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UPPSALA UNIVERSITY Department of Theology
Master Programme in Religion in Peace and Conflict Master thesis, 30 credits
Spring, 2019
Supervisor: Gabriella Beer
Gastronomy as a tool for peace and resistance
in the Holy Land
2 Acknowledgement
I would like to thank the department of Theology at Uppsala University for having the
international master program “Religion in Peace and Conflict”. It has been enlightening years for me, even if the study pace is intense with a lot of writing on a weekly basis I am very grateful for the growing I have made as a human during the course of the program.
I also would like to thank Nathan Söderbloms minnesfond for believing in my idea regarding making field studies in the Holy Land in search for gastronomy as a tool for peace and resistance, and funded the field research. I am indebted to my informants for allowing me to interview them and that they shared their view of gastronomy and culinary arts in the Holy Land with me.
Abstract
This thesis is a study within the international master program “Religion in Peace and
Conflict” at the department of theology at Uppsala University. The study should be seen as a microstudy over the role gastronomy plays as a tool for peace and resistance in the Holy Land. Jerusalem represent Israel and Tabye and Bethlehem represent Palestine in the study. The method used is the so-called abductive method or reasoning, where I am the one who is observing and analysing data from an ethnographical standpoint. The study is
interdisciplinary in the way that cookbooks, interviews, personal observations and photographs are used as primary sources. The theory “The gastronomic man” are the
theoretical framework. The theory deals with the factors that are of importance for the choices humans make when it comes to food and beverage. The results of the study indicates that gastronomy is present at least on two levels in society in the Holy Land, on a high political level manifested via diplomatic gastronomy and on a more personal level where the
informants works with gastronomy both as a tool for peace, and for the Palestinians also a way to overcome the effects of the occupation. The results also indicates that education within the culinary arts are of great importance in order to understand other groups’ cuisines than one’s own. The cuisines that falls back on heritage, culture and nations. It is suggested that gastronomy can take the part of religion itself for its practitioners since themselves constructs what is sacred.
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Table of content Chapter 1
Introduction 4
1.1 Purpose and question 4
1.2 Theoretical framework (the gastronomic man) 4
1.3 Method 9
1.4 Source criticism 10
1.5 Dietary regulations in short 10
1.6 Previous research 12
Chapter 2 The Survey
2.1 Diplomatic gastronomy/Culinary diplomacy 12
2.2 Cookbooks 19
Breakfast, Snacks, Bread 19
Sauces/side dishes, Soups/stews, Fruits/vegetables 20
Meat 21
Fish/shellfish/snails, Egg dishes, dairy, Desserts/sweets 22
Beverage 23
Mezze, Salads, Soups, Vegetable dishes, Rice dishes 24
Stews, Mahashi, Meat dishes, Poultry 25
Fish and shellfish, Bread and dough, Sweets and deserts 26
Jams, Refreshments, Pickles and sauces, Falafel and Maqluba 27
2.3 Chefs for peace 29
2.4 Education 31
2.5 Palm trees and alcoholic beverages 34
2.6 Hospitality and culinary arts 42
4 Chapter 1 Introduction
Meals are often described as an activity that is undertaken by humans in order to satisfy the physiological need of providing the human body with nourishment. However, that is not the whole truth about eating and drinking, regardless if it is done together or alone.
The foodways of Israel has its origin in several cultures and if one asks an Israeli what is typical Israeli food they will tell you that there is no such thing as a typical Israeli food. The influences of the Israeli cuisine have been influenced by immigration by Jewish people from over 80 countries from the Middle East, North Africa, the Mediterranean Basin, Central and Eastern Europe to India. Of the 7 million persons, it is estimated that a little more than 76 % are of Jewish origin, approximately 19.5 % consider themselves as Arabs, mainly Muslim, however there is also a minor percentage that are Christians. The remaining little over 4 % comprise Druze, Circassians and other that do not classify themselves by religion. Food that are typically considered to be “Israeli” has its origin from a wider cuisine of the Middle East, falafel and the so called “Israeli salad” consisting of cucumbers and tomatoes cut in small pieces. In addition, Jewish traditions from East Europe have an important significant´s in Israeli cooking with different dishes such as borsht and blinier (origin from Russia). Food custom in Israel also carry markers of the Mediterranean region where lunch instead of dinner is the main meal of the day.1
1.1 Purpose and question
The purpose of this microstudy is to investigate the role gastronomy plays for some of the inhabitants in Jerusalem and Palestine. For the latter the city of Bethlehem and the village of Tabye represents Palestine. Within the purpose itself, one finds the question for the study imbedded, namely: How is gastronomy used as a mean for peace and for residence in Jerusalem and Palestine?
1.2 Theoretical framework (the gastronomic man)
The specific range of drink and food (gastronomy) is established very early in the history of a nation and its inhabitants. Some factors are of importance for the gastronomy to take form and manifest itself. Need is one, humans are by nature physical beings and their bodies are
dependent on nutrition or food of a certain composition. The supply of nourishment to the body needs to be fairly regularly since the human body have limited store resources and are therefore limited. The human body’s working capabilities depend of both physique and the
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supply of food. Edibility is another important factor and within edibility, one finds habits. Human habits in this context mean that certain foodstuff is so self- evident that people eat it continually, while rejecting that which they find foreign, or eating it with great caution. Some mean that gastronomy here related to natural science as well as physics and chemistry, due to its classification of nutritious substances, it composition and properties as well as the analyses and solutions it provides.2
Individual eating habits do not have much to do with the individual’s personal taste; they are shared with those of the members of the family and the people living in the neighbourhood. The repetitive element in human eating habits is not restricted to a person´s private life; it belongs to the cultural heritage of humankind and is remarkably steady. One example of that is that Scandinavian immigrants to the US shows that they are faithful to their Scandinavian Christmas fare even in the third and fourth generation, long after they have stopped speaking the native language. Within the framework of edibility, there is also technology in all different ways, in order to receive food and beverage. This includes hunting, fishing, cattle farming, agriculture, industry and so forth. If this broad term is applied to a more local level in the community, it becomes more limited, comprising food preparation techniques such as preserving, butter-making, cheese-making, baking, brewing, distilling and so forth. These techniques are very ancient as well as being essential for life since many of nature´s resources will only keep for a limited time in their natural state. Here gastronomy is linked to culinary science and arts due to the preparing of food and beverage in order to make it enjoyable for the human taste, and by doing so, also preserving identity and culture.3
Ideology is yet another factor that affects the edibility of foodstuff or food items for humans. An ideology in itself is governed by various factors like religion, medical or moral concepts. In religion, it is the rites that are the visible or practical aspect of the ideology that govern to a great estate what is considered edible or not; such rites often originates in religious writings. That means that religion in this case stands for an ideology that controls the choice of food at mainly feast days. Fasting before festivals or feast days have taken and are taken place in many religions.4
Sacred order is a concept of sacredness that has been developed by several researcher. The sacred order does not exist in a social vacuum. It is invested, maintained and given texture via territorialism, tradition, bonding, honour, solidarity, law, membership, respect for role status
2 Bringéus, Nils-Arvid, Mat och måltid, 1988:13-16, Lund
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and other similar constraints and obligations. Bonding is of importance for every individual as a source of belonging, it can be bonding within the family, clan, ethnic linage, a church, a nation or in elective group affiliation. Within the mind set of sacred order tradition means a pattern that is repeated over and over and over again so in time things are done in the same way it always have been done. By doing so, the normativeness of linage- categories is
maintained and tradition is created. Rituals can be a pattern or results of the traditions created by the ones who carry them out, and can therefore be seen as socially coded. However, it can also be seen as that something or someone can be made sacred by rituals. The framework of sacred order is larger and broader concept than religion. It is therefore not a unique religious category, even if religion is one of its primary and prototypical expressions. Therefore, the framework of sacred order points to productive areas for research and thematic study which combine the otherwise separate interests of the history of religion and the social sciences.5 Understanding sacred order in this way, means that gastronomy as such becomes the sacred order that holds the people within different groups, cultures, nations, faiths etc together, and the persons using gastronomy within the different groups of society creates by themselves what becomes sacred within the field of gastronomy and how gastronomy is used in order to claim the right to different dishes, foodstuff, cultures and nations.
Religious fasting seldom involves total abstinence from food. Most common is that the believer eats lesser amount of calories than usual; the believer abstains from fat, sweets and meat, sometimes also dairy products. There is also a stricter form of religious fasting that practises abstention from all animal products, sometime called ascetic fasting. Very often, religion is more than only faith in God for the believer; it permeates their existence so that they conduct their life according to the rules of the religion. Most religions have rules about how the believers should and must deal with food and beverage. These rules regulate what are allowed to be eaten and drunk and what is prohibited. It also regulated how the food items should be handled and prepared as well as how the animals should be treaded both in life and at the slaughter. An interest in eating habits based on medical aspects existed even in
antiquity. A similar interest based on moral aspects is found in the temperance movement, which classifies wine and spirits as poisons and not as a source of pleasure. 6
The availability of raw materials and foodstuff also plays an important role when humans choose what food to eat. In turn, availability is dependent on factors such as nearness, economic and regulations. The geographical location of different foodstuff is important for
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what ends up on the plate. Foodstuff that have been transported over long distances are naturally more expensive than local products, which is where the economic factor comes in. Humans’ choice of foodstuff and raw materials is connected with our own financial state. Regulations also affect the availability of food; food ration system introduced during wars is one example of this factor. In the field of economy, gastronomy is also linked to commerce as well as pure economics due to its discovery of methods for purchasing the materials used as cheaply as possible and disposing of what is for sale and advantageously as possible as well sources for the income it provides for the state and the ways of exchanging goods that it opens up for people.7
Food appeals to at least four of the humans´ senses. The first thing that humans eat with is the eyes, therefore it is of importance that food look both good and appetising. The smell of food can arouse feelings of desire when one is hungry and feelings of displeasure when one is filled up of if the food in itself smells nasty. Beverages like wine can also be enjoyed via their bouquet at the beginning of a meal. The human sense of feeling tells us whether the food and beverages is hot, cold or tepid. When we chew food, we find out whether it is hard, soft, tough or tender. All of them play a part in the right context. Taste tells us about the inner qualities of the food; whether it is sweet, salt, bitter or sour, mild or strong. All of these variants are relevant but only in a certain order. Salt food must come first and sweet food last.8
Societies has for a very long time had at least two parallel cuisines, usually one belongs to the broad majority of the population. From an historical point of view, this cuisine only change marginally over the years until the arrival of refrigerating and freezing technology. The other cuisine used to belong to the elite of society. The upper classes living both in town and in the countryside. This cuisine has been more receptive to variations in what have been eaten and drunk and the influences have often come from abroad. The eating habits of the upper classes gradually seeped down to the cuisine of the broad majority, which in turn meant that the upper classes adopted new food habits since the previous ones were no longer reserved for them. It has not been enough with two parallel cuisines within a nation for different social classes, people have also divided the dishes that would be prepared and eaten either on feast days or on an everyday basis. Feast days or festivals, can be of both sad and happy characters, such as funerals or weddings. Food cultures may be poor or rich and consist of very few dishes or an abundance of them. Regardless of which there are very strict rules or norms in all cultures about what can be considered a dish or a food element, recipes are considered by some to be
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the grammar of food. The fact that food forms part of a culture and is not only a part of nature is a specific feature for humans. Food acquires a cultural hallmark with the aid of various utensils like pots and pans and the like. Food is classified as staple food and supplementary food. Staple food is for example bread, potatoes, rice, pasta and so forth, while supplementary food is for example various kind of animal proteins, vegetables and dairy products. Making food and beverage is a cultural act in which a connection occurs between the food and the person or persons preparing it. In turn, a prepared meal is a dialogue between the one preparing the meal and the one who eats the meal. Meals or dishes are therefore a form of communication in which the eater eats more than what are is on the plate. Since a person’s relationship with and to food is formed early in life, still being an infant, tastes are peoples most conservative preferences.9
When a meal is shared with others, regardless of the setting, it is an event. However, event is interpret differently by different people. Regardless, there are certain factors that those who arrange a meal utilise in order to create an experience from and around a meal. The factors that are worked with are colour, light, sound and design. Colour is something that everyone perceive differently since the human eye sees light in different ways. Therefore, a colour that one person finds smooth, calming and warm can by others be experienced the opposite. It is not easy to work with colours so all the guest at a meal feel comfortable. Light is much more than, only decoration, it affects the way a room is used and how an atmosphere is created when there is no daylight. There is a belief that the best illumination or source of light is the one that cannot be noticed. It is important that the acoustics in a room is right, since poor acoustics will disturb the guest at a meal and effect poorly on the overall enjoyment of the meal. Even if the combination of form, colour ad lightning makes a whole that communicates feeling, the choice of materials, furniture, porcelain, glass and cutlery is important, as they are what govern how the guests perceive the room with their senses. If one attend a restaurant one is often given a menu where the dishes are listed. The arrangement of the dishes on the menu should be as simple as possible, clear, systematic and easy to read. The number of courses on a menu may vary, regardless of the number, they should come in the following order: 1, cold starters, 2, hot starters, 3, soups, 4, egg dishes, 5, fish dishes, 6, meat dishes, 7, poultry dishes, 8, pastry dishes, 9, vegetable dishes, 10, desserts. If there are several fish, meat or poultry
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dishes on the menu, they should be listed as such; boiled before roast, whole before minced and light before dark.10
The description above shows that eating and drinking is complicate, what people should choose to eat and drink on different occasions is not at all simple or clear. In the text
presented above, I have tried to point out the factors that I consider to be of great importance for the choice of food and beverage. It gets even more complicated when one takes into consideration that the factors presented above do not necessarily means the same for everyone within a limited geographical area, since human behaviour is never static. According to me, I believe that the complexity described above can med summed up in the following: that the eating and drinking man is in fact a gastronomic man.11 The factors that according to me comes together in the gastronomic man will be tested later in the text towards the results from the survey.
1.3 Method
The method used for the study is the so-called abductive method or reasoning. The method allows the one making the study to go back and forth between the theory and the empirical material several times while analysing the data that has been collected. They way of working can (but does not have to) lead to new aspects of what is studied and that might mean that the theory needs to be modified and or developed. If that is the case, a new theoretical insight has emerged through the empirical data or material.12 In this study, I am the one who is observing
and analysing the data collected from an ethnographical standpoint.
In the study, different kind of sources has been used such as cookbooks regarding the food and beverage in the Holy Land that deals with gastronomy in Jerusalem and Palestine. Interviews has been made with Jews, Christians and Muslims in the Holy Land, both in February 2018 and in February 2019. In addition to the interviews during the field studies in the Holy Land, I also undertook personal observations and on several occasions I used my camera in order to document what I was observing. The different kind of sources used in the study can be seen as an interdisciplinary approach, in order to produce as broad a spectrum of response as possible to the question asked. I have received permission from the owners of the photographs that are used in the text that are not mine, to use them for the thesis.
10 Barnekow, Louise & Östberg, Jenny, Måltiden som upplevelse, unpublished bachelor thesis, Örebro University, Sweden, 2000:18-19, 21, 26-30, 34, 36, Örebro
11 Söderlind, Ulrica, Nobels middagar, 2005:47. Stockholm
10 1.4 Source criticism
One can always have opinions about the cookbooks that I have chosen for the study. For the city of Jerusalem, I have chosen the cookbooks that indicates in the title that the focus of the books are on the gastronomy and culinary arts in Jerusalem. Regarding Palestine, it is more difficult since the titles of the cookbooks per se does not indicate by the titles where in Palestine the gastronomy takes place. I am well aware of that fact that gastronomy has its differences depending on where in Palestine it is carried out. One can also argue that
cookbooks is a category of books that are written and published for a broader public, mainly tourists. Especially if they are in English when the subject of the gastronomy are in Arabic and Hebrew speaking areas. I would like to say, that I understand that criticism, however I add that for me, cookbooks are a source that are often step-motherly treated in research. To me they are bearers of knowledge regarding national and local gastronomy that are very difficult to find elsewhere, unless interviews are undertaken by those who stands for the gastronomy and culinary arts in Jerusalem and Palestine.
Having said that, I also have made interviews with Jews, Christians and Muslims for this essay in Jerusalem, Bethlehem and Tabey. It is always a risk when one is doing interviews that one cannot be 100 % sure that the informants are telling the truth. Therefore, it is
important to create trust between oneself and the persons that are answering the question. The research ethic rules created by the Swedish research counsel have been followed during the interviews13, and the informants that has chosen to appear with their own names, have chosen
to do so by free will, others are kept anonymous in the survey. 1.5 Dietary regulations in short
It is important to state the general dietary regulations for Judaism, Christianity and Islam, which are studied in this thesis. The most extensive regulations regarding food and beverage among the mentioned religions can be found in Judaism. A common feature between Judaism and Islam regarding food regulation is that both religions have divided food and beverage into two groups, clean and unclean. Both religions also have rituals for slaughter where the name of God must be pronounced when the animal´s throat is cut. Which foodstuff are considered to be clean or unclean differs between the two religions and also between different groups of worshippers within the same religion. The Sunnites and Shiites does not live by the same
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calendar and the feast days are therefore not the same for the two Muslim groups. This is also true for the Jewish Ashkenazi and Sephardim groups.14
There is a big difference regarding the regulation of beverages, since alcohol of any kind is forbidden in Islam, while wine is very important in Judaism, the wine has, however to be of kosher origin. The regulations of food and beverage in Judaism and Islam are not only related to the body, they are also considered to be a diet for the soul. A common feature for both Judaism and Islam is that pork meat and food made from pig´s blood is strictly forbidden. Neither Christianity nor Islam has any feast day or celebration that is similar to the Jewish Sabbath that is celebrated every week, if one considers that the Sabbath is both the meal at home and at the service of the Synagogue. Within the Christian tradition, Sunday has always been a day of feasting like Friday in Islam.15
Judaism, Christianity and Islam all use different kinds of calendars and this means that their feast days occur at different times throughout the year. The different use of calendars in the three religions is an example of sacred order, where the people within the groups decides what become sacred. Judaism and Christianity have in common that the celebration of
Easter/Passover has a unique position among the feast days, even if it is seldom celebrated at the same time, an even which occurs every seven years. Christianity and Islam on the other hand have in common the fact that fasting is very important at certain times of the year. The periods for fasting are not fixed due to the use of different calendars and how time is
measured. One example of this that the major fasting period in Islam-Ramadan- can occur in any month of the year. For the Orthodox Wednesday and Fridays are the common fasting days, while Catholics fast on Fridays. Apart from these times, there also exist some more extensive periods of fasting, the period before Easter being the most important one. Some of the fasting is ascetic and some not. Both Christianity and Islam have special regulations regarding diet during the fasting periods. Apart from the regulations for fasting periods the Catholic and Protestant churches, do not have any regulations concerning food or beverage. For the Orthodox and Catholic churches the fasting days for different saint are very important which is not the case in the Protestant Church.16
14 Westblom Jonsson, Helene, Mat, tro, tradition, 1999:83-87, 102-104, Falköping
15 Westblom, Jonsson, 1999:83-87, 103-104, 107-112, Hjärpe, Jan, ”Mat, hälsa och religion, mest om Islam”, Årsbok, Föreningen Lärare i religionskunskap, 1998:178, 180, Malmö
12 1.6 Previous research
A lot of research has been done regarding the conflict in Israel and Palestine, however what is of interest for this study is research done concerning gastronomy in the region and
co-existents between Jews, Christians and Muslim in the area.
In 2001, a book was published that has its focus on the importance of the meal as such in Judaism, Christianity and Islam in the city of Jerusalem. The author is of the opinion that the meal is the core of the three different religions that consider Jerusalem as their holy city. The book also describes different holidays and feast days among the three mentioned religions. 17 In the book “Shalom Inshallah”, it is stated that the city of Jerusalem is the only city in the world that has a double existence: one on earth and one in Heaven. The city is therefore the centre of Jewish, Christian and Muslim mental geography. Pilgrims has come to the city for thousands of years; it is the city of God. Due to that, the city has been in focus of many conflicts and battles. The conflicts has not only been between believers of the different religions but also conflict on a political international level. Regardless, families of the different religions live their lives in the city, both their ordinary life’s and their lives on feast days; they work and raise their children. The book is richly illustrated with photographs in full colour that speaks volumes. In the photographs the impact of the different conflicts are very clear for the daily life, but it also shows the respect that is showed on the different feast days in the different religions. The texts in the book is based on interviews, speaks of the conflict between Palestine and Israel and the situation in the Jordan valley. The informant’s are forerunners of peaceful co-existence and that non-violence is a tool or weapon that takes generations to learn how to master.18
Chapter 2
The Survey
2.1 Diplomatic gastronomy/Culinary diplomacy
The importance of food and commensality goes far back in history and some mean it is deeply rooted in the tradition of diplomacy; one can find the connection between food and diplomacy in the Bible and in ancient Greece. Aristotle discussed the importance of common meals within a community in order to create bonds of solidarity, similar to the bonds created within a family, but on a grander scale. This was of great importance between ambassadors coming
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together from different rival cities, where they could discuss allegiances or ratify treaties, without feeling threatened. The Culinary diplomacy then continues throughout history into modern diplomacy.19
Public diplomacy or cultural diplomacy takes place both on an official level as well as on informal levels. When it takes place on the official level, it relies on a nation´s so called soft power. The soft power arises from the attractiveness of a country´s culture, politics and political ideals. Some mean that the intent of the public diplomacy is to exert influence on foreign governments. Others mean that public gastronomy uses the framework of the soft power in order to break away from traditional diplomacy in an attempt to extend it to the general public. Culinary diplomacy finds its place in the sphere of public and cultural
diplomacy. It relies on a unique cultural resource-the own nations cuisine. The unique cuisine of each nation appeals to both foreign leaders as well as the populations in the motherlands of the foreign leaders. The culinary diplomacy can take place in both more private intimate settings as well as larger settings such as banquets. The smaller settings gives an atmosphere of friendship and familiarity in an attempt to affect the moods and opinions of world leaders and policy-makers. There is also a choice of nation branding in working with diplomatic gastronomy. The nation branding relies on the marketing and nationalism to create a strong images and to build a good reputation of one´s own country. The concept in itself is based on a nation´s self-image and the way in which it projects itself to the world. In this context diplomatic gastronomy as nation branding plays an important part by using the power of the national cuisine as a tool so when foreigners taste the food and beverage, they have a
recognition of the host nation’s cuisine and by doing so; strengthen the association with that particular country. In order for a nation to display itself on the strength of its gastronomy it is required a national cuisine upon which it is possible to establish itself. Some mean that cookbooks plays a fundamental role in this creation. Authenticity is an important part of creating an image of the national cuisine at hand. Once a national cuisine has become accepted and established, it has the possibility to be uses as a facet of a nations´ brand. Ingredients, cooking techniques and culinary philosophies can be used by chefs and restaurants and be used in the marketing of a national outreach campaign.20
Previously, Sweden as a nation has sent chefs at Swedish embassies and general-consulates abroad to Sweden, Stockholm in order to learn more about the Swedish cuisine. The program
19 Chapple-Sokol, Sam, Culinary diplomacy: Breaking bread to win hearts and minds, The Hague journal of diplomacy 8 (2013): 167-168
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was started by an employee at the Government offices of Sweden, and the courses was held at Restaurangakademien, Stockholm.21
Restaurangakademien, Stockholm was established in 1985 by the Swedish chefs Björn Halling, Örjan Klein, Frank Holingworth and Åke Håkansson with the ambition to create a gastronomic meeting place for the restaurant industry, where the meal itself was in focus.22 The years 2011-2014 and 2016 Restaurangakademien held educations commissioned by the Swedish ministry of foreign affairs for chefs employed at Swedish embassies and general consulates abroad. The purpose was to use Swedish food in the nation branding and to raise the level of the representation meals at the Swedish governmental offices abroad. The education has been given in Stockholm (three times) since there was an increased value for the chefs to visit Sweden and to gain a better understanding for Swedish traditions, primary products, tastes and food items. In total 65 chefs´ has undergone the education. The education is in two parts, one theoretical and one practical. The ultimate goal has been to give the chefs good and relevant knowledge regarding Swedish food items, the new Swedish cuisine and to create and present dishes that can represent Sweden. An example of how the education was laid up are the following where the overall theme was Sweden as a food nation and
inspirational cooking. The course started with the purpose of the education and how
representation can be a tool in national branding, followed by the Swedish national branding abroad linked to Swedish food and cuisine. There after came aesthetical presentation and a lecture about Sweden as a food nation on export and a lecture about Swedish meal culture in a historical perspective as well as how it is today. A lecture about Swedish meals and beverages followed. Thereafter came a tasting of the beverages. Food and beverage as a combination was next, before a study visit to a brewery located at Fjäderholmarna as well as a smokery. The day ended with a dinner for all the participants. The inspirational cooking day started with cooking classes with the focus on Swedish taste and modern cooking as well as exposition of cooking techniques and traditional Swedish dishes, as well as Swedish tastes and modern presentation of dishes. The education day regarding Swedish products and food items was an educational day about baking, both bread and classical Swedish pastry products. Swedish raw material and refinement started with Swedish modern taste in cocktail format (small format) followed by a lunch for all the participants and before the diplomas and recipes was handed out, a lecture was given regarding Swedish food trend and modern cooking. During the education, English was the common language of both the teachers and the
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participants, regardless of the nationality of the participants. The teacher’s nationality was always Swedish, the foundation for the education was the chef’s previous knowledge within the field of food and beverage, great respect was taken towards the foreign chefs religious believes if there were any.23
All of the foreign general consulates are located in the eastern part of Jerusalem and have their embassies in Tel Aviv, a part from the United States of America. The Swedish general consulate is also located in the eastern part of Jerusalem, due to UN resolution 181 since the status of Jerusalem is still an unsolved issue. Swedish diplomats has been present in Jerusalem since the early 1900. The current chef at the Swedish general consulate in Jerusalem is a woman from Palestine. She has been working in Jerusalem for the major part of her life, always in a kitchen. Her first education course in cooking she received in 1986 held by the Franciscan order (brothers) in Jerusalem. After that, she worked in the kitchen of a Franciscan monastery guesthouse in Jerusalem for seven years. Followed by eight years at another
guesthouse where the brothers came from mainly France and Italy. During her time in those kitchens, she learned a lot about how to combine the right wine to the right food, all due to the brother’s interest in gastronomy. That knowledge is something she is grateful for in her work at the general consulate. The previous Swedish general consul, Nils Eliasson, employed the current chef.24
Even if the Swedish general consulate is located in the eastern part of the city the residence where the receptions are held, are located in the western part of Jerusalem. All the groceries for the representation occasions are brought at the Arabic market in the eastern part of Jerusalem. The storekeepers are mostly Palestinian, speaking Arabic and the food items are labelled in Arabic and English. In 2013, the chef attended the education at Restaurang akademien, Stockholm in order to gain more knowledge about the Swedish cuisine. Even if she had previous knowledge in comparing beverage and dishes into a meal event, she enjoyed the repetition of the subject. What she enjoyed more was to learn about the Swedish cuisine in general and learning how to promote Swedish tastes and dishes. One of the dishes the chef learned to make was “gravlax” that has become a very popular dish at the events, today it is more or less a signature dish for the chef. When she is making Swedish meatballs they meat used is beef or/and veal, never pork, since the guest might be Jews and Muslims. If there is a grander event with a lot of guest, what usually is served, is a buffet where meatballs are a
23 Mail conversation, Lindberg, Kristina, Deputy Director, Government offices of Sweden, 2018-06-27, Interview, Halpern, Hanna, CEO, Restaurangakademien, Stockholm, 2018-09-07
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major part of it; the focus is to have so called finger food that the guests can provide themselves with what they like. Usually there will be a notification for the chef prior to the event if there are Jewish and Muslims guests attending as well as if there is guests that are vegetarian, vegans or guests with food allergies. Sometimes that fails, mainly when it comes to information regarding vegans. However, the chef does not see that as a problem since she always have something in store of vegetables in case that happens. To be on the safe side, the kosher food is ordered by catering and delivered to the event. Those dishes are severed on plastic plates, in order to keep the kosher food clean and not to offend any guest. However, the chef and her staff can plate the kosher food on the plastic plates; it is no need for a kosher chef to be present to do that. If wine is served on those events, kosher wine will be present for the Jewish guests, as well as non-alcoholic alternatives. If the event is smaller and the guests are seated, it is most common to use round tables, in order to create a familiar feeling and setting among the guests. 25
Examples of official meal events are as follows; breakfast includes coffee, tea, chocolate, juice, bread, smoked salmon, cold meat of some kind, warm omelette, berry flavoured
yoghurt. Lunch almost always starts with some kind of soup such as chicken soup, avocado or pumpkin soup (depending on the season), fried barbeque or roasted meat, potatoes or rice, salads after season, dessert in form of what fruits are in season, followed by coffee or tea with a biscuit. Dinners usually have some form of meat (beef or veal); the meat dishes can be either boiled (such as stroganoff) or fried, served vid seasonal vegetables and potatoes. Examples for desserts are different kind of mousses, tarts, pies followed by coffee, tea or chocolate. The dinner meal are most of the times heavier than the lunches.26
At the Swedish General Consulate there is also a book called “The Swedish Kitchen-from fika to cosy Friday” as a way of promoting Sweden via the Swedish Cuisine, the producer of the book is the Swedish Institute with the help of three authors, and is in full colour.27 The book is free and are very popular amongst the foreign visitors to the General Consulate. The book has eight chapters divided into fika, midweek dinner, grill party, breakfast, outdoor eating, lunch, cosy Friday and dinner party and each chapter has different recipes in order to present the Swedish cuisine. The category fika has mum´s apple cake, cinnamon nus, chocolate
shortbread cookies, chocolate balls and Lenten buns, while midweek dinner has fish soup with
25 Anonymous informant, Swedish General Consulate, Jerusalem, 2019-02-11 26 Anonymous informant, Swedish General Consulate, Jerusalem, 2019-02-11
17
shrimps, mussels and creamed horseradish, game meatballs with soft whey cheese sauce, elk stew with root vegetables and prunes and carbonara chanterelles. Grill party is represented by rack of lamb with herb oil, creamy cold sauce for grilled dishes, creamy potato salad and lemon baked grilled salmon. Under breakfast one finds crunchy crisp bread with caraway, filmjölk (sour milk), loaf with lingonberries, oatmeal porridge. Outdoor eating are represented with mushroom tart, raspberry and blueberry compote, nettle soup, meadowsweet cordial and crispy bread perch on crisp bread. Under lunch the following dishes are listed root vegetable hash brown with bacon and lingonberries, yellow pea soap, oven pancake, juicy carrot salad. Cosy Friday is represented by Quesadillas with smoked roast reindeer, pizza with mushrooms and spinach, raps with raw spiced salmon (gravlax) and yogurt- dill sauce and the last chapter that is a dinner party contains kavring (dark rye bread), crostini’s with goat cheese and
cloudberries, avocado and rocket salad with whitefish roe, oven baked cod with brown butter, shrimps and grated horseradish and salted toffee pie with frozen blackberries.28
A part from the eight chapter with recipes it is also stated that the Swedish cuisine or food culture is largely based on access to local fresh ingredients provided by the country side, that includes farmlands to forests and also includes the coastline along with a multitude of lakes and rivers. The right of public access is a gift that means that it is free to walk in the forest and collect berries and mushrooms. Sweden also have a long tradition of hunting and game such as elk, deer and grouse are popular ingredients in the national cuisine. The different lakes, rivers and the coastlines provides the national cuisine with fishes such as perch, herring, salmon, trout and shellfish. In the past, before the refrigerator and freezer, Sweden was
relying on different ways of preserving food items, during the dark winters. Even if the technology of today does not requires preservation, it has become a way for the modern Swedish cuisine to create culinary delights since preservations adds flavours that cannot be added in any other way. Fruits and berries are still cooked and preserved, and sometime turned into another product, such as jams for example. Vegetables are pickled, mushrooms dried, meat and fish smoked, salted, fermented as well as marinated, milk are processed into fermented dairy products. The national cuisine has been able to expand its recipe repertoire since traditional recipes has been transformed into unexpected highlights because new ideas and inspiration from others has been absorbed by the ones who are in the kitchens. In this manner, the Swedish cuisine has been transformed without losing the touch of its origins. The Swedish cuisine has caught the attention of different nations in Europe, and the Swedish
18
cuisine is doing very well in international cooking competitions. At the same time, while the Swedish cuisine has undergone a refined change on the international scale, Sweden is very open to the cuisines that comes with the immigrants that comes to the country. By doing so, the Swedish cuisine is extended even more.29
The cover of the book “The Swedish kitchen-from fika to cosy Friday”.© Walström, Susanne
19 2.2 Cookbooks
In this part of the survey, I have first studied five cookbooks that only deals with the cuisine in Jerusalem and secondly four cookbooks that deals with the Palestinian cuisine.
Table 1. The contents in five cookbooks that deals with the Jerusalem cuisine
Name of the
book Breakfast Snacks Bread Sauces/ side dishes Soups/Stews Fruit/Vegetarian
Jerusalem 0 0 0 19 9 44
Before restaurants 0 0 6 11 0 9
Jerusalemrecipes 0 0 0 0 5 8
Jerusalem recipes 8 6 0 9 0 2
Shakshuka 0 0 8 10 0 24
Meat Fish/shellfish/ snails Eggdishes Dairy products Desserts/sweets Beverage
Jerusalem 28 9 0 0 16 0
Before restaurants 17 2 1 5 8 1
Jerusalemrecipes 5 4 2 0 4 0
Jerusalem recipes 9 1 0 0 11 0
Shakshuka 9 2 0 0 8 3
Sources: Ottolenghi, Yotam, Tamimi, Sami, Jerusalem, 2012, Berkeley, Nidal Khalil, Khalil, Before restaurants, 2016, place of publication not identified, Jane, Angela, Jerusalemrecipes, 2017, place of publication not
identified, Author unknown, Jerusalem recipes, 2016, Place of publication not identified, Kersh, Nidal, Shakshuka, 2017, Stockholm
In table 1, the contents in five cookbooks regarding Jerusalem gastronomy is presented. The recipes has been divided into categories in order to make a comparison between the books. Breakfast
There is only one book studied here that lists recipes under breakfast and that is the fourth book in table 1, namely “Jerusalem recipes”. Here recipes for different kinds of shaksshoukas are listed as well as Israeli salad (tomato and cucumber salad), kale khachapuri.30
Snacks
In the book “Jerusalem recipes” the following recipes are listed under snacks: lamb and bulgur wheat croquettes, fried artichokes, flatbread with mushroom, ricotta and herbs, Jaffa cakes, tomato and egg (shakshooka) and fava bean salad.31
Bread
In two of the cookbooks, one finds recipes of bread. In the book “Before restaurants” there is recipes of taboon, samoni, pastry dough, orsa, sesame and shrak bread. In the second book
20
(Shakshuka) that has bread recipes one finds pita bread, za´atar sticks, dough for Arabic pizzas, two different kind of Arabic pizzas, Jerusalem bread and mana´ish bread.32 Sauces/side dishes
In the book Jerusalem, there is 13 recipes of sauces and side dishes such as hummus, tahini sauce, and different kinds of pickled vegetables.33 In the book “Before Restaurants” there is a range of different recipes such as green olives, fried garlic with fresh coriander, dried figs, crushed boiled wheat (Burghol), spicy tart sauce, tahini (sesame sauce), kubbeh that is fired dough that are stuffed with minced meat to name a few.34 In the book Shakshuka, there are recipes for tahini sauce, taratour, harissa, aubergine salad, pickled mango sauce, chili sauce, baba ghanouj, aubergine with paprika, Turkish salad, muhammara in the category of sauces and side dishes. 35
Soups/stews
In the book Jerusalem there are nine recipes in the category of soups, there are mainly vegetarian soups with different vegetable as the main ingredients but there is also soups with seafood and meat, all of the soups are meant to be served warm.36 In the third book studied for table 1, named “Jerusalemrecipes” there are four soups; grilles eggplant, chicken, Palestinian Freekeh and meatball soup as well as Iranian Jewish pistachio soup and one recipe for a stew of seafood.37
Fruits/vegetables
In the first book in the table 1, there are 44 recipes with vegetables. The recipes is a range of different dishes that are both warm and cold. Some examples are roasted sweet potatoes & fresh figs, fattoush, baby spinach salad with dates & almonds. Roasted aubergine with fried onion & chopped lemon, roasted butternut squash & red onion with tahini & za’atar. Raw artichoke & herb salad, Shakshuska. In this category one also finds recipes with cereals, pulses and grains as the main ingredient such as tabbouleh, falafel, split wheat & Swiss chard with pomegranate molasses, rice dishes with different flavours, mejadra to name a few.38 In the book “Before restaurants” there is recipes such as maftool that is a dish based on flour, Boiled fennel stalks salad, parsley salad, grilled eggplant salad, brown lentils and rice with
32 Nidal Khalil, Khalil, Before restaurants, 2016:8-13, place of publication not identified, Kersh, Nidal, Shakshuka, 2017: 51-68, Stockholm
33 Ottolenghi, Yotam, Tammi, Sami, Jerusalem, 2012: 296-309, Berkeley 34 Nidal, 2016: 15-30, 48-49
35 Kersh, 2017: 69-84 36 Ottolenghi, 2012: 130-149
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salad (tomato and cucumber), fava beans with tahini and falafel to name a few.39 In the book
“Jerusalemrecipes” there is recipes for falafel, different kinds of salad (spinach, date, almond, sweet potatoes, figs, Swiss chard salad with tahini and yogurt dressing).fattoush, latkes and tabbouleh.40 In the book, “Jerusalem recipes” there are two recipes in the category of fruits and vegetables and those are spinach salad with dates and almonds and falafel.41 In the last book in table 1, there are recipes for both Swedish falafel, falafel carrot salad from Morocco, different kind of rice and bulgur recipes with different seasonings, freekeh with mushrooms, haricots verts in tomato sauce, fattoush, hummus, Msabaha, tabbouleh, lentils with yoghurt salad, Shakshuka, Jerusalem salad (tomato and cucumber salad), different kind of potatoes recipes to name a few. 42
Meat
In the first book in the table 1, there is 28 recipes where meat is the main ingredients. In all of the books studied here, poultry is included in this category by the authors themselves. In the book Jerusalem two of the recipes in this category are grilled, eight are boiled or braised, 19 are fired and three are roasted. 43 In the book “Before restaurants”, one finds recipes of different kinds of chicken that are marinated, fried and maftool with chicken. There is also meat dishes such as mansaf (that is a meat dish that is fried in a big pan, the pan is placed in the middle of the table), hummus with meat, almond soups with lamb, rice with fried chicken and cauliflower (Makloubeh) and different kind of sausages to name a few.44 In the book
“Jerusalemrecipes”, there is recipes such as sweet and sour meatballs, shish tawook, beef Tzimmes, sofrito and lemon roasted chicken and Jerusalem artichokes.45 In the fourth book in
table 1 there are recipes such as Syrian meat pie, Cypriot taro casserole, fattoush, chicken with cardamom rice, roasted chicken with clementine, chicken skewers with pearl couscous salad, eggplants with lamb and pine nuts to name a few.46 In the book Shakshuka, there are recipes for shawarma, different kind of chicken recipes, schnitzel, kebab, dolmas with lamb.47
22 Fish/shellfish/snails
In the book titled Jerusalem, there is nine recipes of fish and shellfish. Four of the recipes are fried dishes, one grilled, two are marinated and two boiled with different kinds of flavours.48
In the book “Before restaurants”, there is one recipe with snails that are wild and are served with onions and cumin. There is also a stuffed fish recipe.49 In the book “Jerusalemrecipes”, there are recipes for baked St Peters fish with tahini and pine nut sauce, fish cakes, mixed seafood dishes, sea brass and grilled monkfish.50 In the book “Jerusalem recipes”, there is one recipes for shrimps.51 In the last book in table 1, there are two recipes for fried fish.52
Egg dishes
There is one recipe of eggs in the book “Before Restaurants” and that is a recipe for roasted eggs in wood shavings.53 In the book “Jerusalemrecipes”, there are two recipes of eggs such as Sephardic Jewish style eggs and shakshouka.54
Dairy
Of the five cookbooks studied for the table 1, there is one that have diary recipes, such as homemade margarine, homemade yogurt, traditional cream cheese, dried salted yogurt and white pastry cheese.55
Desserts/sweets
In the book Jerusalem, there are 16 recipes for sweets and deserts. To give some examples there are sweet filo cigars, graybeh, sweet cheese, poached pears in white wine & cardamom and different kind of flavoured cakes as well as acharuli khachapuri. 56 In the book “Before
Restaurants” one finds under desserts and sweets knafeh, fenugreek sweet bread (Hilbeh), classic cinnamon wheat and different kind of sweet sauces.57 In “Jerusalemrecipes”, there are recipes for tahini biscuits, Jerusalem kugel and other sweet cakes.58 In the book “Jerusalem
recipes” there are different kinds of desserts recipes such as knafeh with walnuts, Israeli fruit cup, different kinds of cake such as apple cake, chocolate torte with macerated strawberries, doughnuts , honey cakes baklava, macaroons, cheesecake ad apricot mantaschen.59 In the last
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book in table 1 one finds recipes for baklava, watermelon with jabneh and za´atar, knafeh, dates, pomegranates salad, doughnut from Morocco to name a few.60
Beverage
In the book “Before Restaurants”, there is one beverage and that is sweet tea with biscuits.61 In the book Shakshuka, there are recipes for lemonade, mint tea, and Arabic coffee.62 Table 2. Categories in four studied cookbooks about the Palestinian cuisine
Name of the book Breakfast Mezze Salads Soups Rice Stews Mahashi Vegetables
Classic palestinian
cuisine 0 0 23 18 13 10 7 6
Olives, lemons and
Za´atar 10 14 8 11 15 4 10 0
Palestine on a
plate 13 0 7 0 25 0 1 0
The Gaza kitchen 0 12 10 4 15 4 0 0
Meat Poultry
Fish, shellfish
Bread,
dough Sweets/desserts Jams Refreshments
Pickles, Sauces Classic palestinian
cuisine 10 6 0 7 16 3 3 0
Olives, lemons and
Za´atar 19 9 9 3 13 0 0 14
Palestine on a
plate 15 9 16 2 15 0 7 1
The Gaza kitchen 20 9 15 5 17 0 6 11
Sources: Bishara, Rawia, Olives, lemons & Za´atar, London, 2014, Dabdoub Nasser, Christiane, Classic Palestinian cuisine, London, 2013, El-Haddad, Laila & Schmitt, Maggie, The Gaza kitchen- a palestinian culinary journey, Charlottesville, 2016, Kalla, Joudie, Palestine on a plate-memories from my mother´s kitchen, China, 2017
For Palestine, there are two cookbooks that have breakfast listed as a category and there one finds different kinds of egg dishes. The spice mixture Za´atar is very often used for breakfast. Za´atar is a mixture of fresh oregano, wild thyme, lemony sumac and toasted sesame seeds in the books. The Spice is served with different kinds of bread, cheese, eggs, meat and different vegetables and beans.63
60 Kersh, 2017: 174 61 Nidal, 2016: 80-188 62 Nidal, 2016: 192-199
24 Mezze
Two of the books have mezze as a category and the recipes vary in the books from between 12-14. The recipes are mainly vegetarian with some egg recipes, even on occasion, there also are recipes for liver, and the dishes are served both cold and warm.64
Salads
Salads can be found in all the cookbooks and they differ in amount from 7-23 recipes. The major part of the salads are vegetarian even if there are a few recipes with chicken. Salads that contains cucumbers and tomatoes with herbs seem to be favourites in this category; fresh herbs are used in all of the salads. 65
Soups
Soup is a category that appears in three of the cookbooks, and like the salads, there is a large span among the recipes, from 4-18. There are both warm and cold soups and the main group of recipes has fruits, lentils, beans, grains or vegetables as the main ingredients. Some soups have yoghurt as the main ingredient. However, there are also soups with meat from lamb and chicken and some with shellfish.66
Vegetable dishes
All the cookbooks have listed vegetable dishes, the numbers varying between 13-25. The main ingredients in the category are artichokes, beans, aubergine, potatoes, lentils, onions, cabbage, tomatoes, grains, peppers, okra, spinach, pumpkin, cauliflower, vine leaves, cheeses, mushrooms and zucchini. Fresh herbs are used in all of the recipes. All these recipes are to be served warm.67
Rice dishes
Before rice was introduced to the Arab world, some dishes were only made with bulgur or smoked wheat. When rice came, it speedily became a popular substitute. For many of the dishes Egyptian rice kernels that are small, round and broken are the only rice used in order to make an authentic version of the dishes, second best is the Chinese white rice. In five of the books, there is a category that has rice as the main ingredient. There are dishes with plain rice
64 Bishara, 2014:32-53, El-Haddad, Laila & Schmitt, Maggie, The Gaza kitchen- a palestinian culinary journey, Charlottesville, 2016: 124-140
65 Dabdoub Nasser, Christiane, Classic Palestinian cuisine, London, 2013: 20-43, Bishara, 2014:66-76, El-Haddad & Schmitt, 2016: 50-69, Gila, Levine, 2016:35-60, Kalla, 2017: 58-59, 65, 112-117
66 Dabdoub Nasser, 2013: 46-53, Bishara, 2014:82-95, Kalla, 2017: 54, 60-61, El-Haddad & Schmitt, 2016: 76-81
25
but also recipes with rice together with meat mutton, lamb and beef chicken, shellfish and vegetables, cauliflower, chickpeas, lentils and beans, pine nuts and raisins.68
Stews
Three of the books have stews as a category. The major part of the recipes are vegetarian stews with main ingredients such as okra, beans, cauliflower, potatoes, peas, lentils, butternut squash, spinach, tomatoes and aubergine. There are also stews with the main ingredient of lamb or beef. Fresh garlic and herbs are very often used in the recipes.69
Mahashi
Mahashi dishes are dishes that are linked to Sundays and holidays since they can be prepared the day before. The preparation is time-consuming and is delicate that requires a lot of patience and skill in order to make these stuffed dishes. Preparation of the stuffed food items requires a special coring tool. In “Classic Palestinian cuisine”, the following are found under Mahashi; two different recipes of stuffed vine leaves and marrows, stuffed aubergines, stuffed marrows with tomato sauce, stuffed cabbage and stuffed marrows with yoghurt sauce.70 Meat dishes
Meat dishes are found in all the cookbooks studied here and the recipes vary between 10-20. Lamb is by far the most common meat in the recipes in forms of meatballs, meat loaf, kebab, chops, makloubeh, followed by beef; meat is often accompanied by vegetables. Even so, vegetables play a major role in this category even if they are not the main ingredient since meat is often stuffed in aubergines, vine leaves, zucchini, squash, cabbage or artichokes. Another common dish is meat pie. There are also recipes for dishes for sheep’s’ brains. Many fresh herbs and garlic with sumac and za´atar are used in the meat dishes.71
Poultry
All the cookbooks have dishes of poultry and the recipes vary between either six or nine. Chicken is by far the most common bird mentioned in the books. Chickens are prepared in bread, boiled, in stews, as shawarma, or baked, with different kind of seasoning, stuffed, grilled, on a skewer, kebab and prepared with fruits such as apricots.72 Palestinian couscous
with chicken is often in USA referred as to “Israeli couscous”. According to one of the
68 Dabdoub Nasser, 2013:73-87, Bishara, 2014:182-183, El-Haddad & Schmitt, 2016: 206-208 69 Dabdoub Nasser, 2013:91-99, Bishara, 2014:98-109, Kalla, 2017: 64
70 Dabdoub Nasser, 2013:101-113
71 Dabdoub Nasser, 2013:117-129, Bishara, 2014:148-169, Kalla, 2017: 78-79, 122-150, El-Haddad & Schmitt, 2016: 110-111, 114-115, 148, 156, 164-165, 177, 182-183, 189, 191-192, 194-199, 210-213, 216-222, 228-229, 235, 238-239, 246,252, 256-257, Gila, Levine, 2016:131-144
26
authors, its proper name is maftool. The dish takes a very long time to make since the grains are made by hand and to the author it is a clear proof “how important food was and remains in our culture”.73
Fish and shellfish
Recipes for fish and shellfish are found in three of the books and the recipes vary between 6-16. Fish are more common than shellfish. Bass, perch, tuna, cod, halibut, salmon, flounder, red snapper, sardines and S:t Peter’s fish are used for boiling, frying, grilling, roasting, baked, with different fresh herbs and za´atar. Some recipes are also with raw fish, such as salmon or bass tartare. Prawns and jumbo shrimps are served with different sauces, clams are served vid za´atar, calamaris are served with strong spices, crabs are stuffed and roasted and squid are served stuffed. There are also seafood soups.74
Bread and dough
In all of the books, there are recipes for bread and dough and they vary between two-seven. Arabic bread is the base for the rest of the bread- recipes and the dough is made from of warm water, dried yeast, sugar, plain flour and whole-wheat flour, powdered milk or plain yogurt, sea salt and virgin olive oil. These breads are often topped with other products such as cheese, spinach, meat, eggs and different kind of spices. There are also recipes for Passover bread.75 Sweets and deserts
All of the studies books in table 2 has sweets and desserts and the recipes varies between 13-17. A variety of different kinds of white goat´s cheese is often used in this category, a cheese that is typical of Palestine where there is no actual cheese culture as such. The way of making it has been unchanged over generations. It starts in the spring when milk is plentiful. The milk is boiled and preserved in salted water for use throughout the year. During the boiling izha, mahlab and gum Arabic are added. The cheese is preserved in glass jars tin containers and when one is in need of the cheese, the right amount is taken out of the container and soaked in water for some hours before use. Other recipes that are common are knafeh, different kinds of puddings, fritters and pancakes with syrup, different kinds of fruit compotes, different kinds of sweet cakes, dumplings, baklava and sweet syrups.76
73 Bishara, 2014:140
74 Bishara, 2014:121-135, Kalla, 2017: 170-197, El-Haddad & Schmitt 2016 :266-294
75 Dabdoub Nasser, 2013:144-155, Bishara, 2014:57-59, El-Haddad & Schmitt 2016 :100-103, 107,112, 117, Kalla, 2017: 48-51
27 Jams
Jams are only found in “Classic Palestinian cuisine” where quince, apricot and azaroles are used. These jams are considered by the author to be representative for the traditional Palestinian cuisine. They are more or less classics.77
Refreshments
In two of the books, there are recipes for refreshments such as different kinds of coffee, tea, syrups and molasses, nectars, juices, flavoured milk, wine, lemonades and juices.78
Pickles and sauces
Recipes for pickles and sauces are found in three of the books studied here, the recipes vary between 1-14. Turnips, beetroot, cauliflower, carrots, aubergines, avocados, lemons, jams, figs, oranges, kumquats, pomelo, jalapeños and peppers are used for different kind of spreads, dips and pickles. 79
The cookbooks studied in table 1 and 2 gives an indication of the richness in the food culture of Jerusalem and Palestine. A closer look at the recipes in the books reveals that many of them are more or less the same and that vegetables are the main ingredients used. Very few recipes can be found under “bread”, which is interesting since bread is served at every meal. One reason for the lack of recipes in the cookbooks can be that the knowledge of making dough and baking bread is so well known that it is not necessary to have the recipes in cookbooks. It is a so called “silent knowledge” that everyone knows is there.
Falafel and Maqluba
There is one dish that can be found in all the cookbooks and that is falafel, regardless if the cookbooks are about Jerusalem or Palestine and that is falafel. Therefore, I have chosen falafel as an example of how one dish can be synonym with a food culture. One of the informants of Palestinian origin says that Israel has stolen the Palestinian cuisine and feels that it is equal to having a child stolen from you. Several other informants that also are Palestinian Christians agree with that statement and they expressed strong emotions such as sadness and anger talking about it.80
The ingredients for Egyptian Falafel : large fava beans (broad beans), brown or green, finely chopped onions, crushed garlic cloves, finely chopped fresh parsley, cumin, fresh coriander, baking powder or baking soda, salt. For Falafel one finds the following ingredients in the
77 Dabdoub Nasser, 2013:182-186
78 Dabdoub Nasser, 2013:190-192, Kalla, 2017: 210, 232-234, El-Haddad & Schmitt 2016 :325-329, 334-341, 79 Bishara, 2014:188-197, Kalla, 2017: 118-119, El-Haddad & Schmitt, 2016: 63, 82-88
28
cookbooks; dried chickpeas or green fava beans, chopped onion and garlic cloves, grounded or fresh coriander, cumin, cayenne pepper, chopped fresh parsley, salt, baking powder, oil for frying. The seasoning can vary and some add all spice, black pepper, hot red pepper,
cinnamon, grounded paprika, grounded chili, cilantro, sesame seed and sumac as well. Falafel is a deep fried dish.81 The recipes are more or less the same for falafel in all the
cookbooks in table 1 and 2.
The first postcard states Falafel as an Israeli snack and the second one states that the same dish is a Palestine snack. The Israeli flag has been replaced with the Palestinian flag and the word Israel has been crossed over and replaced with ‘Palestine,’ like a graffiti. Both the postcards have the same recipe for the dish on the backside as shown above, with the headline “A recipe to mail- Falafel”. As can be seen the ingredients are the same on the postcard as it has been presented previously in the text. However having said that, the recipe on the postcard is not identical to any in the cookbooks, so it is not taken from them. The postcard with the Israeli snack can be bought at almost every souvenir shop in the Jewish part of the old city of Jerusalem while the cards with the Palestinian snack can be bought at the “Educational bookshop” in east Jerusalem. The Educational bookshop is a bookshop that only sell
literature, bookmarks, postcards etc that are related to Palestine. This is an example of when
29
one dish have two contestant cultures and how gastronomy over one dish is an example of gastronomy as sacred order.
One dish that I have observed been made by Jews, Christians and Muslim on different occasion during my field studies is the dish is Maqluba. Maqluba is a dish based on rice and vegetables, meat can be added if one wishes. The dish is boiled in a saucepan and the ingredients needs to be placed in the pan reversed since the pan is turned upside down when the dish is done and served that way. This dish seems to be borderless, at least in this study. It seems like this dish have no national or religious boarders and have a common origin in the distant past in the Middle East. If I am to guess, I guess it is the same with Falafel. To me, the use of Falafel as a national dish between two nations is a good example of the importance of origin of the dish and fall within the framework of sacred order. The use of Maqluba is the same, even if it is a bit different since no one claims it as their own (not in this study anyway), here it seems that a common origin and heritage is of greater importance than making a national claim of the dish. To me, the dishes Falafel and Maqluba are not only examples of how gastronomy in itself becomes the sacred order, but also how sacred order can be disputed when several nations claims or not claiming the dishes as their own.
The dish Maqluba made on different occasions by Jews, Christians and Muslims. © Söderlind, Ulrica, 2019 2.3 Chefs for peace
Chefs for Peace is an organisation founded in Jerusalem in November 2001. The founding members were from Judaism, Christianity and Islam. Today the organization has
30
Peace food in itself carries the power to build relations and bridges for mutual acceptance and to see peace as a delicious possibility. The message is the following: “Only real people living and working together, not politicians, will create peace on the ground”.82
Chefs for Peace started by making meals together only for the members. Sitting down at the table sharing the newly prepared meal the conversations dealt with many subjects, except politics and religion. After the initial years, the organization is now working on bigger events as chefs. The chefs comes together for certain occasions such as private parties and different kinds of galas, business events, inter-faith gatherings, events at colleges, youth groups, weddings and so forth. The organization creates events as requested.83
They also have cooking classes for Jews and Arabs; there are also special cooking classes for children. The latter are very popular. The organization also has special tours within the walls of old Jerusalem or the “Old City” but also at the open-air market in western Jerusalem. However if one wants to get the best fresh herbs, they are found in the “Old city” where the vendors are women who come in from their villages with their fresh herbs. They really know their merchandise. Including in the tours are also visits to spice shops that are highly
appreciated.
The idea behind the tours is to arouse awareness of the freshness of as well as what kind of food that can be found in Jerusalem and the neighboring areas among tourists and chefs who come from abroad. Several foreign chefs have visited Chefs for Peace in Jerusalem in order to learn more about the organization and create new dishes in the kitchen. The members of Chefs for Peace also have been abroad on different occasions and created menus and events in different countries in Europe and Scandinavia. The working exchanges that goes both ways are of great importance for all involved since they creates a deeper understanding for all that are involved, both for the chefs who have roots in the Middle East and those who come from Europe. Many of the food items that can be found fresh in Jerusalem are of better quality than those found in Europe and this is essential to the smell and taste of the finished meal. Not to say that meals cannot be tasteful with dried herbs. Some of the seasoning that is used in the Middle East is not used at all outside the region, such as sumac. Sumac is a red berry that is used dried and ground in many dishes in the Middle East and gives the meal a special taste. Many visitors encounter sumac for the first time when they come to the visit the Chefs for Peace. There have been attempts by the organization to hold a dinner for the Israeli
government; the outcome was poor since only one guest turned up. That does not mean that
82 https://chefs4peace.weebly.com/about-us.html, 2018-03-16
31
the organization is giving up the work for peace by the means of gastronomy.84 However,
there are Palestinian chefs that refuses to become a member of Chefs for peace regardless of the aim of the association. The reason for that is that the chef feels that he cannot work side by side with Israeli chefs since they are not equal due to the occupation of land in Palestine.85
Two examples of dishes made by Chefs for Peace at events. © Chefs for Peace 2.4 Education
At Bethlehem University, there is a program within the framework of Institute of Hotel Management and Tourism. The day for my visit was a busy day for the students; they had lunch service upon my arrival. Until now there are no courses given that are based on diet in the Bible or theology at the university, however this does not mean that attempts of cooking in the biblical way has been undertaken by others. There have been attempts by the Israeli government to commercialize biblical meals in combination with a hike. During these hikes and cooking classes, allergies or special diet requirements are not meet. At the same
University, there are plans to start research about food in the Bible and connect it to the field of theology. There has been research about old historical Palestinian cuisine (from north to south), 3000 questioners was distributed among elderly women of the age 85 and older. Every woman was asked to give five recipes and when these were sorted, one of the results was that the same recipe came up in different places with different names, so those recipes were not taking into account for the analysis. The researcher was left with 287 recipes for dishes that were not commonly known to the modern public. They were written down and are on the way to being published in the near future. The research shows how important it is to use oral sources and storytelling in order to preserve a cultural heritage that otherwise will be gone when the old generation passes away. Even so, if one talks about food as such, without mixing
