain (Meyer and Cramon-Taubadel, 2004).
Price dispersion Refers to price differences observed between buyers and sellers on the same scale (Kirman and Vignes, 1991; Reinganum, 1979).
Theoretical framing and background
Theoretical framing and key concepts
The theoretical framing of this thesis lies at the interface between SES research and economics. I drew from both fields for conceptualization and analysis in my chosen research area. I aimed to achieve a useful integration of the two fields in order to achieve sustainable management of SES across scales.
Social-ecological systems research can be viewed as one field in the broader landscape of sustainability science that draws on complex adaptive systems thinking. In SES, dynamic interactions (Preiser et al., 2018) link ecosystems and human societies (Folke, 2016; Table 1).
These interactions generate complex adaptive systems behavior associated with sustainable and unsustainable SES regimes (Preiser et al., 2018). These interactions often occur across scales (Reyers et al., 2018), which motivates the focus on CSDs in this thesis. Considering interactions with scales above and below, can help explain patterns at one particular scale (Levin, 1992), such as sustainable fishing patterns. The interplay between variables, processes, and actors across scales influences the resilience of a SES at one scale and can lead to abrupt shifts (Lade et al., 2013;
Rocha et al., 2018). For example, the interaction between global and local market prices and its effect on fishing may lead to biomass collapse in one fishery, whereas in another, this interaction may barely influence fish biomass at all (Brander and Taylor, 1997). In the resilience literature, numerous types of CSDs, including biophysical and social interactions, have been studied (Peters et al., 2004; Young, 2002).
Trade relations and networks are key concepts used in this thesis. The focus on trade relations was motivated by recent developments in the SES literature, where empirical evidence suggests a multi-scale influence of trade relations and networks on the sustainability of fisheries (Crona et al., 2010; Gephart et al., 2016; Kininmonth et al., 2017; Tu et al., 2019). Also, there is an increasing focus on a relational perspective that puts relationships in the center of analysis (Darnhofer et al., 2016; Garcia et al., 2019; Hertz et al., 2020). A variety of perspectives, concepts, and methods in SES research and economics can be applied to improve understanding of trade relations and their impacts and dynamics. Studies describing the co-evolution of trade relations and networks were particularly relevant to this thesis (Bodin et al., 2019; Levin et al., 2013; Schill et al., 2019; Schlüter et al., 2019a; Tu et al., 2019). Examples include studies of the globalization of seafood trade (Bellmann et al., 2016), and serial exploitation as one pattern associated with globalization (Anderson et al., 2011; Berkes et al., 2006; Eriksson et al., 2015). Also relevant to this thesis are studies examining the dynamics and effects of the multiple functions and interactions within trade relations and between trade relations and SES (Crona et al., 2016; West et al., 2018).
Individuals and their interrelations are of relevance to the sustainability and equity of fisheries. In economics, fisheries are conceptualized as renewable resources (Clark, 1985; Gordon, 1954).
Their sustainability depends, among other things, on the behavior of individual resource users, ecosystem dynamics, and formal and informal institutions. The central individual is the fisher, i.e., resource user (Clark, 1985; Gordon, 1954). Hence, many regulations aim to prevent the overuse of renewable resources by regulating the behavior of the fisher (Salas and Gaertner, 2004; Wilen et al., 2002). Emerging forms of management, such as co-management and community-based management, seek to involve fishers in formal management (Berkes, 2007; Cinner et al., 2012;
Jentoft, 2005). Due to the impact of fisher-trader relations on the sustainability and equity of fisheries, recent SES studies call for the involvement of both fishers and traders in management (Crona et al., 2010; Ferse et al., 2012; Miñarro et al., 2016). These studies emphasize the importance of considering resource users not in isolation, but in active exchange with their social environment.
Seafood trade relations
In this thesis, I focus on seafood trade relations with special emphasis on selling and buying seafood products (Papers I-IV). Trade relations also fulfill other functions, such as providing credit, advice, and support (Drury O’Neill et al., 2018; Ferrol-Schulte et al., 2014; Johnson, 2010;
Miñarro et al., 2016) (Papers I & II). The diversity of actors involved in trade relations includes fishers (Papers I, II, & IV), traders (Papers I, II, & IV), and countries (Paper III). To understand the different types of trade relations studied in this thesis, it proved useful to map them along two dimensions: i) the type of actors involved and ii) the scale at which trade partners operate. If trade partners operate on different scales, I refer here to a 'cross-scale trade relation', while if they operate on the same scale, I refer to a 'horizontal trade relation' (see Table 1). According to this definition,
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the collusion by traders (Paper I) that buy and sell squid regionally corresponds to a horizontal relation, while the relation between a global market trader and a local fisher (Paper IV) is a cross- scale trade relation.
Trade relations are relevant for the sustainability of fisheries in at least three interconnected ways:
they can influence price, fishing, and fisheries. Earlier SES studies have found evidence of the influence of trade relations on price. Fisher-trader relations, for example, can influence the price levels paid to fishers for their catch (Drury O’Neill et al., 2018; Miñarro et al., 2016; Wilson, 1980). This influence is related to how indebted the fisher is (to the trader) and the level of competition between traders. High competition between traders can generate more generosity in giving loans and paying high prices to the fishers (Merlijn, 1989). In contrast, strong cooperation among traders may allow them to collude with regard to price-fixing, an issue examined in Paper I. Additionally, there may be little competition in a region, which makes it easier for traders to pay low prices to fishers.
The effects of trade relations on the sustainability of fisheries have been documented at multiple scales. Locally, the influence on fishing practices is linked to numerous functions of fisher-trader relations (Drury O’Neill et al., 2018; Ferrol-Schulte et al., 2014; Johnson, 2010; Miñarro et al., 2016). For example, credits provided by traders, similar to subsidies, may create fishing incentives even if fish stocks are overfished (Crona et al., 2010; Ferse et al., 2014; Sumaila et al., 2008). In addition, traders' demands may change the target species of fishers (Miñarro et al., 2016). In Paper II, I examined how multiple functions of fisher-trader relations may influence emerging fishing practices in Spermonde, Indonesia. Globally, the position of a country relative to other countries in the trade network is a good predictor of environmental outcomes (Burns et al., 2015; Prell, 2016;
Prell et al., 2015). For example, centrality in the trade network predicts higher rates of environmental degradation (Prell, 2016). Changes in the speed and scale of the network are also critical. For example, a higher number of trade relations could lead to less sustainable renewable resource use if there are few clusters in the trade network (Bodin et al., 2019; Tu et al., 2019).
Paper III describes the first global-scale analysis of how countries' trade relations and global trade network structure link to countries' fish biomass levels.
Cross-scale dynamics
The upscaling and expansion of anthropogenic activities and the resulting universality of CSDs in trade, climate, communication, and regulation create a need to understand these CSDs (Berkes and Ross, 2016; Cash et al., 2006; Holling and Gunderson, 2002; Young, 2002). Two insights from the resilience literature on CSDs were of major relevance to this thesis, corresponding to the two types of CSDs defined here (types I and II; see Table 1). Type I interactions occur at lower and higher scales, which generates patterns at the focal scale; examples include global climate changes (higher scale) affecting informal rules that emerge in a local SES from interactions between individuals (lower scale). Type II interactions occur across multiple systems, which creates interdependencies that can trigger cascading effects (Holling and Gunderson, 2002; Rocha et al., 2018). For example, local suppliers of seafood can be interdependent through their shared relation to an importer. Type I and II CSDs have different consequences for resilience at different scales.
For the importer, having two or more sources from which to buy seafood means that they can substitute seafood from one place with seafood from another location. For suppliers of seafood,
this can lead to local and serial depletion (Anderson et al., 2011; Copeland and Taylor, 2006;
Eriksson et al., 2015).
Different fields in the resilience literature can help understand CSDs and trade relations. The biophysical and social literature fields use different terminologies and foci in their analysis of CSDs (Adger et al., 2005; Cash et al., 2006; Peters et al., 2004; Soranno et al., 2014; Young, 2002).
CSDs, as defined in this thesis, align with the definition used in the biophysical literature(Holling and Gunderson, 2002; Levin, 1992; Peters et al., 2004). The same interaction is called 'cross-level interaction' in the social literature (Cash et al., 2006; Gibson et al., 2000). The biophysical literature examines the relation between CSDs and concepts relevant to SES sustainability, such as SES resilience, adaptive cycles, and panarchy (Holling and Gunderson, 2002). These concepts relate the impact of type I and II CSDs to local SES, as defined in this thesis. For example, Paper III examined how the features of the global scale trade network are associated with the sustainability of national fisheries. The social literature focuses on CSDs between individuals (and individuals embedded in institutions), to evaluate their effectiveness in delivering sustainable outcomes (Berkes, 2002; Brondizio et al., 2009; Glaser and Glaeser, 2014). Another focus is the impact of climate drivers on individuals and individuals embedded in institutions (Adger et al., 2009; Adger and Kelly, 1999; Agrawal, 2008). These studies relate the impact of type I CSD to local SES. The impact of climate drivers was a central issue examined in Paper I, which analyzed how climate- driven species adaptation impacts the cooperation between traders. Bringing these strands of literature together provided the potential for a better understanding of how cross-scale trade interactions and climate drivers relate similarly and differently to trade relations and networks.
SES and fishery management models
Dynamic models of SES have been developed and used to support fisheries management (Hutton et al., 2016; Nielsen et al., 2018; Plagányi et al., 2013; Watson et al., 2018; Wijermans and O’Neill, 2020). Global empirical evidence reflects the importance of management for the current and future sustainability (Costello et al., 2016; Hilborn et al., 2020; Melnychuk et al., 2017a) and equity (Bennett et al., 2019; Cinner et al., 2012; Österblom et al., 2020) of fisheries. Models can inform management concerning the effectiveness of a particular strategy to maintain sustainable harvest levels and fishing practices, and to simulate interventions for fishery development program impacts on income inequality. Management, therefore, relies on accurate outputs from models. It is useful to track the history and current advances in modeling when seeking to understand the suitability of different types of models to capture fisheries globalization and trade relations.
There are different types of models available, but SES and bioeconomic modeling are the main modeling fields of relevance to this thesis. Bioeconomic models have been applied in fishery economics since the 1950s (Gordon, 1954; Schaefer, 1957), and are currently the most widely used models in fisheries management (Clark, 1985; Seijo et al., 1998). They show that trade can have positive and negative impacts on fisheries (Brander and Taylor, 1997), and their results outline the conditions in which trade leads to recovery, decline, or collapse of fisheries (Brander and Taylor, 1997; Chichilnisky, 2001; Copeland and Taylor, 2006; Fryxell et al., 2017; Merino et al., 2011).
In contrast, SES modeling has more recently evolved as a growing field that models the dynamic behavior of SES such as fisheries (Levin et al., 2013; Lindkvist et al., 2017; Schlüter et al., 2019b, 2012). SES models are defined by their components, which are social and ecological. Bioeconomic
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models can be viewed as one subfield of SES models, which also includes dynamic systems, agent- based, statistical, and game-theoretic models (Schlüter et al., 2019b, 2012). Compared with bioeconomic modeling, the SES modeling approach is characterized by a breadth and diversity of scopes, methods, and assumptions, which derive from its integration of multiple fields of modeling (Schlüter et al., 2019b, 2012). Most SES models also have a stronger focus on social, rather than mostly economic, interactions, and variables.
Bioeconomic model development has made significant advances to include important SES dynamics (Crépin et al., 2011; Gars and Spiro, 2018; Levin et al., 2013; Li et al., 2018; Nielsen et al., 2018; Quaas and Requate, 2013), some of which reflect steps towards capturing price dynamics influenced by trade relations. In many bioeconomic models, the formation of a new trade relation to the global market (or another country) is expected to lead to price changes. Prices increase with increasing demand (Mankiw, 2015). The price increase makes fishing more lucrative, attracting new fishing effort and leading to an increase in fishing pressure, with a resulting potential decline in fish biomass (Burgess et al., 2017; Fryxell et al., 2017; Gars and Spiro, 2018; Quaas and Requate, 2013). An important step has been the exploration of various price dynamics, where bioeconomic models have tested fixed and variable prices (Nielsen et al., 2018) and different elasticities of demand (Burgess et al., 2017; Fryxell et al., 2017). Except for some complex systems economics models (Kirman and Vriend, 2000), bioeconomic models rely on the assumption, sometimes implicit, that the price of a commodity is the same in all parts of the market(Nielsen et al., 2018). However, in many situations, fishers may not directly receive global market prices, particularly in small-scale fisheries, as traders may transmit prices different from the global market price to fishers. As a result, trade relations give rise to price dynamics, which can generate price asymmetry and price dispersion (Table 1). I addressed these two price phenomena in the research described in this thesis. In Paper I, I examined price asymmetry between the global market price and the price paid to fishers by analyzing a situation in which collusion between traders allowed them to set prices. Access to the global market, which leads to a change in price, was a central issue examined in Paper IV. A novelty of that paper was to study the consequences if local market prices persisted even when fishers had access to the global market.
Integrated modeling
Bioeconomic and SES models have different strengths that could complement each other to guide effective and sustainable fisheries management. SES models can accommodate a diversity of methods and assumptions to explore the role of diverse and multi-dimensional trade relations.
Some SES models already incorporate trade relations in fisheries. From a complex systems perspective, trade relations have been studied using agent-based models (Kirman and Vriend, 2000; Lindkvist et al., 2017). The study of cooperative relations, such as fishing cooperatives, centers around game-theoretic models (Ostrom et al., 1994; Schlüter et al., 2016; Tavoni et al., 2012; Tilman et al., 2016). State-of-the-art bioeconomic models in fisheries include individual fishers, fleets, and, in some cases, supply chain actors such as traders (Nielsen et al., 2018).
However, in their analysis of the impacts of prices, bioeconomic models tend to focus on the behavior of individuals, often the fisher (Nielsen et al., 2018). In contrast to SES models, bioeconomic models are commonly used in support of fishery management. One way to improve model-based decision support for fisheries management by accounting for trade relations may, therefore, lie in integrating social-ecological characteristics into bioeconomic models.
