The Discourse of CCTV in Stockholm’s Subway System Analysis of Svenska Dagbladet 1995–2015
Carl Johan Casten Carlberg
Department of Economic History
Course: Bachelor's Thesis (level C), 15 credits Semester: Fall 2020
Public discussion of paper: 13/01/2021 Supervisor: Mikael Wendschlag
2
Abstract
The thesis explores how the theory of Securitization, defined by Buzan, Wæver and de Wildes, can be applied to the discourse related to CCTVs in the subway of Stockholm. It analyses 20 articles from the major Swedish newspaper Svenska Dagbladet from 1995 to 2015. Fairclough’s Critical Discourse Analysis is used as main methodology, scrutinizing the texts from a discourse practical perspective, text perspective, and sociopolitical perspective.
The main finding from the thesis is that the theory of Securitization needs to be enhanced with a “Politically Non-controversial” dimension and a “Politically Controversial” dimension, extending the previous “Political” Securitization dimension. With that updated Securitization definition, the discourse of the articles in the thesis follows the model of Securitization. Thus, the CCTV discourse regarding the subway of Stockholm has from 1995 to 2015 transformed from politically non-controversial, to politically controversial and finally securitized.
3
Index
Abstract ... 2
1. Introduction ... 5
2. Purpose & Scientific Question ... 7
3. Theory & Scientific State ... 8
3.1. Theory: Securitization ... 8
3.2. Explaining the Development of CCTV – Research Overview ... 9
3.3. Implementation of CCTV in Sweden ... 11
3.4. CCTV in the subway of Stockholm ... 12
4. Methodology ... 14
4.1. Discourse Analysis ... 14
4.2. Fairclough’s Critical Discourse Analysis ... 14
4.2.1. Text Analysis ... 15
4.2.2. Discourse Practice Analysis ... 15
4.2.3. Sociopolitical Analysis ... 15
4.3. Selection of Source Material ... 16
5. Context: Factors influencing the Subway of Stockholm 1995-2015 ... 17
5.1. Stockholm County Council ... 17
5.2. Economical and Criminal Development ... 18
5.3. The Subway System of Stockholm ... 20
5.4. CCTV Surveillance & the Private Security Industry ... 21
5.5. Svenska Dagbladet ... 22
6. Empirical Evidence ... 23
6.1. Identified Keywords ... 23
6.2. The 20 Articles ... 24
7. Analysis ... 28
7.1. Discourse Practice Analysis ... 28
4
7.1.1. 1995-2003: Short Articles with Overview Perspective ... 28
7.1.2. 2003-2005: Longer Articles with Several Perspectives ... 29
7.1.3. 2005-2015: Bureaucratic Medium-long Articles ... 29
7.2. Text Analysis ... 29
7.2.1. 1995-1999: CCTV Tradeoff ... 30
7.2.2. 2000-2005: Articles with Emotions ... 30
7.2.3. 2005-2008: CCTV as an Optimization Problem ... 30
7.2.4. 2008-2015: Stop the Critique and Move on ... 31
7.3. Sociopolitical Analysis ... 31
7.3.1. 1995-1999: Specified Problems with a Tradeoff ... 32
7.3.2. 2000-2007: General Sense of Insecurity ... 32
7.3.3. 2006-2012: Specific Serious Offense ... 34
7.3.4. 2008-2009: Forget the Problem – Here is what to do about it ... 35
7.4. Concluding Analysis ... 35
8. Conclusions ... 38
9. Appendix ... 40
Appendix Table 1 ... 40
Appendix Table 2 ... 42
10. Reference List ... 45
10.1. Source Material ... 45
10.2. Literature List ... 48
5
1. Introduction
One of the most elemental biological instincts is to feel safe. However, with the rapid technological and societal development of humankind during the last centuries, the meaning of safety and security has changed several times. With new everyday behaviors come new situations in which one can feel threatened or at unease. To help mitigate the feeling of insecurity, several structural reforms and technological innovations have been launched. One gadget supposed to increase safety, that has become increasingly present the last decades, is the Closed-circuit television (CCTV) camera.
In Sweden, CCTV cameras have been surveilling a multitude of environments during the last decades. One particularly interesting environment, to investigate its implementation in, is the subway system of the capital Stockholm. As later described in the context section,
Stockholm’s subway system implemented CCTV during an eight-year period from 1998 to 2006, first in the wagons and later in the stations. Since technical ideas are not created in vacuum but affected by several stakeholders and ideas, it is relevant to study how the discourse developed regarding CCTV during two decades of rapid CCTV advancement.
Particularly, studying how the discourse is developed throughout the lens of a widespread daily newspaper provides an interesting insight on the variety of ways CCTVs were discussed during the set time frame.
Investigating how at first controversial ideas are implemented in a highly visited system gives insight in how technical solutions interact with its surrounding public debate. CCTV in the subway is exemplifying a controversial technique in public space since, as later described, it is by some regarded as a violation of privacy or integrity and could potentially be misused.
Securitization is a theory of analyzing these types of controversial security enhancing methods.
It models the process by which the discourse on policy areas is transformed from a wide debate around crime mitigation to an issue of technical security character. Securitization has been used in different discourse analyses before. However, it has never been applied to CCTV in Sweden and particularly not to Stockholm’s subway system.
As described in the methodology section, studying Securitization is best done through studying changes in the discourse. Therefore, this paper is focusing on the second biggest daily
6 newspaper in Stockholm: Svenska Dagbladet. The study starts of in 1995 due to the SOU 1995:66 that laid a foundation to the 1998 law on mass surveillance described in the section of Theory and Scientific State. It continues for two decades following the discourse regarding CCTV in the Stockholm Subway system. By this approach, the thesis captures the development of the discourse around CCTV in public space over two decades characterized by an enormous technological and behavioral development. Thus, this paper adds a crucial brick to the understanding of the public attitude to the heavily enhanced state surveillance and control over all citizens.
7
2. Purpose & Scientific Question
The main purpose of this essay is to analyze how the theory Securitization can be applied to the Swedish discourse about public safety in common areas. It will specifically focus on the implementation of CCTV cameras within the subway system in the city of Stockholm and study how a major Swedish newspaper has described the establishment of CCTV surveillance during a 20-year time period. The thesis answers the following scientific question:
• How did Svenska Dagbladet’s discourse regarding CCTV surveillance in the subway of Stockholm change from 1995 to 2015?
8
3. Theory & Scientific State
The main theory used in this paper concerns Securitization. Therefore, the first subsection in this section will explain Securitization and thereafter the scientific state regarding the development of CCTV is explored. This discussion bases itself on a global development but is later concentrated on a national Swedish level with particular focus on CCTV in the subway of Stockholm.
3.1. Theory: Securitization
Securitization is an academic concept highly suitable to analyze the development of technical tools aiming to mitigate crime. The theory was developed by the Copenhagen School of Security Studies and introduces Securitization as an explanation of how non-extraordinary political issues are transformed to urgent national security issues. All issues in society are, according to this theory, represented somewhere on the scale from nonpolitical via political to securitized as shown in figure 4. When an issue becomes securitized its political dimension is reduced and it instead becomes a technical and bureaucratic issue. A consequence of the Securitization is also that measures, normally regarded highly controversial, are allowed since the problem that is handled is described as an extreme threat. The process of Securitization is described to happen in steps and is often a consequence of change in the public debate (Buzan, Wæver and de Wilde, 1998, p.1010-1011)
Figure 4. The three stages of Securitization according to Buzan, Wæver and de Wilde (1998)
Nonpolitical
•The security problem is regarded as minor and lacks urgency. Calm debate around the topic.
Political
•The security problem is regarded as a major security issue of high urgency. Intense political debate.
Securitized
•The security problem becomes a bureaucratic and technical issue allowing for solutions that earlier were regarded higly controversial. Few conflicting opinions.
9 Securitization is not sharply defined after an objective logic, instead it is dependent on how people subjectively refer to public issues. Consequently, several different topics can be described as securitized depending on the context. Culture is described to have been securitized in the Soviet Union and religion is, according to the authors, securitized in Iran and Saudi Arabia (Buzan, Wæver and de Wilde, 1998, p.1010-1011).
Lemberg-Pedersen (2018), a Danish assistant professor at Aalborg University, has written several articles about Securitization, including articles discussing the roles of private security companies when it comes to border control and migration. A rather recent example of Securitization is how immigration to Europe has become a question of high-tech border control rather than political solutions after the large number of refugees seeking asylum in Europe during 2015. When the political discourse changed from debating how to best help refugees to see the number of people as a potential dangerous national security threat, more resources were also put into guarding the EU’s external borders (Lemberg-Pedersen, 2018, p.152-172).
The theory of Securitization has been applied to the Swedish society before. Ericsson (2018) is the most relevant example. His article did however mainly focus on migration policy rather than surveillance. Still, the article provides several potentially important insights and sources on important changes in the migration policy during the same period. Since migration, integration and security are nowadays often discussed together there are several points that may be overlapping.
3.2. Explaining the Development of CCTV – Research Overview
In a paper on the security industry from Professor of Criminology and Criminal Justice Welsh and Emeritus Professor of Psychological Criminology Farrington (2009), a thorough overview of European and North American CCTV development is depicted. Three reasons are described to be predominant why private corporate solutions to crime have gained popularity in the United States during the 20th century. Firstly, there is a described megatrend affecting society where governmental services become private and private security solutions are part of this trend.
Secondly, the need for private security solutions has risen correlated to the increase of larger privately owned buildings that are open for the public. Shopping malls, offices, and sports
10 arenas are all examples of buildings that private owners regard as necessary places to enforce private security. Lastly, the law enforcement provided by the public police is not regarded as sufficient in comparison to the needs of most people. Additional private policing or security solutions are then enforced to reduce the discrepancy between desired and actual safety (Welsh
& Farrington, 2009, p.980-983).
According to Welsh and Farrington, CCTV in the United Kingdom was largely catalyzed due to a specific media report in 1993 after the murder of the 3-year-old boy James Bulger. Cameras caught how the child was kidnapped and the images of the boy being led away by two older children became viral on British TV channels. Worth noting is that the CCTV cameras did not actually help identify the murders, they were identified and caught by other evidence, but still the publicly displayed videos strengthened the stance for massively increased CCTV surveillance in the UK. Even though other factors also influenced, such as an overall increased crime rate and a widespread dissatisfaction with the criminal justice system, the aftermath of the James Bulger murder connected any argument against increased surveillance to an immoral support for criminals (Welsh & Farrington, 2009, p. 979-981).
Welsh and Farrington describe further that acts of terrorism have increased the support for CCTV globally. In the UK, a terrorist attack in 1993 by the Irish Republican Army made way for a “Ring of Steel”, a network of cameras surveilling all entrances to Central London. 12 years later, CCTV filmed the Islamistic attack in London’s subway system that killed 52 people. The filmed material could obviously not prevent that specific attack but through the records, the police could identify how the terrorist had been planning and moving before the bombings.
Also, in the United States, CCTV has been used to detect and possibly prevent terrorist attacks.
After the infamous attacks on the 11th of September 2001, New York City installed numerous CCTV cameras on places considered possible targets for terrorist attacks (Welsh & Farrington, 2009, p.981-985).
Interestingly, Welsh and Farrington can only identify sparse evidence showing that CCTV cameras can prevent crime. Instead, other types of measures such as increased street lightning or security guards are proven to be much more important for crime prevention. This is described to explain why the implementation of CCTV cameras in the UK and the US have been
11 motivated by specific tragic events rather than research (Welsh & Farrington, 2009, p.992- 994).
In a similar spirit to Welsh and Farrington, Goold, Loader and Thamala (2013 describe what they call The Banality of Security. This concept, they mean, comes from the findings after investigating why CCTV has succeeded in the UK, despite it being tightly connected to George Orwell’s famous Big Brother metaphor. What mattered, their research shows, is that the government demonstrated that they were doing something drastic to prevent crime, not that the technique actually mitigated crime. Furthermore, they describe how some research see The Big Brother metaphor as contributing to a general sense that CCTV had “some obvious benefits”, even though the data suggested otherwise. These obvious benefits consisted of a feeling that there is a “permanent eyewitness to crime and related troubles”, a view that private security companies also liked to display. This suggest that the public security discussion is banal since it is not certain that efficient techniques for preventing crime will beat the ineffective counterparts but is rather a question of feeling secure (Goold, Loader and Thumala, 2013, p.983-984).
3.3. Implementation of CCTV in Sweden
In 2002, an official State Public Report (Statlig Offentlig Utredning - SOU) was published that revised the 1998 law on mass surveillance. The investigation was led by Schäder (2002), lawyer and justice of the Supreme Administrative Court. It specialized on public, open surveillance through CCTV cameras, and not on specific surveillance techniques fixated at advanced crime.
The report started off with the notion that during the last six years over 22% more licenses for CCTV had been applied for to the regional authorities around Sweden. This was described as an “significant increase” (Schäder, 2002, p.13-15).
The report describes the main arguments for and against increased CCTV surveillance. Positive arguments included the idea that CCTV surveillance would effectively decrease crime, since the cameras will discourage people from committing felonies. On the contrary, the counterarguments highlighted the threat to personal integrity and contributed to a surveillance society. Furthermore, some argued that CCTV does not actually reduce the total amount of crime, it just moved it to non-surveilled places (Schäder, 2002, p.16).
12 There had been a couple of verdicts that the SOU described as influential regarding mass surveillance. First, the Supreme Administrative Court of Sweden (Regeringsrätten, or Högsta förvaltningsdomstolen at present) permitted the Police Authority in the Swedish region Scania to install CCTV cameras that would surveil the square Möllevångstorget in Malmö and the City Park of Helsingborg. The authors argued that such rulings would influence the probability of increasing the surveillance at public places. However, some examples of the opposite were also disclosed. Vasaloppet, a large Swedish cross-country skiing race, was denied installing CCTV cameras around their starting area. Also, the Swedish Television company SVT was denied permission to install cameras showing the street outside their main office, even though the purpose was to display the weather (Schäder, 2002, p.80-82).
When discussing the public acceptance of mass surveillance, the SOU was clear. A strong majority of the Swedish population responded in polls to be either positive or neutral to the idea of mass surveilling public spaces. However, the opinion slightly differed depending on which public place that was up for surveilling. Dressing-rooms, public toilets and queues to nightlife were three examples of places where people had a less optimistic response to surveilling with CCTV. Still, the authors also stated that no polls existed that asked for all types of venues where CCTV could be relevant. For example, the SOU could not determine the public opinion for surveilling hospitals, social security offices or museums (Schäder, 2002, p.84-94).
3.4. CCTV in the subway of Stockholm
One area that particularly had been investigated though was the public opinion regarding surveilling the subway system in Stockholm. The first subway station that got CCTV cameras installed was Gullmarsplan. Storstockholms Lokaltrafik (SL), the public transport enterprise of the Stockholm region, installed the camera in order to increase the safety and security of the public and of its employees. To determine whether the public appreciated this or not, SL conducted an interview with over 500 travelers at the station. 54 percent said they were positive for surveilling public places in general but over 85 percent had a positive stance on surveilling the subway in specific. When asking the people in favor of subway surveillance why they thought so, more than three quarters said CCTV surveillance creates safety and security, less than one fifth said it prevents vandalism and the rest argued that it prevents accidents from happening (Schäder, 2002, p.88).
13 However, economy professor Mikael Priks describes in a paper that even though he finds evidence that the crime rate was reduced on the stations by the CCTV implementation, crime prevention was never the original intent. Instead, when the cameras were non-simultaneously installed at all stations in 2006, the implementation was motivated by other reasons. The cameras were installed to strengthen fire safety and were implemented first at stations with only one exit. Still, the company later installed a call center in which three employees can in real- time answer phone calls about ongoing crimes and direct guards to potential crime scenes (Priks, 2015, p.291-292).
Nevertheless, the criminologists Uittenbogaard and Ceccato have studied the effects that the CCTV had on crime. In an article from 2013 focusing on crime prevention in the Stockholm subway system, the authoring scientists list five different aspects of crime reduction. These include increasing the difficulty of completing the crime without getting caught, mitigating the benefits from successful criminal acts, reducing potential conflicts, controlling risk factors such as alcohol and drugs, and finally increasing detection of criminals by increased surveillance.
CCTV cameras are mentioned as one potential way of increasing surveillance, together with other ideas such as improved lighting and open environmental design (Uittenbogaard &
Ceccato, 2013, p.94-96).
80 percent of the reported crimes in the Stockholm subway system are described to be “public disorder” including unnecessary usage of emergency breaks, sleeping on trains and exaggerated drunkenness. The remaining 20 percent are named “serious offenses” and contain mostly fights but also some vandalism, illegal threats and thefts (Uittenbogaard & Ceccato, 2013, p.77-78).
The authors present, just as Priks, some evidence that increased CCTV implementation had reduced overall crime in Stockholm’s subway system. Furthermore, they argue that for stations that are particularly vulnerable to vandalism, increased CCTV surveillance would be an appropriate measure. Mainly, they find that CCTV usage increases the “feeling for passengers of always being watched over” (Uittenbogaard & Ceccato, 2013, p.87-89).
14
4. Methodology
In this section, the application of Discourse Analysis is described, with regards to source selection and methodology. Discourse Analysis is relevant to studying the implementation of CCTV in the subway since the theory is focused on the transformation of a policy area to a security issue. The specific type of analysis chosen, Fairclough’s Critical Discourse Analysis, is described below. In addition, the pre-study and the selection of source material are described and motivated.
4.1. Discourse Analysis
In the initial paper describing the term Securitization the authors clarify that: “The way to study securitization is to study discourse and political constellations” (Buzan, Wæver, and de Wilde, 1998, p.1010). In the book Discourse Analysis as Theory and Method (2000) by Winther Jörgensen (2000), a Danish lector on science theory, discourse analysis is described as an effective tool to analyze how different discourses legitimize different arguments and groups of people (Winther Jörgensen, 2000, p.69).
A discourse is described by Winther Jörgensen to consist both of linguistic usage and social practice – a way of communicating that gives meaning to words from a specific perspective. It helps to create social identities, social relationships and knowledge systems (Winther Jörgensen, 2000, p.72). There are three premises for all discourse analyses on social constructivistic foundations.
1. First, all social constructivistic discourse analyses share a critical view of what is often regarded “self-evident” knowledge.
2. Secondly, the analysis must be adapted to its historic and cultural setting.
3. Thirdly, the analysis investigates the bond between knowledge and social processes as well as knowledge and individual action (Winther Jörgensen, 2000, p.11-12).
4.2. Fairclough’s Critical Discourse Analysis
Winter Jörgensen describes several methodologies, but Fairclough’s Critical Discourse Analysis method is chosen as the main methodology in this thesis since it is described to be specifically useful when systematically analyzing a change in discourse in mass media (Winther
15 Jörgensen, 2000, p.71). Furthermore, it is the most common critical discourse analysis (Winther Jörgensen, 2000, p.66).
Fairclough’s Critical Discourse Analysis focuses on three dimensions of varying level of detail.
The idea is that a text should be analyzed separately on a highly detailed, medium detailed and overview level. Then, all levels can together form an interesting analysis (Winther Jörgensen, 2000, p.74-76). All three levels are summarized in table 1 but will below be explained and exemplified one by one. A Fairclough Critical Discourse Analysis can also analyze other aspects at each detail level but the objects to analyze in this paper have been chosen to suit the subject and available information.
4.2.1. Text Analysis
The first, and most detailed, dimension is the text analysis. In this level the researcher focuses on specifics such as the vocabulary, which words that are used to describe mentioned people, and the grammar of the text. (Winther Jörgensen, 2000, p.83-92). To operationalize the vocabulary analysis on the articles in this paper, the examination of the texts within the articles is broken down in two parts. One part notes all words with value connotations, the other aspect summarizes all nouns that are significant for the article. Direct quotes are excluded since they are not revealing the nature of the discourse in the paper but instead the views from specific individuals.
4.2.2. Discourse Practice Analysis
Analyzing the discourse practice is done mainly by studying the main practical aspects of the text. This means scrutinizing the headline of the article, in which part of the newspaper the article was published, its length and what type of publication it was. (Winther Jörgensen, 2000, p.83-92).
4.2.3. Sociopolitical Analysis
Lastly, the analysis of the sociopolitical dimension is done by analyzing the context in which the text was published. It aims to answer questions such as what other discourse practices touching upon similar subjects were relevant when the text was published? (Winther
Jörgensen, 2000, p.83-92)? In this paper, the sociopolitical analysis consists of discussing and
16 comparing the main themes of each article with the larger events and developments described in the sections Context and Scientific State.
Table 1
Fairclough’s Critical Discourse Analysis Type of Analysis Level of detail Object to analyze
Text High Vocabulary (words with value connotations,
important nouns)
Discourse practice Medium Text Production and Publication Details Sociopolitical Low Context to the publication
The three dimensions of Fairclough’s Critical Discourse Analysis (Winther Jörgensen, 2000, p.74-76).
4.3. Selection of Source Material
A critical element in analyzing a discourse is the selection of source material. To allow for a comprehensive study all source material come from the same source; the Stockholm-based newspaper Svenska Dagbladet (SvD). One benefit with choosing SvD is that they have almost completely digitalized their newspapers for the relevant time period. All newspapers are also searchable and easily navigated by for example grouping singular words, such as “CCTV”, with its plural counterpart (“CCTVs”).
Since the source material depends heavily on the selection of search terms, the process for identifying relevant terms is described below. A pre-study was conducted in which five news articles from SvD were identified by searching for “Stockholm tunnelbana” together with
“Förebygga brott” [prevent crime], “Kameraövervakning” [camera surveillance], “Trygghet”
[safety], “Övervakning” [surveillance], and “Övervakningskamera” [CCTV], from the period 1995 to 2015. They were read through and keywords describing CCTV in the subway of Stockholm were selected on basis of their occurrence, relevance to the subject and if they were the main subject of the article or not. Out of these keywords, one keyword was selected which rendered the articles to analyze in the study. This process in described in the section Empirical Evidence.
17
5. Context: Factors influencing the Subway of Stockholm 1995-2015
The Context section introduces main concepts to understand the development of the discourse regarding the subway system of Stockholm. It introduces Stockholm County Council, the economic and criminal development in Stockholm during from 1995 to 2015 and gives an overview of the subway system. Furthermore, the private security industry is introduced with a special focus on the development of CCTV cameras in Sweden. Lastly, the newspaper analyzed in this paper, Svenska Dagbladet, is presented.
5.1. Stockholm County Council
The political constellation that governs issues related to Stockholm’s public transport and healthcare system is called the Stockholm County Council (as of 2019 renamed to “Region Stockholm”). It consists of a representative assembly and many non-political civil servants.
During the relevant period there were seven different county commissioners representing two political parties (SCB, n.d.a). Table 2 displays the political development in the region during the period.
The political development is relevant to contextualize this report since the Stockholm County Council is the proprietary of SL, the public transport company in Stockholm. However, with regards to enhancing CCTV surveillance in the subway system, this report will not touch upon political differences between the two parties.
18 Table 2
Political Dominance in Stockholm
Mandate period Political Party of the County Commissioner in Stockholm County Council 1994-1997 Social Democratic Party
1997-1998 Social Democratic Party 1998-2002 Moderate Party
2002-2006 Social Democratic Party 2006-2008 Moderate Party
2008-2010 Moderate Party 2010-2016 Moderate Party
Representation of which political party that held the highest political office, the county commissioner, in Stockholm County Council during 1995-2015 (SCB, n.d.a)
5.2. Economical and Criminal Development
During the period the net disposable income per inhabitant in Stockholm has consistently increased and maintained itself above the Swedish average as displayed in figure 1. Net disposable income is just one way of describing the economic state of a region, but it provides insight in the region’s continuous growth and stance as an economic centra with power to invest.
At the same time, the annual reported crimes per capita have slightly increased in the region as displayed in figure 2. Still, it is important to bear in mind that this metric specifically describes the number of reported crimes which not necessarily is the same as the actual total amount of felonies.
These two figures together are signs that the region has during the time become increasingly more prosperous but also more struck by crime. However, it is also clear that even though the net disposable income per inhabitant has consistently increased during the period, the crime rate has increased in a much more fluctuating manner.
19 Figure 1. The net disposable income per inhabitant, measured in thousands of SEK, in the Stockholm county and entire Sweden (including Stockholm County) from 1995 to 2015. (SCB,
n.d.b).
Figure 2. The total amount of reported crimes per 100 000 inhabitants annually in Stockholm County. No specific crime or area in the Stockholm County were excluded in the statistic.
(BRÅ, 2020).
0 50 100 150 200 250
1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015
Net Disposable Income per inhabitant in Stockholm County
Entire Sweden Stockholm County
15 000 16 000 17 000 18 000 19 000 20 000 21 000 22 000
1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015
Annual Reported Crimes per 100 000 inhabitants
in Stockholm County
20
5.3. The Subway System of Stockholm
The subway system of Stockholm was developed during the 20th century in different parts. Most parts were inaugurated during the 1950s, but the latest opened part was ready in 1994. Thus, there were no new subway stations inaugurated during the studied time from 1995 to 2015, but all 100 stations were maintained (Citykonst, n.d.).
Still, several changes happened to the subway system during the period. Figure 3 shows the number of daily travelers in Stockholm and the number of users of the public transport system, i.e., not only the subway. The number of users in the public transport system increases over the period, both as measured in absolute numbers and in percentage of the total travelers (SL, 2015).
Furthermore, in 1998 all subway wagons were equipped with CCTV cameras (Nord, 1997). All subway stations followed in 2006 which was decided already in 2004 (Wendt, 2004).
Figure 3. The number of daily travelers in the Stockholm region from 1995 to 2015 displayed on the right Y-axis per thousand travelers. The curve and the right Y-axis display the percentage of travelers using public transport as percentage of all transports (SL, 2015).
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
1995 2000 2005 2010 2015
Public Transport Users in Stockholm
Travelers with SL (in thousands)
Travelers with Individual non-SL Transport (in thousands) Percentage using SL
21
5.4. CCTV Surveillance & the Private Security Industry
Behind the CCTV surveillance stands a booming private security industry. In 2013 Financial Times described the private security industry to be dominated globally by three major companies: Danish-British G4S, Swedish Securitas and Danish ISS. They all share that they offer a range of products and services, from CCTV cameras to body guarding diplomats (Hill
& Plimmer, 2013).
There is no centralized data on the amount of CCTV cameras in Sweden but in 2002, for the State Public Report, further discussed in the Scientific State section, they concluded that there were 4967 CCTV permits in 1998 and 6078 in 2002 (Schäder, 2002, p.77-78). In 2017, the Swedish Television summarized statistics from all the regional county councils throughout Sweden. They concluded that there were around 33 000 permits for cameras in place at the time, compared to 18 000 in 2006 (Björklund & Ulander, 2017). Thus, there was a 22% increase in CCTV surveillance permits from 1998 to 2002, an almost 300 percent between 2002 and 2006 and an 80 percent increase in CCTV surveillance from 2006 to 2017.
Since the Swedish television and the State Public Report were conducted by different people and with slightly different methods one should not regard the exact numbers as the main finding but that the trendline for CCTV surveillance has been positive for the entire period. This further strengthens the relevance for studying the discourse of CCTV during this specific time period.
Figure 4 displays the increase.
.
Figure 4. The number of approved CCTV permits in Sweden from 1996 to 2017 (Schäder, 2002, p.77-78 & Björklund & Ulander, 2017)
0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000 35000
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017
Number of CCTV permits in Sweden
Number of CCTV permits Linear trend line of CCTV permits
22
5.5. Svenska Dagbladet
The newspaper that will be studied in this paper is Svenska Dagbladet. It is a Stockholm based morning newspaper founded in 1884. SvD describes itself to follow a long publicist tradition based on the freedom of the press and the freedom of speech without considering any special interests. Their editorial page is said to be “unattached moderate”, based on both a mixture of liberalism and conservatism (SvD, n.d.).
SvD is since 1998 owned by the Norwegian media group Schibsted. During the studied period SvD has rapidly increased its revenue and Schibsted more than doubled its balance sheet balance from 2000 till 2015 (Ohlson, 2016, p.18-22). By just studying the discourse in one newspaper it is of course difficult to draw conclusions about the entire media discourse.
However, as explained in the methodology, not a single article studied in this paper is from the editorial page, the part of the newspaper that is intended to contain political stances.
Instead, most of the articles are news articles and have, as described above, no political stance and are meant to be independent of any particular interest.
23
6. Empirical Evidence
Following the earlier described methodology, this section describes the selection of keywords to obtain the articles from Svenska Dagbladet. Later, the studied articles are displayed and summarized on an overview level.
6.1. Identified Keywords
The qualifying keywords are summarized in both Swedish and English in table 3 together with the amounts of search results that the keyword combined with “Stockholm tunnelbana [subway]” got when searching for all possible articles in SvD during the studied search period 1995-2015.
Table 3
Search terms in Pre-study
Swedish Keyword English Translation Number of results in SvD articles during 1995-2015 together with the keywords
“Stockholm tunnelbana”
Avskräckande effekt Discouraging effect 6
Brandskydd Fire safety 6
Förebygga brott Prevent crime 30
Integritet Integrity 63
Kameraövervakning Camera surveillance 20
Trygghet Safety 338
TV-övervakning TV surveillance 1 Utrymningsväg Emergency Exit 6
Övervakning Surveillance 55
Övervakningskamera CCTV 36
Keywords from five articles from 1995 to 2015 regarding CCTV.
Out of the keywords in table 3, the keyword “Övervakningskamera” was selected. The choice was based on two criteria. First, choosing CCTV as search term is the most relevant term for a paper studying that specific technology. It is also in line with the second earlier stated criteria of discourse analysis, that it is adapted to its cultural and historical context since it has been
24 used throughout the entire period. Secondly, the amount of search results is adequate for a thesis of this size to analyze without losing neither depth nor scope.
A possible downside with choosing “övervakningskamera” as search term would be that it may miss a possible change in the larger discourse regarding surveillance and safety in the subway system. If a word such as “trygghet” would have been chosen instead, this larger sociopolitical change may have better been covered. Nevertheless, for studying specifically the change in discourse with regards to CCTV, the search-term “övervakningskamera” displays adequately the evolution of the discourse.
6.2. The 20 Articles
Out of the 36 possible articles matching “Övervakningskamera Stockholm tunnelbana” in SvD from 1995 to 2015, 16 articles turned out to not be relevant. These articles all contained the three keywords in the same physical copy of the newspaper but either as a combination of different, not related, articles or through articles mentioning the search terms but not together and focusing on something completely different. Thus, 20 articles remained as relevant for studying and they are displayed in table 4.
Table 4
Discourse Practice Analysis Article
Date
Headline Author Length article (complete pages)
Type of article
Published part of SvD
Additional Comment
1997-12- 24
Ready for
permanent cameras in the subway wagons
Christina Nord
1/4 News News/Stockholm
1998-03- 12
SL program shall reduce the suicides in the subway
Björn Suneson
1/8 News News/Stockholm
1999-05- 12
SJ warns against doodlers
Juan Martinez
1/4 News News/Stockholm
25 Article
Date
Headline Author Length article (complete pages)
Type of article
Published part of SvD
Additional Comment
2000-07- 08
Scientists criticize the measures
against crimes
Elisabet Cervin
1/4 News News Published
on the same page
2000-07- 08
”As long as we show ourselves they behave”
Elisabet Andersso n
1/8 Reportage News
2003-12- 16
Stockholmers often unsafe
Cecilia Axelsson
4/5 News News Published
on the same page
2003-12- 16
Few reports about threats
Thomas Berglund
1/5 News News
2004-03- 20
The
Stockholmers’
view on SL
SL 1 Commerc
ial
Page 3
2004-09- 27
Cameras make the subway safer
Charlotte Wendt
1 News News
2005-01- 25
The subway cameras catch crime
No specified author
1/20 Short
notice
News
2005-03- 14
Anger about Connex’ ”spies”
Anna Careborg
1 News News Only partly
about CCTV
in the
subway 2005-08-
03
Front page:
CCTV cameras do not work against crime
Katrin Krantz
1/2 News Front page &
News
The article was
introduced at the front page and then
26 Article
Date
Headline Author Length article (complete pages)
Type of article
Published part of SvD
Additional Comment
In news:
Camera error found at several comuter trains – Rapist could
have been
identified – If SL’s system had worked
continued in the news section
2006-02- 13
Two sexual assaults in the subway
Emma Härdmar k
1/4 News News
2006-02- 14
Auditors
criticize SL’s goals for safety – Weak effort that at least half of women shall feel safe
Hanna Anander
1/4 News News
2006-12- 03
Cameras shall reduce violence
Sofia Nilsson
1 News News
2007-12- 19
Weekend traffic
in subway
increases
Jessica Balksjö
1/10 Short
notice
News
2008-07- 08
The camera sees you if you behave
strangely
Tomas Augustss on
2 News Business News Published
under a subsection called “The Innovators”
27 Article
Date
Headline Author Length article (complete pages)
Type of article
Published part of SvD
Additional Comment
2008-09- 01
The surveillance society is already here
Susanne Wigorts Yngvess on
1/2 Cultural debate
Culture
2009-05- 07
Design award for CCTV
No author
1/8 Short
notice
Business - Stock Exchange
2012-09- 14
Pictures of subway burglar are spread around the world
Beatrice Nordenss on
1/4 News News
Each studied article with date, headline and author displayed. Also, the length of the article measured in full pages of the published newspaper, the type of article and the section it was published in, are presented. Lastly, some articles have additional comments that do not fit
into the other columns.
28
7. Analysis
The analysis of the 20 articles from Svenska Dagbladet during the years 1995 to 2015 are in this section analyzed in four subsections. To introduce the texts properly, the first aspect analyzed is the discourse practice. Thereafter, the texts in the articles are examined and later the sociopolitical dimension is explored. Each aspect is dividing the results into time slots describing the development of the Securitization at the time. Finally, a high-level analysis combines the three earlier analyses. Summarizing tables are found in the appendix.
7.1. Discourse Practice Analysis
To analyze the discourse practice of the 20 studied texts, the main practical properties of each text have been summarized in table 4. In the following paragraphs, signs of Securitization in the overall practical comparison of the texts will be identified and discussed.
From investigating table 4, some patterns can be distinguished. For one, all articles are written by different authors. This implies that there has been no-one main responsible for writing about CCTV in the Stockholm subway system at SvD during the time period. Furthermore, it is notable that 17 out of 20 articles are published in the main news section, or the local Stockholm news section when that still existed. This means that not a single publication on the subject was made in the opinion or editorial page. However, all three of the articles that were not published in the main news section, were published as one of the four latest articles in the investigated time period. Two of them were in the business news section and one in the cultural section of SvD. The lack of a reoccurring author together with the fact that most articles were main news items suggests that the subject has been treated most of the time in a quite non-political manner without anyone taking charge of describing a potential public debate. Still, the transition from main news to other parts of the newspaper indicates that this may have shifted, which is clearer seen when analyzing the headlines.
7.1.1. 1995-2003: Short Articles with Overview Perspective
From 1995 to 2003 all articles published had headlines focusing on the CCTVs themselves or crime reduction in the subway system. All these articles are also quite short and focusing on the
29 problem from a societal overview perspective, typically signs of a non-political discourse before Securitization.
7.1.2. 2003-2005: Longer Articles with Several Perspectives
The coming three years several articles were published focusing on the feeling of safety, threats in the subway and sexual assaults. These articles are longer than before and highlights people’s views and feelings of insecurity. Even though they are still news articles, their headlines and format suggest that they are more focused on the public feelings and debate around safety in the subway system. This is typical for the second phase of Securitization; more views are ventilated and opinions are put against each other. It is therefore also natural that during this period SL themselves publish a commercial focusing on the views the commuters have on the public transport system.
7.1.3. 2005-2015: Bureaucratic Medium-long Articles
In the end of the period some articles focusing more on the effectiveness and flaws of the cameras are published. A breaking point between the second and the third tendency is seen in the article published the 3rd of August 2005. In the headline of the front page, it is said that
“CCTV cameras do not work against crime”, focusing on the effectiveness of the technique.
However, the longer article on the subject within the newspaper states that “Camera error found at several commuter trains – Rapist could have been identified – If SL’s system had worked”.
This headline contains both an emotional part explaining that a rapist could have been identified and a part blaming it on technological errors in the CCTVs. This focus on the technical and bureaucratic aspects of the technique rather than the opinions is typical for a debate that becomes more securitized. To really grasp the how the articles have changed during the time period the next subsection will analyze the text of each publication.
7.2. Text Analysis
When analyzing the vocabulary used in the 20 texts there are some patterns that can be identified. Appendix Table 1 summarizes the two aspects of the vocabulary as described in the Methodology section. By analyzing the table, there are clear signs of securitization that will be described below.
30 7.2.1. 1995-1999: CCTV Tradeoff
In 1997, when the articles start off, the value connotations in the text are describing a conflict between the need to increase safety and the severe intrusion of personal integrity following increased CCTV surveillance. It is brought up together with information about sabotage in the subway and risk for threats. In the two other news articles published in the 90s, the authors continue to bring up CCTV in a setting of preventing crime and sabotage. By asking how much crime one can accept the author displays a conflict between accepting a level of crime and increased surveillance mechanisms. Already here, it is evident that the political dimension of CCTV surveillance exists, but this will become even clearer in the years to come.
7.2.2. 2000-2005: Articles with Emotions
In the early 2000s, most articles published on the subject are bringing up emotional aspects of the insecurity. Cervin’s article, published on the same page as Andersson’s article in 2000, describes how “creepy tunnels” and “dark forests” increased the feeling of insecurity. Both articles present later that this insecurity increases a need for technical resources and crime prevention. This focus on experienced insecurity and the need for surveillance continue in the following articles highlighting that “Stockholm is not a safe city” and that cameras enhances security in the subway (Axelsson, 2003). Even SL itself publishes the same opinions in their commercial in 2004 about “Stockholmers’ views of SL”. Even though the integrity aspect is discussed in the article from Wendt in 2004, video surveillance is described as “anticipated by travelers” without referring to any study stating that fact.
7.2.3. 2005-2008: CCTV as an Optimization Problem
The general focus on insecurity is from 2005 shifting towards prevention of specific crimes such as travelers not paying for tickets, sexual assault and rape. A reoccurring feature of the articles is the clear assumption that CCTV can provide valuable evidence for solving these crimes. Cameras are described as a system that must work, a way to secure evidence or reduce violence, and a way of facilitating non-stop subway opening hours. By describing CCTV as an optimization problem, that they are a great solution that just must be adjusted perfectly to work as planned, and not focusing on the problem of crime or the feelings of the people, the discourse has become securitized. This securitized discourse is consolidated in the coming years.
31 7.2.4. 2008-2015: Stop the Critique and Move on
Arguably the most obvious securitized article investigated is the two-page business article about the firm Axis Communication in 2008. As part of an article series about “hopes for the future”
of Swedish technological innovation, Axis Communication’s main product CCTV cameras are described as “of course” both advanced and appealing. The article contains no arguments against CCTV and is mostly praising the company’s stock market share and business records (Augustsson, 2008). One year later, a short notice is published about Axis Communication winning a design award for their CCTV cameras. Written in a congratulatory way, the author explains that “the price should be extra fulfilling [for Axis Communication] since the cameras are made to be seen as little as possible” (Anon.b, 2009). By highlighting the business aspect of CCTV surveillance in a non-critical manner, the technique that once was connected to emotions, discussion about personal integrity and crime has now transformed to just another innovation and is therefore securitized.
A possible contradiction of the securitization was the cultural debate article published by Wigorts Yngvesson in 2008. It describes the so-called Surveillance Society and says that the usage of large-scale CCTV surveillance is both frightening and fostering. Also, it argues that elemental parts of human relationships will change as a consequence of the Surveillance Society. This article brings back an element of debate to the issue of CCTV which would make the issue less securitized. However, the main premise of the article is that the surveillance society is already existing, not that it is something new. The author argues that the society must learn how to deal with the consequences of the surveillance, not that it is possible to remove it.
Therefore, this article further proves that the discourse has been securitized at the time since it rather focuses on how to bureaucratically and personally deal with the new surveillance society than argues that it should be abandoned.
7.3. Sociopolitical Analysis
Almost all scrutinized articles in this paper discuss CCTV cameras in the subway system of Stockholm in the light of one or many safety problems. This reoccurring theme of safety problems is summarized in Appendix Table 2 and is in this section discussed in four subsections with slightly overlapping time periods.
32 7.3.1. 1995-1999: Specified Problems with a Tradeoff
As described in the Context and Scientific State sections, the investigated time period starts of without CCTV presence at subway stations nor subway trains. Nevertheless, the first article from 1997 describes how during 1998 all subway trains will be equipped with CCTV cameras (Nord, 1997). The main reason for this is a perceived problem with sabotage of parts of the wagons. Later, in the articles from 1998 and 1999, other specific safety problems are highlighted.
First, problems with suicide in the subway are discussed by Suneson and in the second article Martinez reports about measures to prevent doodling of the subway wagons. In both articles, CCTV cameras are described as one part of the solution to the problem. Worth noting though, is that only Nord’s article in 1997 also discusses the arguable tradeoff with personal integrity that CCTV can be regarded as. These articles indicate that the discourse surrounding CCTV in the subway system in the end of the 90s was quite problem oriented. Specific problems
related to safety in the subway were treated with technical solutions such as CCTV. There was a political dimension to it, with a tradeoff between personal integrity and increased surveillance, but it was concrete and addressed to the reader. This would soon change.
7.3.2. 2000-2007: General Sense of Insecurity
An interesting pattern regarding the theme of safety problems is first seen in 2000. In the article by Cervin, about scientists that criticize the effectiveness of technical solutions from crime prevention, the safety problem in the subway is never defined. It is crimes in general that CCTV, or other technical solutions, are described to fail to combat rather than any specified crime. In the second, shorter article on the subject that day, by Andersson, the crimes are still not defined but instead the author describes how some people are out to prevent crime in the subway.
The trend continues in 2003 when Axelsson writes the article “Stockholmers often unsafe”. In the article it is highlighted that 23% of Stockholmers do not feel safe at night. Axelsson recognizes that the main problem is not the actual crime rate but the feeling of insecurity that is present for several Stockholmers. Interestingly, the following article published on the same page, by Berglund, interviews Connex, the company in charge of operating the subway, that describes how they disagree with the notion that the environment would be unsafe. Instead,
33 they explain how there are few criminal reports and that they work to improve both the
security and safety. Thus, Connex is described to agree with the perception of increased crime but not that the actual crime rate in the subway system has risen.
In 2004, SL raises several insecurity problems in their commercial “Stockholmers’ view of SL” (SL, 2004). 120 different anonymous comments, said to be by random Stockholmers, are published with feedback about SL. Among others, problems with safety, security, cleanness, doodles, and lack of CCTV are part of the publication without any of them dominating.
Accompanying the comments there is a text explaining that the new CEO will be forming SL to a company that “the region can feel proud about” with “your opinions as foundation” (SL, 2004). From this comment, it is evident that SL does not highlight any specific problem as extra important.
Continuing the general problem description, both the article from Wendt in 2004 and the short notice from the not specified author in 2005, tell how CCTV make the subway safer and catch general crime. Both articles are positive about the role of CCTV but do not specify which crime that the cameras will prevent. Wendt writes that CCTV at the subway stations is
“anticipated by travelers” and interviews five citizens that are all positive about increased surveillance at the stations (Wendt, 2004). They describe a feeling of unsafety but never defines the threat. On the other hand, the short notice describes that the cameras in the wagons have filmed 195 crimes the last year. Still though, as with the articles from Anander in 2006 and Balksjö in 2007, the type of crime is not defined.
By not defining the crimes the authors let the readers themselves specify the crimes that the CCTV were thought to prevent. Mostly focusing on the feeling of increased criminal activity, rather than the specific crimes committed or the actual crime rate, the articles contributed to a diffuse, general feeling of insecurity. Compared to the specific problems seen in the articles the decade before, this marks a shift in the discourse. The debate become driven by general feelings rather than by specific issues and thus political in a broader sense. This transition is in line with The Banality of Security, described in the Scientific State, in the sense that the general public care more about emotional safety than actual results. Additionally, it can be interpreted as a step towards Securitization since the discourse changes form and becomes more sensitive and emotionally driven.
34 Additionally, an interesting observation of all articles is that despite Priks’ description of how fire safety was a main driving force for the implementation of CCTV cameras at the stations in 2006, none of the 20 articles mention fire safety. This also implies the previously described idea that the emotionally driven discourse is not necessarily connected to the results of the measures nor the actual driving forces of the company behind the implementation of the CCTVs.
7.3.3. 2006-2012: Specific Serious Offense
There are still some articles published in the new millennium that discuss specific crimes.
Careborg’s article in 2005 about Connex’s so called spies looking for travelers not paying their tickets, Nilsson’s 2006 article about violence and fights in the public space, both Krantz’s and Härdmark’s two articles about sexual assaults in 2005 and 2006, and
Nordensson’s article about a severe robbery in 2012 are examples of this. Interestingly, only the first of these specified crimes are to be described as “public disorder” contrasting what Uittenbogaard and Ceccato concluded as 80% of the crimes in the subway system. The other four articles highlight serious offense that took place in the subway system.
Compared to the articles from 1995 to 1999, the articles specifying crimes this time are discussing either specific cases of serious felonies or violence in specific public places.
Including rape, sexual assault, robbery and violence, these crimes are incredibly serious and controversial to their nature. Also, these articles pick up individual horror stories and are therefore even more emotional. To exemplify, Krantz describes a rape that is said to could have been detected if the cameras had worked which is likely to evoke strong feelings for the reader that this is a problem to fix. These examples are similar to Welsh’s and Farington’s description of the events following the murder of the three-year-old James Bulgar described in the Scientific State. These specific stories of severe crime are probable to invoke a more feeling-based response to the readers than the articles specifying doodling or wagon sabotage in the 90s. Therefore, these articles are in line with the earlier described new discourse of a more feeling-driven public discussion in the second step towards Securitization.
35 7.3.4. 2008-2009: Forget the Problem – Here is what to do about it
Finally, there are three articles that contribute to a shift in the public discourse from an emotion-driven controversial discourse to a less controversial securitized one. The two evident examples are Augustsson’s long article about Axis Communication in 2008 and the short notice without author about the CCTV design award in 2009. At the time, all subway stations had several CCTV installed and Axis Communication was the main supplier of the equipment. Even though, as displayed in the Context section, crime rate per capita in the Stockholm region was rapidly increasing, no critical questions were asked to Axis Communication. Instead, they were described in strictly positive terms contributing to innovation and increased stock market shares. The articles exclude any formulation of what problem that the company is aiming to solve, not even mentioning a feeling of insecurity, and only focus on their technical solutions. By just showcasing the commercially positive aspects of CCTV, the former problem-driven and then emotionally driven discourse has transformed to a non-controversial, technical discussion and therefore clearly securitized.
The third article marking the shift towards Securitization is the cultural debate by Wigorts Yngvesson in 2008. Even though the publication is written to influence others, Wigorts Yngvesson’s article is not contradicting the shift towards Securitization. She uses CCTV surveillance in the subway as an example of surveillance that is socially accepted compared to the new controversial FRA law, a law allowing a Swedish authority to secretly surveil the citizens to prevent terrorism. To her, there are already enough forms of surveillance that living in a surveilled society is inevitable and citizens should instead focus on figuring out how to deal with that type of society. This acceptance of the once controversial technique is another sign that that the public discourse has changed and now sees CCTV as a securitized topic.
7.4. Concluding Analysis
The findings from each separate analysis aspect are summarized in table 5. When analyzing the time periods in table 5, the discourse development of CCTV in the Stockholm subway system follows a pattern. It starts off from an overview perspective, describing technical aspects of CCTV and highlighting the political tradeoff between increased surveillance and reduced integrity. Interpreting this as the nonpolitical period of securitization described by Buzan, Wæver and de Wilde would be incorrect since there is a described political conflict.
36 Table 5
The Enhanced Model of Securitization
Securitization level
Discourse Practice Analysis
Text Analysis Sociopolitical Analysis
Politically Non- Controversial
1997-2003 1997-1999 1997-1999
Technical headlines, short articles
Political tradeoff highlighted
Specified problems seen from an
overview perspective
Politically Controversial
2003-2005 2000-2004 2000-2007
Headlines focused on safety, longer articles
More emotional wording in the articles
General sense of insecurity 2006-2012
Problems related to specific serious offense
Securitized
2005-2012 2005-2007 2008-2009More bureaucratic headlines, medium- long articles
CCTV described as an optimization problem
No focus on the problem that CCTV aims to solve.
Instead focus on business and societal consequences
2008-2012
Either non-critical language or
accepting the CCTV
Summarizing how Fairclough’s Critical Discourse Analysis is used in this paper to divide the discourse’s Securitization level according to the three steps of Securitization described by
Buzan, Wæver and de Wilde in the Theory section.
However, the political discussion is technical and quite non-emotional. Some focus is on personal integrity, but this debate is described without any particularly strong sentiments.
Therefore, a more adequate way of describing this period would be to call it the Politically Non-Controversial discourse period.
37 In the early 2000s, the discourse becomes more related to emotions and on a general sense of insecurity in the public. Consequently, the articles contain more expressive words and they become both more frequent and longer. The crimes that are described are both seen as serious offense and described in a more personal manner. Even though the articles do not become more political in the sense that more politicians are heard, the tone and content of the articles become more sensitive. Thus, this period of the discourse is rather named the Politically Controversial discourse period than just the political period.
Finally, the discourse evolves around 2005 into a discussion less focused on the problems that CCTV is there to solve and more on what effects it brings. Both the content and the style of writing focuses on the consequences of CCTV, either as a way of innovation and growth or as a new state that society must accept and learn to deal with. This new period of the discourse shares the main traits of Securitization, that the discourse should lose its political dimension and become technical or bureaucratic. By not mentioning the insecurity problems, that as seen in the context figure 2 still exists, and treating CCTV as just another technical tool, the issue of CCTV has lost its political dimension and is clearly securitized.
It is worth noting that the time periods are sometimes overlapping and not consistent in all three analyses. Naturally, analyzing three different aspects of a set of articles is probable to render differences in the result. However, the important takeaway is the overall trend in the Securitization levels and not the exact years. It is also probable that the development of Securitization fluctuates in its development and therefore not problematic that there are articles defined as Politically Controversial in the Sociopolitical Analysis that were published after the Securitized Articles. By using a larger set of articles, perhaps from more newspapers, these differences would probably be reduced since the outliers would lose importance.
