Volition and Environmental Assessment in Swedish
Municipal Energy Plans
Jenny Ivner* and Olof Hjelm Linköping University
Department for Management and Engineering
Division of Environmental Technology and Management SE58183 Linköping Sweden *Corresponding Author. Email: jenny.ivner@liu.se Telephone: +46 13 28 27 54 Fax: +46 13 28 11 01
Abstract
There are several policy instruments for managing energy systems at the local level, for municipal energy planning, which is a means for local authorities to manage the local energy system. This article analyses the municipal Energy Planning which has been required by Swedish law since 1997. Recent energy plans are compared with earlier plans. The aim is to see if recent energy plans are different and if the observed
differences can be explained by the impact of external factors, for example other policy instruments.
The results show that the both the scope of expressed volition and environmental assessments have changed substantially between the two sets of energy plans studied. Newer energy plans include more goals for transports and information, but fewer goals for environmental aspects. Environmental assessments are more commonly occurring in the newer plans, but focus to large extent on emissions of carbon dioxide and climate change. It is concluded that these differences can largely be explained by a rather weak legislation, which allows external factors to influence the energy planning process. It is further concluded that it is important to include environmental assessments in the energy planning process to avoid problem shifting. Such assessments must include more
Introduction
Issues regarding the energy system have, since the energy crises in the 1970s, been of major interest among policy makers. Within the European Union the local level has been highlighted as important in the transition towards a more sustainable energy system; more efficient and based on renewable energy resources (European Commission, 2000, 2006, 2008). There are several policy instruments for managing energy systems at the local level, for example community energy management or municipal energy planning. These are means for local authorities to apply a holistic approach for the local energy system. This study analyses the Swedish national tool Municipal Energy Planning which has been required by Swedish law since 1977 (SFS 1977:439). According to the Act on Municipal Energy Planning, each municipality shall have an energy plan for supply, distribution and use of energy. The law has been revised several times as energy and environmental policies changed; from focus on oil reduction in the early 1980s towards environmentally adapted energy systems in the 1990s. The latest revision in 2004 meant that a
requirement for environmental assessment was added if the plan is regarded to have a significant impact on the environment. The act is however rather vague in its
requirements and several local authorities have chosen not to keep an up-to-date energy plan (Swedish Energy Agency, 2002, 2006). Also, earlier studies on Swedish municipal energy planning indicated that the energy plans adopted in the late 1990s have narrow scopes (Stenlund, 2006). In addition, studies of Swedish energy plans adopted between 1979 and 1999 showed that environmental assessments were rudimentary and often missing (Stenlund Nilsson and Tyskeng, 2003).
This paper analyses recent energy plans and compares the contents with earlier plans. The aim is to see if recent energy plans are different and if the observed differences can be explained by the impact of external factors, for example other policy instruments. Since the late 1990s, there have been two large Swedish national programmes providing funding to promote transition of the local energy system towards sustainability, first Local Investment Programmes, LIP (SFS 1998:23). The second programme was directed especially at reducing climate impact from the energy and transport sectors and was called the Climate Investment Programme, Klimp (SFS 2003:262).Between 2003 and 2008, 126 different projects with nearly 900 measures at the local and regional levels received funding from the Swedish state within the Klimp-programme.
There has also been a recent increase in awareness about potential threats from climate changes that directly affect local authorities. For example a number of heavy storms have recently exposed the vulnerabilities in the energy supply systems. Both the potential threats from increasing climate change and the potential funding from investment
programmes are strong incentives for local governments to work with energy issues. It is therefore of interest to see if these incentives have induced a change in municipal energy planning and what types of changes having occurred.
Methods
Earlier studies by Stenlund (2006) and Stenlund-Nilsson and Tyskeng (Stenlund Nilsson and Tyskeng, 2003) were used to compare the scope in older energy plans with recent plans. In Stenlund (2006), expressed volition, e.g. desires and ambitions, in the energy plans were analysed. Stenlund-Nilsson and Tyskeng (Stenlund Nilsson and Tyskeng, 2003) included a study of environmental analyses and assessments in five energy plans adopted from1992-1999.
In this study energy plans from different municipalities were reviewed in terms of stated goals, measures and strategies as well as environmental analyses and assessments. The energy plans were adopted between 2006 and 2008, to make sure that they were produced during similar political conditions. The authors also tried to select plans that represented average Swedish municipalities in terms of size (average in Sweden is 30,000
inhabitants) and classifications according to the Swedish Association of Local Authorities and Regions, SALAR (1997; 2006). Also representation from different Swedish regions was sought to mirror the large differences in e.g. climate between the northern and southern parts of the country. Energy plans were analysed until no new issues turned up during the analyses; all relevant information that was found in the last studied energy plan had been found in at least one energy plan earlier in the analysis. In all, eight energy plans adopted between 2006 and 2008 were analysed, Table 1.
Table 1. Characteristics of the studied municipalities, classifications according to the Swedish Assosiation of Local Authorities and Regions (1997; 2006), and whether they applied for or received funding from investment programmes (LIP= local investment programme; Klimp = climate investment programme) .
Municipality Plan adopted Number of citizens Region Classification according to SALAR Old classification according to SALAR Investment programmes
Alvesta 2007 18,800 South Goods
producing Other large municipalities Received LIP Part of regional Klimp
Boxholm 2008 5,200 East Commute
municipalities
Industrial municipality
Applied for Klimp
Norberg 2007 5,800 Mid Commute
municipalities Industrial municipality No info Kramfors 2006 19,700 North Other municipalities 12500-25000 Other large municipalities Applied for Klimp Härnösand 2006 24,900 North Other municipalities over 25000
Mid-sized towns Received LIP
Alingsås 2006 36,700 West Other municipalities over 25000 Mid-sized towns Received LIP Applied for Klimp Hudiksvall 2007 37,000 Mid Other municipalities over 25000 Mid-sized towns Received LIP Applied for Klimp
Analysis of Changes in Expressed Volition
To set a similar frame of reference as in the earlier study (Stenlund, 2006) when analysing the scope, it was decided that expressed volition represents the scope of the energy plan. As in the earlier study, volition was defined as goals, measures and strategies in the energy plans. All goals, measures and strategies that were identified in each energy plan were then categorised within the following categories (the same as were used as in the previous study by Stenlund (2006)):
• Plant related issues • Transports • Energy conservation • Energy carriers • Environment • Information • Education • Other
The occurrence of all goals, measures or strategies in each energy plan was indicated in large tables under each category. The average number of plans that included different kinds of volition was then calculated and compared to the seven energy plans adopted between 1995 and 1998 (Stenlund, 2006). Also a short qualitative analysis of the
differences of goals, measures and strategies in the two sets of energy plans was made.
Analysis of Changes of Environmental Analyses and
Assessments
As for expressed volition, the energy plans adopted between 2006 and 2008 were analysed with the same methods as in an earlier study (Stenlund Nilsson and Tyskeng, 2003). All energy plans were compared to a questionnaire aimed to map how
environmental pressures and impacts are described and analysed in the energy plans and how they relate to energy. The questionnaire included questions like “How is the energy sectors relation to global environmental effects described?” Identified contents in the energy plans were graded in three levels: no description, some description, and thorough description. The distinction between some description and thorough description was whether the issue is only mentioned in one or a few sentences or if a) the issue is described more in depth, b) its implications are analysed or c) the issue is related to the conditions in the specific municipality. If there were uncertainties on which level to choose, the higher grade was chosen. The findings were then compared to the scope of environmental analyses and assessments in five energy plans adopted between 1992 and 1999. Additionally a short qualitative analysis of the differences between the two sets of energy plans was made.
Extended Study of Volition and Environmental Assessments in
Recent Energy Plans
It was found in the analysis of expressed volition that there were significant differences between the two sets of energy plans. Also a new variety of goals was found in the energy plans from 2006-2008, which led to many goals being placed in the “Other” category. It was therefore interesting to expand the analysis of the energy plans adopted from 2006-2008. In order to gain a deeper understanding of the scope of recent energy plans, the categories for analysis were altered to better mirror the range of expressed volition. All goals, actions and strategies were divided into five new main categories and each category was in turn divided into groups and sub-groups depending on the nature of the goals, Table 2.
Table 2. Categories, groups and sub-groups used for in depth analysis of volition in energy plans adopted 2006-2008.
Category Group Sub-group
Planning
Administrative measures Purchasing
Municipality owned companies Follow-up
Authority assignments
Education Lobbying
Communication and good will Cooperation projects
Measures for the local authority
External relations
Information and education Energy use in buildings
Private estates
Maintenance Buildings
Municipality owned
buildings Energy efficiency
Energy use
Plant development District heating Energy carriers The local energy system
Energy supply
Security issues Emissions
Environment and resources
Use of resources Industry
Fuels and vehicles Improved infrastructure Industry and Transports
Behavioural change
Also environmental analyses and assessments in more recent energy plans were subject for expanded analyses. There was however no need to rearrange the material. Instead a qualitative approach was used to more thoroughly describe how the energy plans relate to environmental issues.
Results
The results presented below provide information about changes in the scope, in terms of expressed volition and environmental analyses and assessments, in energy plans. The analysis of the results provides empirical evidence for how different surrounding factors may affect municipal energy planning.
Comparison of Expressed Volition 1995-1998 and 2006-2008
There are some general differences in the presence of goals, measures and strategies in the two sets of energy plans. First, there are more goals in the newer plans and these goals are mainly within the power of the local authorities. There is also a difference in distribution, Figure 1. The most obvious difference in distribution is that the amount of goals for transportation and in the “other”-category are twice as many in the energy plans adopted between 2006 and 2008 than those adopted between 1995 and 1998. The
“other”-category consisted to large extent of goals for information and educational
efforts. One category of goals has fewer goals in the newer plans, goals for environmental issues, for example reduced emissions.
Expressed volition in energy plans
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 Pl a n t re la te d Tr a n s p o rts En e rg y co n se rva ti o n En e rg y ca rri e rs E nv ir on m ent Oh te r Av er ag e N o 1995-1998 2006-2008
Figure 1. Distribution of goals, measures and strategies in seven energy plans adopted between 1995 and 1998 and eight energy plans adopted between 2006 and 2008. This figure displays the average number of different goals, actions and strategies stated in each set of energy plans.
There are also some differences within each category of goals. For plant related issues the largest difference is that there are more goals for the energy system as a whole (average 4.9 compared to 2.1) and goals for building energy systems (2.4 compared to 1.7) in the newer energy plans. There is also a large increase in goals and strategies for planning issues. Planning was mentioned in the older plans, but is more pronounced in the newer. One example is to facilitate new energy production by pointing out areas of interest for biomass extraction or wind power establishment in spatial plans.
Also when it comes to goals for transportation, are there more goals in the newer plans (3.9 compared to 2.1). The largest difference is that there are more goals at a large
systems level, for example overall changes in transport systems. There are also new kinds of goals occurring in the newer energy plans, i.e. administrative measures like education in eco-driving and to produce transport plans.
Goals for energy conservation show a different trend than the two categories mentioned above: newer plans include goals on a more detailed technical level (average 2.3
compared to 3.8). The goals for saving energy often point out technical solutions to save energy in buildings owned by the municipality. Measures for follow-ups are also more common in the newer energy plans.
In common for the newer energy plans is that there is a pronounced wish for the local authority to take an active role in the transition towards more renewable energy carriers, which cannot be seen in the older. This trend is even more obvious for information and education (in the “other”-category), where the average number of goals has doubled, as mentioned above.
There are significantly fewer goals for environmental issues in the newer plans. One (12,5%) of the never plans include goals for reduced emissions of other substances than carbon dioxide in comparison to 71% of plans that include goals for reduced NOx and SO2 among the older. Furthermore, 86% of the older plans include goals to reduce impact from resource extraction, while 38% of the newer do so.
Environmental Assessments and Analyses 1992-1999 and
2006-2008
Earlier studies by Stenlund Nilsson and Tyskeng (2003) concluded that environmental issues were only occasionally included in the studied energy plans from 1992-1999. As shown in Figures 2 a-c, the energy plans adopted between 2006 and 2008 generally have a broader scope of environmental analyses and assessments and also refer to
environmental goals to a greater extent. In common for both the older and newer plans are descriptions of local and regional conditions for, and effects of, energy resource extraction. Descriptions are however more common in the plans adopted between 2006 and 2008.
When it comes to environmental effects from energy related emissions the focus is different in the two groups of energy plans, Figure 2 b. Most plans adopted between 1995 and 1998 include brief descriptions of local effects, such as air quality. The plans adopted between 2006 and 2008, on the other hand, relate to global effects of energy related issues and some of them to local and regional effects.
2 a. Relates to environmental goals 0% 25% 50% 75% 100% 1992- 1999 2006- 2008 1992- 1999 2006- 2008 1992- 1999 2006- 2008 1992- 1999 2006- 2008 Inter-national
National Regional Local
Level
No Some Much
2 b. Describes energy related environmental effects 0% 25% 50% 75% 100% 1992-1999 2006-2008 1992-1999 2006-2008 1992-1999 2006-2008 Global Regional Local
Level
No Some Much
2 c. Describes effects from energy resource extraction 0% 25% 50% 75% 100% 1992-1999 2006-2008 1992-1999 2006-2008 1992-1999 2006-2008 Global Regional Local
Le v e l
No Some Much
Figure 2. To what extent the studied energy plans refer to environmental issues. This figure shows the share of plans that include no, some or thorough descriptions of the issues. “Some” description means that the issue is mentioned or described very shortly. “Much” means that the issue is described more in depth or includes an analysis of the issue. The figure refers to five energy plans adopted 1992-1999 and eight plans adopted 2006-2008.
Volition and Environmental Analyses and Assessments in
Energy Plans Adopted between 2006 and 2008
This section presents a deeper analysis of expressed volition as well as environmental analyses and assessments in the energy plans adopted between 2006 and 2008.
Expressed Volition
As mentioned before the more recent energy plans included a larger number of different goals, measures and strategies than the older energy plans. The most common were goals for the local authorities’ own activities, such as planning, exercise of authority and administration, Figure 3. More specific information about goals, measures and strategies within each category is presented in the following section.
Figure 3. Distribution of goals, measures and strategies in the eight studied energy plans. The numbers in the figure represent the sum of all different goals stated the plans for each category.
Goals and Measures for the Local Authority
As seen in Figure 3, there are many goals for the local authority in the studied energy plans. Figures 4 a-c give more detailed information of the distribution of occurring goals, measures and strategies in this category.
Goals for the local authority
Distribution of goals in energy plans adopted 2006-2008 [n=8]
Buildings 40 Environment 5 Energy system 36 80 70 Industry 185 79 Transports 24 Planning 61 External relations Authority assignments
Goals for the local authority
4 a. Goals for planning activities 0,0% 25,0% 50,0% 75,0% 100,0% Ov e r a ll R e s our c e ex tr ac ti on Res ide nt ial a reas Tr a n s p o rt s In cl u d ed in p lan s [ n = 8 ]
4 b. Goals for external relations
0,0% 25,0% 50,0% 75,0% 100,0% Lobby ing C omm uni c at ion & good w ill C ooper at ion pr oj ec ts Inf or m at ion & educ ati on In cl u d ed in p lan s [ n = 8 ]
4 c. Goals for excercise of authority and administration
0,0% 25,0% 50,0% 75,0% 100,0% E x c er c is e of au tho ri ty A dm ini s tr a ti on Pu rc h a s in g M u ni c ipal c o m p ani es Fo llo w -u p E d uc at io n T ran s p or ts Inc lu de d in pla ns [ n = 8 ]
Figures 4 a-c. Distribution of goals, measures and strategies for the local authority occurring in the eight studied energy plans. Each bar presents the share of plans that include goals within the group.
As pictured in Figure 4 a, all plans included goals and measures for overall planning. Such goals are primarily concerned with energy issues being included in comprehensive planning. Goals for resource extraction regard utilization of biomass and land areas suitable for wind energy. When it comes to planning for residential areas, goals concern localization in respect to district heating, local climate and communication. Four energy plans also state that there is a need for separate transportation planning in order to reduce energy use for transports.
All energy plans include goals, actions or strategies for external relations, Figure 4 b. The most frequently occurring are goals for advisory services towards the public, private enterprises and industries. Several plans include strategies and policies regarding specific local issues that are not within the power of the local authority but that there is a desire to lobby for. Examples of such issues are new wind power within the municipal territory or improved public transportation. Additionally, goals to serve as role model for energy efficiency and use of renewable energy are commonly occurring.
All the studied energy plans include some kind of goals for exercise of authority and administrative measures, Figure 4 c. Examples of goals for exercising authority are to include requirements for energy efficiency in building permission procedures and restrictions of small scale solid fuel combustion. Administrative measures include organisation or employment of persons especially assigned to work with energy issues and different kinds of investigations/assessments of local character. All plans include goals for environmentally adapted purchasing, for example energy efficient equipment. Also goals for improving environmental performance and efficiency of municipal transports are brought up in all eight energy plans.
Four plans (50%) bring forward goals for municipality owned companies and 75% include goals for educating staff on energy and environmental issues. Measures for follow-ups of internal energy use and the implementation of the energy plans are present in 64% of the plans.
Other Goals in Energy Plans Adopted between 2006 and 2008
Of all goals, actions and strategies 53 % are not directly aimed at the local authorities’ own organisation. The distribution of goals in other categories is presented in Figures 5 a-d. For buildings, e.g. Figure 5 a, most plans include general goals for reduced energy use and conversion from oil and electricity for heating. All plans include more specific goals for energy efficiency in public buildings. Means to improve energy efficiency are
maintenance, energy efficient appliances and HVAC. Thereafter, 50% of the plans include goals for heating systems in private estates.
Goals for energy supply and use are present in all plans, Figure 5 b. All plans also include statements about using renewable and efficient energy carriers, for example using
electricity for electricity specific purposes and district heating for heating purposes. Of the plans, 63% include goals for an overall reduction of energy use. Energy supply issues are dominated by goals for expanded district heating grids and possible new energy utilisation, for example incineration plants, windmills and utilisation of biomass.
Furthermore, 88% include measures for supply security with more robust systems, larger share of local electricity generation or mobile generators that can be used during crises. All the analysed energy plans also include goals for reduced environmental impact from the energy system, Figure 5 c. The most commonly occurring are goals for reduced carbon dioxide emissions (in 88%). One plan (13%) state goals for reduced emissions of other pollutants, i.e. sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides and ozone. General goals for an environmentally adapted energy system are found in 63% of the plans; 50% include more specific goals for resource efficiency and use of local energy resources.
5 a. Goals for the building sector 0,0% 25,0% 50,0% 75,0% 100,0% Use Priva te Publi c Mai ntenanc e Effic ienc y in In cl u d e d i n p lan s [ n = 8]
5 b. Goals for the energy system
0,0% 25,0% 50,0% 75,0% 100,0% Ener gy u se Sup ply Plants Dist rict heat ing Res ource s Secu rity In clu d ed i n p lan s [ n = 8 ]
5 c. Goals for environmental impact
0,0% 25,0% 50,0% 75,0% 100,0% Adapted energy system Emissions Use of resources In cl u d ed in p lan s [ n = 8]
5 d. Goals for industry and transports
0,0% 25,0% 50,0% 75,0% 100,0% E ff ici e n cy i n indus tr y T rans por ts F uel s & v ehi c les Impr ov ed in fr as tr uc tu re B ehav iour al c hange In clu d ed i n p lan s [ n = 8 ]
Figure 5 a-d. Distribution of goals, measures and strategies for issues other than assigments for the local authority. Each bar presents the share of plans that include goals within the group. (Number of plans = 8).
Two energy plans (25%) include goals for improved energy efficiency in local industry, Figure 5 d. All plans include goals for the transport sector. Goals for fuels and vehicles, infrastructure, behaviour changes and administrative measures are represented in 75% of the plans respectively. The first group is dominated by goals for alternative fuels in public transport and more efficient vehicles. Goals for improved infrastructure regard, for example, better accessibility to public transportation, renewable fuels and to facilitate for bikes and pedestrians. Behavioural changes include reducing personal vehicle transport and an increased use of public transport.
Environmental Analyses and Assessments
All the studied energy plans include some kind of environmental analysis or assessment but the extent varies widely, Figures 6 a-f. Almost all energy plans relate to national, regional and local environmental goals and claim that these have been important in the work with the energy plan. The extent of reference to environmental goals is presented in Figure 6 a. There is a focus on national, regional and local environmental goals.
International goals for reduced environmental impacts, such as the Kyoto Protocol, are mentioned in only two plans (25%).
All the studied energy plans describe energy related environmental effects on the global scale, Figure 6 b. The most commonly described is carbon dioxide as a greenhouse gas. Several plans also refer to other greenhouse gases, such as methane. A couple of plans also include very thorough descriptions of energy related emissions and their impacts on nature at the local and regional levels. They refer to acidification and eutrophication as results from, for example, emissions of sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides. Several plans mention emissions and environmental impacts, but do not connect them to each other.
Conditions for resource extraction are principally focused on the local level where possibilities to utilise biomass and wind power are described. Potential environmental effects from extraction of energy resources are mentioned in 75% of the studied energy plans, Figure 6 d. One plan includes a more comprehensive analysis of the possible effects of energy resource extraction.
6 a. Relates to environmental goals 0% 25% 50% 75% 100% Inter national Nat ional Reg ional Local Level N u m b er o f p lan s [ n = 8] No Some Much
6 b. Describes energy related pressure 0% 25% 50% 75% 100%
Global Regional Local
Level N u m b er o f p lan s [ n = 8] No Some Much
6 c. Describes energy related environmental effects 0% 25% 50% 75% 100%
Global Regional Local
Level N u m b er o f p lan s [ n = 8 ] No Some Much
6 d. Describes effects from energy resource extraction
0% 25% 50% 75% 100%
Global Regional Local
Level N u m b er o f p lan s [ n = 8] No Some Much
Figures 6 a-d. Environmental goals, analyses and assessments in energy plans energy plants adopted 2006-2008. Black means that the issue is thoroughly described or
analysed, grey means that it is mentioned and white means that the issue is not mentioned at all in the plan. Environmental pressure means, for example, emissions and rest
products that are likely to affect the environment. Environmental effects are, for example, climate change, acidification and eutrophication.
Concluding Discussion
As the results in the previous section reveal, the scope of expressed volition and
environmental assessments in energy plans have changed over time. This indicates that the Act on Municipal Energy Planning is open for interpretation and that it is possible to include issues that are important at the moment. This adaptive nature of the act has been criticised (Swedish National Audit Office, 1991). Based on our findings of changing scope, it is important to realise the risk that energy planning becomes ad hoc. Instead of being a strategic plan for a sustainable local energy system, the work with the energy plan might become focused on what happens to be an issue at the moment. However, the lack of rigid structures and requirements also offer the local authorities the chance to adapt their action programmes towards issues that are currently important. This may make energy planning more useful and adaptive to the reality faced by the local authorities. The most pronounced differences in scope in the studied plans are that energy plans adopted from 2006-2008 include more goals for transportation and information than the energy plans from 1995-1998. In addition, these newer energy plans generally are more project-oriented and present measures that are ready to implement. The older plans include more general goals that express ambition rather than proposed projects. One explanation to this might be that six of the eight local authorities applied for Klimp-funding. The Klimp-programmes provided co-funding for investments to reduce climate impact and required prepared project proposals with predefined projects. Energy plans could be used to legitimise the application, to be able to show that the proposed projects were part of a larger plan or strategy.
Other important differences between recent and older plans regard environmental analyses and assessments. Recent plans include more environmental analyses and assessments; which very well reflect the addition of a requirement of environmental assessment in the Act of Municipal Energy Planning in 2004. However looking into detail to these assessments there is a troublesome focus on emission of carbon dioxide. There is also a weak connection between the proposed actions and the environmental effects. Even though all but one of the studied energy plans from 2006-2008 describe and relate to different kinds of environmental quality goals, such as “Clean air” or
“Sustainable forests,” only a few state goals for emissions of other substances than carbon dioxide. At the same time, all these energy plans include goals and strategies for the increased use of renewable energy, for example biomass based incineration and utilisation of energy carriers. These results indicate that energy planning has, to a large extent, been affected by the current debate on climate change and the presence of the local investment programmes. The debate on climate change may have affected energy planning to focus on emissions of carbon dioxide and climate change at the cost of other environmental effects from energy use. The presence of local investment programmes, especially Klimp, may influenced the energy plans to be more project oriented and to include more thorough descriptions of effects on the climate than other environmental aspects.
One implication of environmental assessments limited to emissions of carbon dioxide is that environmental measures often have unintended and unforeseen side effects that can
(Raadschelders et al., 2003; Wrisberg and de Haes, 2002). The focus on reducing climate impacts by using more biomass therefore may lead to changing the problems rather than truly reducing them. Despite the fact that increased use of biofuels lead to reduced
consumption of fossil energy, the transition may lead to other implications; increased use of biomass for incineration may lead to more emissions of particles and volatile organic compounds. The extraction of biomass may also have severe effects on local ecosystems. This conflict between reduced climate impact and increased use of biomass has also been highlighted by the Swedish Environmental Objectives Council (2008). Therefore, when planning for the transition of local energy systems towards more biomass based energy sources, it is important to carefully assess the effects these transitions will have in order to reduce the risk of problem shifting.
To conclude this study has shown that the scope and environmental assessments have changed substantially between the two sets of energy plans studied. These differences can largely be explained by the rather weak legislation, which allows external factors to influence the energy planning process. Such influence can be both a strength and a weakness. It is also important to note that environmental assessments are included in the energy planning process but to avoid problem shifting, such assessments must include more environmental consequences than simply the emissions of carbon dioxide.
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