Social capital and employment for African immigrants in Sweden: Investment in social networks produces socio- economic returns

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Social capital and employment for African immigrants in Sweden:

Investment in social networks produces socio- economic returns

Master’s Programme in Social Work and Human Rights Degree report 30 higher education credit

Spring 2015

Author: Nyiiro Grace

Supervisor: Lena Sawyer

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Abstract

This study titled, Social capital and employment for African immigrants in Sweden aimed at analyzing East African immigrants’ understanding of the role of social capital towards employment of African immigrants in Gothenburg City.

The study was guided by these research questions. How is social capital understood among African immigrants living in Gothenburg City? What are the existing forms of social capital among East African immigrants in Gothenburg City? What is the understanding of East African immigrants on the kind of employment that African immigrants do in Gothenburg City? And what are the effects of social networks in relation to employment of East African immigrants in Gothenburg City?

An explorative and case study design was used following a qualitative approach.

Semi-structured structured interviews were used for information gathering and thematic analysis was employed to analyze the interviews.

The study found out that social capital was mainly found in social networks and three forms of social networks among African immigrants were dominant; social networks predominantly consisting of African immigrants who share similar socio-economic status, the second kind is where African immigrants connect with native Swedes and other immigrant groups who are perceived to be better or progressive in terms of employment and other social connections on the labour market and lastly one where African immigrants connect to social institutions that offer different services on the labour market.

The last two forms of social networks were said to be more desirable as they are both resource rich with unique resources that are not present in the African immigrants’

dominated networks.

The study further found that most African immigrants are highly represented in employment that requires less skills and expertise. This was said to result from the fact that many get job information from fellow African immigrants doing almost the same kind of work. It also came out clearly in the study that the lack of relevant training and the inability to speak the Swedish language was a major barrier to many African immigrants on the labor market.

Study findings further revealed that social capital results in socio-economic return.

There was a general consensus among the interviewed that most African immigrants get their first jobs through social connections and that social capital is viewed as an investment and a source of social security. It was also said to be a burden in some ways given the fact that it tends to lead to dependency on some progressive members in social networks hence constraining socio-economic success.

The study was anchored on Lin’s social resources theory which asserts that access to and use of social resources can lead to better social economic status.

Key Concepts: Social capital, Social networks, African immigrants and labour market

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Acknowledgements

I wish to acknowledge the generous collaboration between Gothenburg University (Sweden) and Makerere University (Uganda) for granting me the opportunity to study this Masters programme in Social Work and Human Rights. My sincere gratitude goes to the coordinators and administrators of the exchange programme here at Department of Social Work, Gothenburg University and at the Department of Social Work and Social Administration of Makerere University.

I acknowledge the priceless efforts of my professors in the course; Ing-Marie Johansson, Katarina Hollertz, Dietmar Rauch, Eyasu Gayim, Inger Kjellberg, Urban Herlitz, Ronny Tikkanen, Adrian Groglopo and the efforts of the student Administrator Viktoria Jendmyr for your services whenever needed. My interaction with you throughout the study process has positively impacted me in many ways.

I wish to express my deepest appreciation and gratitude to my research supervisor, Lena Sawyer for her support and guidance throughout the writing process of this thesis. My interaction with you was a great learning opportunity for me. Your encouragemnt and inspiration pushed me to write and finish this piece of work in the limited period of time that I had.

I acknowledge the selfless effort of my best friend Brenda Nanyonga for the different ideas we share throughout the writing process but above all the time you spared to help with the editing of the final report, I am so grateful and may the Almighty bless you and reward you abundantly.

To my classmates, am grateful for the encouragement during this time and I believe your social support made the whole writing exercise enjoyable. Particularly I am grateful to you Katie Sophie Gozer for editing part of this final report. This was a true sign of professional friendship.

To all my Ugandan friends in Gothenburg; Julius, Doreen, Sandra, Suzan, Jeniffer and Nelson for the social support both directly and indirectly through out the writing process but also during my time as a student at Gothenburg University. You all made my stay here memorable and for that am grateful

Special appreciations go to the study respondents who spared their precious time amidst tight schedules to participate in the study.

Thank you all.

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Dedication

To my Mama, Flavia Ndyomukazi for the endurance you went through to raise me and to you my Love; Destiny, you have been a blessing in my life and forever I will cherish you.

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CHAPTER ONE 1.1 Introduction

This chapter presents the background to the study, problem statement, objectives of the study, research questions, and the scope of the study and the significance of the study.

1.2 Background to the Study

International immigration continues to grow faster than ever before and over 232 million people are on the move worldwide (Sporlein and Tubergen, 2014). In a research carried out to study the occupational status of immigrants in Western and non-Western societies, Sporlein and Tubergen report that in 2013 3.2% of the world’s population was living outside their countries of origin and that a big chunk of that percentage was in western countries.

In another report authored by Laczko and Lonnback (2014) for the International Organization for Immigrants, it is noted that approximately 1 billion of the world’s 7 billion people are migrants. In real figures the report mentions that 214 million people are international migrants. The report shows that although South to South migration has increased, South to North is still the common direction of migration among international migrants.

The International Organization for Migration (IOM) defines an immigrant as a person who has resided into a foreign country for more than one year irrespective of the cause, voluntary or involuntary and the means used to migrate regular or irregular. This definition excludes those traveling for shorter periods of time such as tourists and business persons however common usage includes certain kinds of seasonal movers such as those who travel for short periods to work on planting and harvesting on farms. In the context of Sweden, immigrants are those who were either born abroad or born in Sweden to two immigrant parents, commonly known as the foreign born (Fredlund, 2014).

The Laczko and Lonnback report underscores the value of immigration by showing that only in 2012, migrant remittances had increased from 81.3 billion to 401 billion US Dollars and the report estimates that by the end of 2015 this figure could reach to as much as 515 US Dollars. Remittances to sub Saharan Africa alone in 2011 were projected to stand at 5 billion to 10 billion per year.

As Fredlund (2014) notes, Sweden has been a host for immigrants for many years, welcoming people fleeing from social and political unrest from all over the world and most recently those running out of Syria because of the ongoing crisis. She points out that about one-fifth of Sweden's population has an immigrant background.

The trend of immigration has been changing over time and Alden and Hammarstedt (2014) provide an important insight in the position of foreign born on the Swedish labour market.

The paper shows that indeed since the 1940s the number of immigrants has always exceeded emigrants and that the reasons for immigration have also been changing and multifaceted over the years from refugees to labour immigrants, most of these coming from Nordic countries especially Finland and the rest of Europe including West Germany, Austria, Italy, Greece and Yugoslavia. Alden and Hammarstedt further note that most immigrants at the time (1940s) came to Sweden for labor related reasons because at the time, Sweden demanded more labour because it was in the process of economic and industrial expansion.

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However Alden and Hammarstedt (2014) show that in the 1960s more restrictions were introduced where immigrants were required to obtain labour permits before arriving in Sweden but the labour market was still open to Nordic immigrants. As time progressed (1970s towards the 80s) immigration assumed a new face of refugee immigrants and indeed many of the immigrants were from Latin America, the Middle East and Africa. Due to the civil war in Yugoslavia more European refugees continued coming until the 1990s. This resulted in the increase in the number of immigrants from the Middle East and Africa. This trend has resulted in an increase of the population of Non-European immigrants in Sweden (Alden and Hammarstedt, 2014)

Different migrant groups have had success on the labour market while others have found it really hard to succeed. Different reasons are forwarded why some groups of immigrants progress on the labour market while others find it hard to and indeed literature shows that human capital differences and the fact that discrimination still exist on the labour market are the two major reasons for the difference in luck on the labour market (Sporlein and Tubergen, 2014).

Arguing from the human capital position, Sporlein and Tubergen (2014) explain that an individual’s position on the labour market is determined by the amount of accumulated human capital. They define human capital as education and accumulated work experience and thus conclude that the more human capital an individual has the better his/her productivity and the higher the chances of entering the labour market for employment. The article by Sporlein and Tubergen notes that some immigration groups possess more human capital and this explains their success on the labour market. Citing Chicswick and Miller (2003) Sporlein and Tubergen also raise another key issue which is the language spoken in the destination country and they note that, migrant groups that are able to comprehend the language of the destination country because of being exposed before their migration have better comparative advantage over those who do not.

Sporlein and Tubergen (2014) argue that the other factor that may determine success on the job market by immigrants is the discriminatory tendencies of employers. They note that, some immigration groups face discrimination and this limits their chances of success on the market. With this background in mind Sporlein and Tubergen say that generally it is assumed that individuals have preference for in-group against out group.

The power of social networks has also been widely fronted as an important ground that determines the success or failure of immigrants. Alden and Hammarstedts (2014) argue in their study that having access to a network has proved valuable for many immigrants and that such networks improve the chances of succeeding on the labor market as connections between people can be exploited by others to get employment

Research on the role of networks among minorities in Sweden shows that a lack of networks makes it hard to obtain employment but also to pursue careers in specific areas that immigrants are qualified in (Englund, 2003) Englund however notes that immigrants are not included in valuable networks that can help them in accessing employment yet social networks are one of the most widely used strategies for employment in modern Sweden. As such, Englund explains that immigrants do not have a wide circle of acquaintances and this makes it hard for them in the labor market.

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African immigrants from Sub Saharan African have also had their share of challenges experienced in the Swedish labor market. In a recent AFROFOBI report (2014, p7), it was noted that they run a high risk of being unemployed and they are over represented among low income groups in Sweden. Commissioned by the minister for integration Mr. Erik Ullenhag, the report highlights the current situation on Afro phobia; a term used by the UN to describe the hostility towards people with Sub Saharan background (ibid)

This study focuses on social and social networks. The study was preoccupied by finding out the forms of social networks that African immigrants belong to and how this contributes to the forms of social capital they gather, it was also be the objective of this study to explore the experiences of East African immigrants regarding the resources that are embedded in their networks, the kind of work that Africans do and ultimately how social capital affects African immigrants in the area of employment in Sweden and specifically Gothenburg city.

1.3 Problem Statement

The idea of social capital being capital is based on the premise that investment in building social networks connects people to valuable resources within networks and that these connections result in profitable or positive returns.

Over the years, several African immigrants have lived and worked in Sweden- Gothenburg City in different sectors of the labor market. During this time different African immigrants have formed different social relationships and networks probably with among other aims improving their social economic status.

However, not much is known about the kind of social capital that exists among African immigrants especially the forms of social networks and the benefits of belonging to different social networks in terms of resources. Little is also known about the role of social capital in employment specifically African immigrants in Gothenburg city. This study explores the above issues offering insight from the point of view of East African immigrants living in Gothenburg City.

1.4 Objectives of the study

1.4.1 General Objective

The main objective of the study is to analyze East African immigrants’ understanding of the role of social capital towards employment of African immigrants in Gothenburg City.

1.4.2 Specific Objectives

1. To explore the existing forms of social capital among East African immigrants in Gothenburg City.

2. To find out the kind of resources existent within networks that East African immigrants belong to.

3. To explore the understanding of East African immigrants of the kind of employment that African immigrants do in Gothenburg City.

4. To analyze the effect of social networks on the employment of East African immigrants in Gothenburg City.

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1.5 Research Questions

1. How is social capital understood among African immigrants living in Gothenburg City?

2. What are the existing forms of social capital among East African immigrants in Gothenburg City?

3. What is the understanding of East African immigrants of the kind of employment that African immigrants do in Gothenburg City?

4. What are the effects of social networks in relation to employment of East African immigrants in Gothenburg City?

1.6 Scope of Study

The geographical scope of this study was limited to Gothenburg City and only one municipality was studied i.e. central Gothenburg. In terms of the content, emphasis was put on East African immigrants’ understanding of the role of social capital on employment of African immigrants in Gothenburg City. In order to do this, the study analyzed the forms of social capital that exist among the East African immigrants, the kind of work they are engaged in and how social capital affects their employment. It took approximately three months for the study to be completed including data collection and report writing.

1.7 Significance of the study

The findings of this study highlight the existing forms of social capital and how social capital affects the employment of African immigrants. This can go a long way in aiding government departments in Sweden especially those related to the labour market operations together with other policy and social planners to come up with intervention geared towards improving socio-economic livelihoods of African immigrant groups and other immigrant groups in general.

This study also has significance for researchers and academia, as the study highlights the different social network dynamics including how African immigrants come to belong to different social networks and the benefits within those networks. Such a study contributes to already existing literature on the subject of social capital.

It is also hoped that the study will inspire further research in this area using different methods. The current study uses qualitative methods and a new study using qualitative method may pick from the current study

1.8 Operational definition of key concepts

1.8.1 East African immigrants

For this study, only persons from Uganda, Kenya and Tanzania who have resided in Sweden and currently live in Gothenburg since more than seven years have been considered irrespective of the cause, voluntary or involuntary, and the means used to migrate, regular or irregular.

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1.8.2 Social Capital

Social capital is about networks of people and the resources within those networks that are available to the members. It also includes the benefits coming out of social interactions among members of networks.

1.8.3 Employment

For this study both formal and informal kinds of work that result in wage, economical profits and benefits for an individual have been considered as employment. It also considered all immigrants employed by organizations, corporations or firms and the self employed.

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CHAPTER TWO 2.0 Methodology

2.1 Introduction

This Chapter presents the methodology that guided the study; it describes the area of study, the study population, the study design, the sample size and sampling techniques, the data collection methods, how the data was analyzed and the ethical considerations for the study

2.2 Area of Study

This study was conducted in Gothenburg city. The city is the second largest in Sweden and is found on the west coast according to the Gothenburg city website (Goteborg.se viewed on 19^th Feb, 2015) and it has a population of 540,132 inhabitants. The city is inhabited by a sizeable number of immigrants. The respondents for the study were selected from areas that are known to have many immigrants in the city and these include; Central Gothenburg, Angered, Gårdsten, Bergsjön, Korrtedala and Tynnered.

2.3 Study Population

The study targeted African immigrants from the three East African countries Uganda, Kenya and Tanzania. As such all the interviews that were carried out for the study were with respondents who originally emigrated from East Africa. East Africa makes up a sizeable number of immigrants in Sweden. According to a recent study there are 5444 Ugandans, 4294 Kenyans and 2749 Tanzanians in Sweden and their population contributes to around 10.4% of the total number of immigrants in Sweden from Sub-Saharan Africa which is around 162,297 (AFROFOBI, 2014, p.7). The exact number of those living in Gothenburg was not available on the city website however what is documented is that Africans make up 12% of the total population of immigrants in Gothenburg city (Goteborg.se viewed on 19^th Feb, 2015).

The immigrants from these three countries were selected because their countries of origin have experienced relative peace and stability for now over two decades. This limited the likelihood that many of the immigrants from those countries are here because of political instabilities which is the case is for countries like South Sudan because of the civil war, Rwanda because of the effects of the genocide and Burundi because of political insecurity.

Thus the most viable reason for their stay in Sweden, Gothenburg city is mainly employment related.

The general trend has also shifted and indicates that the structure of immigration has changed and now mainly consists of labor immigrants rather than the flow of refugees which was the predominant category before (OECD, 2011).

The immigrants to be targeted were both men and women who have lived in Sweden for at least the last seven years. This time range was selected because there has been an increase in the working-age population in recent years mainly due to a large net immigration (ibid) and

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this report further shows that future increases in the working-age population are dependent on persons born in other countries whereas the number of persons born in Sweden is continuing to decline.

2.4 Study Design

The study was qualitative in nature. An explorative design was employed to gain insight into East African immigrants’ understanding of the role of social capital in the employment of African immigrants in Gothenburg City. It employed a case study design. The case study design was relevant in this kind of study because it uses descriptive questions that offer an indepth understanding about a phenomenon; it is also applicable where a researcher has a case bound by time and place that can inform the problem (Creswell et al, 2007). Most importantly as Bryman (2012) puts it case study designs are favorable when methods such as semi-structured interviewing are used. As for the case of this study in order to generate intensive and rich data this design was relevant. The time in which to carry out this study (February to May, 2015) also qualified it to be an appropriate design.

2.5 Sample Size and Sampling Techniques

2.5.1 Sample Size

The study targeted eight (8) respondents in total four men and four women that had been living in Sweden for the last seven years. However due to time constraints I was unable to get all the eight respondents and only six (6) interviews were conducted for the study. The study targeted both men and women from the three East African Countries of Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania so as to explore their individual experiences and understanding on social capital and its role towards the employment of African immigrants. One of the respondents was studied comprehensively as a key informant since he had lived experience concerning the subject of study; being a strong leader in an African dominated church in Central Gothenburg and having stayed in Sweden for quite some time, close to 23 years.

2.5.2 Selection Procedure

In the study two respondents from Uganda, two from Kenya, one from Tanzania and one key informant from Uganda were interviewed. In total two female and four male respondents were interviewed. A key informant was opted in the study after two of the respondents referred to him as a knowledgeable person on issues concerning African immigrants in central Gothenburg. At the time of the study he had lived in Sweden for close to 23 year and was a church leader in a prayer centre in Gothenburg where most of the congregation is African immigrants of all statuses. As it turned out, his position in the church as a leader and his closeness with many of the African immigrants in the church made him suitable for this study. For purposes of confidentiality the name of the church and the position of the key informant are not mentioned.

2.5.3 Sampling Techniques

The study used non-probability sampling techniques given that it is of a qualitative nature.

Purposive and snow ball sampling techniques were used to get the study respondents and these are further discussed below;

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2.5.3.1 Purposive

This type of sampling is essentially to do with the selection of units which may be people, organizations, documents, departments and so on with direct reference to the research questions being asked (Bryman, 2012). The researcher therefore selected and interviewed people who had relevant knowledge and experience on the study topic for example the study only focused on East African immigrants that are engaging in some sort of work here in Gothenburg. This method was used for selecting the key informant. Due to his knowledge and experience serving in an African dominated church and having lived in Sweden for over 20 years; he was a suitable respondent for this study and that is why he was purposively selected

2.5.3.2 Snow Ball

The researcher also used snow ball method to get the research respondents. Using this method selected respondents led the researcher to other potential respondents with relevant information to the study. This kind of sampling is sometimes recommended when networks of individuals are the focus of the attention Coleman (in Bryman, 2012). Since the study was about social capital and social networks, this was a suitable approach in trying to find respondents since one leads to another.

2.6 Data Collection Methods and Tools

The study used purely qualitative data collection methods and tools because these were relevant in exploring the perceptions, feelings and experiences of the study subjects. It is also due to the fact that the study is more interested in the subjective views of the study subjects.

Only semi structured interviews and document review methods were used. Below is a discussion of these;

2.6.1 Semi structured interviews

I conducted semi structured interviews with respondents who possessed relevant knowledge, information and experience on the study topic so as to obtain relevant information. This method was seen as relevant since it avails space for the respondents to intensively share their views without a lot of interruption from the research and the result is rich information and data was collected. As Bryman (2012) argues with this method the point of interest is the interviewee’s point of view and because of this a platform is laid for the interviewee to express themselves.

An interview guide was developed and used during the interviews to guide the researcher.

(see attachment A) This only had a few key questions that were open ended so that the respondent could share their views freely. The set of questions developed were only a guide and did not influence the sequence in answering the question. In many cases some questions were answered without the researcher asking them because the respondents were given freedom to express their views with limited interruption from the researcher.

2.6.2 Documentary Review

This was used mainly for literature review with the aim of getting information that would be helpful in understanding and answering the research questions. This method was also

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important for purposes of triangulation so as to increase confidence in the study finding. As Heale and Forbes (2013) note, when more than one method is used, findings provide a more comprehensive picture than what one method can do. For purposes of authenticity and credibility only published documents were reviewed. Given the nature of the study area both old and current literature was used. For purposes of conceptualization and for the theory used in this study old literature was reviewed. This was mainly to capture the understanding of social capital by the main authors on social capital such as Pierre Bourdieu (1930-2002), James Coleman (1926-1995), and Robert Putnam (1941- ).

2.7 Study Procedure

Making contacts with the study participants preceded the interviews. The nature of the study (the role of social capital) guided the selection of the study respondents. All respondents’

contacts were obtained through different networks informally. This was through talking and explaining to different contacts about my research intentions. When I got the first interview the respondent shared with me some of the contacts who I later contacted. Those who had no time to talk to me because of their busy schedules would refer me to those they thought would have vital information for my research. The respondents would then fix an appointment (time and date) when we would have the interviews. Even with their tight schedules all the interviews were conducted during the day and in safe public/private environments. The interviews were audio recorded with the consent and permission of the respondents to be able to capture all the information that was shared but also to save time.

Transcription of recorded data was done in verbatim, later the data was analyzed.

2.8 Data Analysis and Presentation

The findings and analysis are based on themes developed in the study following a deductive approach informed by the research objectives. This approach was used for convenience purposes but also as Burnard et al (1991) mentions it is useful in studies where researchers are already aware of probable responses from research participants.

Given the time constraint, analysis of study findings was ongoing throughout the research process. After listening and transcribing the interviews I interacting with the study findings through reading through over and over. Through this exercise, codes were attached to the data and themes derived thereafter. The themes identified were in many ways guided by the research objectives. However there are certain sub-themes that emerged from the findings that I took interest in and in many ways provided a firm ground for the analysis and interpretation of the study findings. In analysis the findings, concepts, findings from earlier literature and the theoretical framework were used in the interpretation of what the interviewees shared so as to make meaning out of them.

2.8.1 Reflection on the study participants

The study participants comprised of working individuals in different sectors of the labour market in Sweden. This in many ways was important since they were able to share their understanding of the situation of employment and social capital from different points of view.

They were all educated with four of them with at least bachelor degrees in different fields, while two had training in other areas at certificate levels. This in a way informed the study in a stronger and unique way as their characteristics were later seen to influence the way in which they expressed themselves and how they shared their views on the topic. I wish

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however to point out that the level of education was not one of the criteria that was based upon in selecting the participants.

All the information from the six interviews was relevant and used in different sections of the study. Necessary patterns were identified and in the process, data from one respondent complemented data from another. The views presented in the findings chapter are in many ways a representation of what the other respondents said on the subject. This is important to point out given the fact that the main aim of the study was to analyze the respondents’

understanding. Indeed to keep the respondents’ thoughts in their original form, data was transcribed verbatim and consequently what the respondents said was presented in its original form; the way they said what they said and presented in italics. Furthermore to be able to follow which respondent said what, at the end of every quote an identifier is tagged to the quote corresponding to a number for each respondent.

2.8.2 Reflection on my position as an interviewer and researcher

Mays and Pope (1995, p.109-112) argue that both qualitative and quantitative researchers are selective and prone to subjective tendencies. For example they argue that in quantitative data analysis it is possible to generate statistical representations of phenomena which may or may not be justified since just as in qualitative work they will depend on the judgment and skill of the researcher. They thus conclude that all research is selective. With that in mind and being a fellow African from the same region (East Africa) as the participants, the question of bias and lack of objectivity is bound to be raised. Mary and Pope (1995, p.111) emphasize that qualitative research is often criticized for lack of objectivity and that it is an assembly of anecdote and personal impressions, strongly subject to the researcher bias.

Being aware of my position from the start guided me to come up with a research strategy including research design and method of analysis that would allow me to present the finding from the study without any distortions. The questions used were open ended and the excerpts are transcribed in their original form. Furthermore during the interviews, participants were reminded to share their views from their personal point of view and not to assume that I knew what they were going through. More still to deal with the bias that may result during interpretation of study findings, the views of the participants were clearly separated from my own interpretation. All this was to create a systematic and coherent display of relative objectivity. Thus my position did not have any influence on study findings. With certainty, I can argue that with the same strategy, even another researcher would not come to completely different research findings.

2.9 Validity, Reliability and Generalization

There has been a continued debate on the relevance of validity, reliability and generalisation in qualitative research, noting that the meaning of the term need to be altered since they give an impression of measurement which is a predominantly quantitative approach (Bryman, 2008). It is acknowledged that reliability and validity are important criteria in establishing and assessing the quality of research. (ibid)

Furthermore Whittemore, Chase and Mandle in their study on validity in qualitative research argue that there is still lack of an agreed criterion for establishing validity in qualitative research because of the necessity to incorporate subjective views and creativity.

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However, that being true, there are mechanisms that can be employed to ensure that study conclusions reflect what the respondents said and some of these were used in this study including among others an appropriate study design (case study) which clearly focused on a particular kind of respondent that would clearly provide a foundation for making study conclusion on the research area.

Furthermore in the analysis, the views of the respondents were presented as they said them, verbatim so as to keep their original thoughts and experiences shared. Even where there was a point of disagreement in a view shared by different respondents, all these were clearly shown in the quotations and acknowledged in the analysis. Using the literature review further offered an opportunity for triangulation so as to compare the current study and studies carried out before but in a similar area.

Bryman (2008, p.32) notes that although both validity and reliability are analytically distinguishable, they are related because validity measures reliability. Meaning that if a measure is not reliable it cannot be valid. Reliability to that effect measures the question of whether study findings are repeatable. To ensure that, open ended questions were employed in order to give an opportunity to respondents to freely share their experiences and opinions on different questions without pre-determined responses which could probably bias the respondent. Thus it can be said with a higher degree of certainty, that faced with the same questions on the same subject under the same environment, respondents would offer similar responses.

Generalisation on the other hand means the possibility to transfer study finding to other subjects and situation.(Kvale and Brinkmann, 2009). This can be challenging in qualitative research given the fact that in many case qualitative research studies small number of respondents sharing certain similar characteristics and finding tend to be contextualised to unique environments.(Bryman, 2008, p.378) It is important to note that for this study the aim was not to generalise the findings but to study indepth and explore the understanding of the respondents on the research question. The study can not therefore claim to be generalisable.

However given the fact that triangulation has been employed through comparison with earlier study, the findings in this particular study can be said to give a general impression of other African immigrants living in similar circumstances.

2.10 Discusion of Methods

As stated earlier, the study used qualitative methods and particularly an explorative and case study design using semi-structured interviews administered to six research participants. This study design was employed to intensively study the understanding of East African immigrant on the role of social capital toward the employment of African immigrants in central Gothenburg.

In choosing a case study design for the study I was aware of its limitations such as the challenges of gathering thick and hard to summarise narratives and the difficulty in making generalisations from study findings (Flyvbjerg, 2006, p.237). However other than looking at it as a challenge, I took it as an opportunity since this would result in rich and unique stories that would contribute to current knowledge on African immigrants, academic literature and inspire new research and social scientific investigations in the same area. Furthermore,

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(Flyvbjerg, 2006, p.238) argues that this approach to qualitative research allows stories to be told from their many sides, complex and sometimes conflicting dimensions.

Important to note is that no single research method is without weakness (May and Pope,1995, p.110) and the current study cannot claim so and certainly it is hard to tell what the findings would have been if for example quantitative methods were used reaching more respondents than the one the current study involved. Additionally with a larger survey it would be possible to make generalisation based on survey findings which the current study cannot claim.

Having said that, it is important to note that the aim of the current study qualified the use of qualitative methods as the most appropriate given the targeted number of participants in the limited time scope of three months to curry out the whole study.

2.11 Ethical Considerations

Like other disciplines, social research has a set of ethical issues that tend to manifest during the entire research process. For this study, caution was taken to ensure that the research purpose, content, methods, analysis and outcomes abide by ethical principles and practices like Creswell et al. (2007) suggests.

2.11.1 Informed Consent

Informed consent literary means that people make a choice to participate in a study after being informed of its facts. As Bryman (2008) notes, informed consent gives respondents the opportunity to be fully informed of the nature of the research and the implication of their participation.

I sought consent and cooperation from all respondents before holding any interviews. After thoroughly explaining the purpose of the study and giving detailed information on why I had selected a particular respondent they would be asked to consent by signing the consent the form as a formal acceptance of participation. This was done to make sure that study participants voluntarily participate without any form of coercion. Consent was also sought where an audio recorder was used. The respondents were also informed that they were free not to answer any questions they felt uncomfortable and that they could pull out of the interviews at any time without providing reason. This was to ensure that participation was free and voluntary.

2.11.2 Confidentiality

All respondents were assured of confidentiality and that the interviews would be transcribed and all information such as names that reveals their identity would be removed. It was also emphasized that the interviews were for the thesis and also in case of future publications.

Additionally although some of the respondents were known to one another, to ensure anonymity, their names and country of origin are not referred to in the study; this was meant to ensure further confidentiality. The respondents are instead given numbers as identifiers.

The name of the church was also left out for the same reasons, since one of the church leaders was a key informant. Additionally, the researcher also ensured protection of all gathered data whereby all the audio recordings and transcriptions were stored on a personal computer which had a password and these would later be destroyed after the purpose for which they were gathered was fulfilled.

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2.11.3 Respect

Respect was ensured both during data collection and presentation of findings for all participants regardless of their social status and gender. The researcher avoided intruding into participants’ privacy, tried as much as possible to respect time and appointments as well as use of appropriate language. For all the respondents, interviews were carried out in public/private but convenient places away from sight of other people and without any interruptions which could have been a barrier during the interviews.

2.12 Challenges faced

Getting respondents for the study was not an easy task since most of them had tight schedules for their work. As such sometime interviews were scheduled more than once because of failure of the respondents to honor their appointments. It therefore required my patience to be able to get all the six interviews that were used in the study.

Time constraints were also a big challenge for this study. With a specific deadline in mind, the time to carry out the study was short and required proper planning for both writing and data collection so as not to affect the quality of the report. As such due to limited time I was not able to speak to those participants who had postponed the interviews from the original appointment. This challenge was dealt with by taking on different roles at the same time and making sure that the data analysis process was an ongoing one throughout the writing period.

The other challenge during the study was to get the participants to tell their story of how it has been on the labour market. This was challenging especially because there were hesitations as to why I was going to record the conversations. In fact in one of the interviews a respondent suggested that I do not record on audio what he was going to share with me. It took my explanation to inform the participant that the purpose of recording the conversation and interview was to allow me to be able to capture all that we were going to discuss so that I do not distort his views. I also informed him that the audio recording was going to be erased after the production of the report but also assured him that the recordings would be kept in a safe place for security of the date

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CHAPTER THREE

3.0 Theoretical Framework

3.1 Introduction

This chapter presents the theoretical framework that was used in the study and the different concepts used. The theoretical framework was used to gain insight and deeper understanding of social capital and later used to analyze and interpret data from the interviews. A conceptual framework was also derived to illustrate the forms of social capital and social networks, their interaction and inter-connectedness and the different kinds of benefits and resources that network members gain as a result of their membership.

3.2 Background

To understand social capital, it is imperative to give a background on how the original theorists of social capital understood it so as to create a firm foundation for the use of the social resources theory as explained by Lin (1982). The works of Pierre Bourdieu, James Colenam and Robert Putman have had immense influence on this subject and its application in a number of fields including academic and political debates. (Enfield, 2008) Their conceptions and theorization are therefore of paramount importance in offering a historical background of the subject and laying a foundation for the current understanding of the concept and subject.

Bourdieu (1986) describes social capital as the aggregate of the actual or potential resources which are linked to possession of a durable network of more or less institutionalized relationships of mutual acquaintance and recognition. It is about membership in a group which provides each of its members with the backing of the collectively owned capital. In this definition Bourdieu raises key elements such as resources, durable networks which denotes the fact that networks must under go the test of time and relationships based on mutual grounds and recognition which are key in understanding social capital.

As a sociologist, Pierre Bourdieu was interested in social hierarchy and economic capital and this to some extent influenced his view on social capital (Enfield, 2008, p.4-6). Enfield argues that Bourdieu’s definition puts emphasis on the individual in the group and how this individual is able to tap from the resources that are owned by each of his connections.

Coleman (1988 p 96-102) describes social capital as being defined by its function and that it is not just a single entity but a variety of entities with two elements in common. One is that they all consistof some aspect of social structure and that they facilitate certain action of actors, whether persons or corporate actors. Like Bourdieu (1986), Coleman (1988) shows that social capital is constituted by useful resources for individuals such obligation, expectations and trustworthness of structures, information channels and norms and effective sanctions among other resources.

As opposed to Bourdieu, Colenam’s conception puts emphasis not only on the individual but the group and how it benefits from social capital (Enfield, 2008, p.4-6). Rodriguez Pose and

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Berlepsch (2013) in their study on Coleman’s conception about social capital emphasize that social capital is about resources that can be used by economic actors to enable productivity.

Putnam expanded the concept further showing that social capital apart from benefiting individuals and groups alone, also benefits communities, regions or/ and even the nation through civic engagements, participation and political institutions (Putnam, 2000) His focus was more on how strong and vibrant civic society can contribute to strengthening democracy.

It can be said with conviction that the three theorists do not seem to agree on a single definition, however what is agreed is that social capital is about social networks and the resources within those networks that are available to the members. These members can be individuals, groups or even the whole society. In all, social capital promotes collective action and creates a unique communal identity to mobilize individual resources towards achieving a common goal (Radhika, 2012). Important to note too is that these networks are a pattern of relationships built overtime and this facilitates their ability to benefit the individual, group and the organization (Ayios et al, 2014).

Contemporary theorists and literature seems to agree with the work of the original scholars on this subject. Lin (2001) for example describes social capital as those resources embedded in ones social network. Furthermore, Espvall and Laursen (2014) in their study on social capital among residents inside and outside a marginalized local community in Denmark summarized social capital as being characterized by two elements; relational capital; which is that social capital that is existing in interpersonal relationships and collective capital which is the form of social capital that is a result of various forms of social involvement in the community.

Ahmadvand, Hedayatinia and Abdollahi (2012) too agree that social capital can only be found in social networks. They however note that these networks can be at different levels, that’s to say at individual, group or at community level and that for these networks to hold there must be resources that individuals can tap into; these can be real, tangible or symbolic and that certain norms of trust and reciprocity exist

Middleton et al (2005) makes an important assertion noting that, social networks can be used as a single measure of social capital since many of theorists agree that it is the cornerstone of the concept but most importantly because there is still disagreement on a single definition of the concept/subject and on the relative importance of certain elements like trust and reciprocity as contributing factors of social capital. Stanley et al (2012) agrees with this argument noting that trust and reciprocity as elements of social capital cannot be combined as a measure of networks to form an overall measure of social capital thus making social networks the most single element that can be relied upon in studying social capital as a concept, theory and as a subject.

The social resources theory (Lin, 1982) was therefore used in the study. The study used the theory to explore the idea of social networks and how individuals in the networks benefit from the resources available and how this affects the members in the networks. The theory was found appropriate since it combines most of the elements raised by both current and original literature on social capital.

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3.3 The social resources theory

This is an action based theory which views the success of different kinds of action as dependent upon the type of social resources used (Lin, 1982). The theory proposes that access to and use of social resources (resources embedded in social networks) can lead to better socio-economic status (Lin, 1982). It further asserts that this access to and use of social resources are in part determined by positions in the hierarchical structure held by individuals and use of weak ties. According to Lin, social resources are resources accessible through one's direct and indirect ties.

Two important elements are developed by the theory that are critical in understanding the dynamics of networks and how resources in the networks can be accessed, that is position in the hierarchical structure and the use of strong and weak ties.

Positions in hierarchical structure explain that certain network positions have effects on individuals getting better positions or rewards in organizations and this can be measured by looking at how far or close an individual is from strategic recourses (Burt, 1992). This position in the network becomes more important if in a way it is connected to other networks (Burt, 1997). The use of weak ties on the other hand looks at resources for example information that comes to an individual through others that are not so closely connected to their social networks. Weak ties include people who are not normally in the daily circle of interaction of an individual such as acquaintances (Granovetter, 2005). The idea of the use of weak ties shows that you are more likely to get new and unique information from someone you are not so close to than from your friends or family since you most times know the same kind of people in your circles and therefore most probably have the same kind of information.

The theory further illustrates two types of resources that can be accessed by an individual within his close social network and outside of it. These are; network resources and contact resources. According to the social resources theory, network resources are those that are embedded in one’s close circle comprising of relatives, friends, people one interacts with regularly. Such a circle of people normally know one another and are always in close contact (Esptein, 1969).

Contact resources however are those that are activated with specific action intentions for example when looking for a new job. Such individuals are not in close contact and belong probably to different networks of individuals but are known to be helpful, either because of their position in society or their experience in a particular field (Lin, Ensel & Vanghn, 1981).

Conceptual Frame work

Based on the social resources theory and other studies and findings a conceptual model showing the different forms of social capital and the resources embedded within each of the forms is derived below. The model shows that social capital can generally be seen in three forms; bonding and bridging which are horizontal in nature and linking social capital which is vertical.

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3.4 Conceptual framework

Social Capital

Social Network (Size of the network) Trust and Reciprocity (Good will)

Resources embedded (Network resources and contact resources)

Bonding

Made up individuals with strong ties such as family members, friends

It is exclusive in nature.

Bridging Social Capital Inclusive in nature with people from different back grounds

Linking Social Capital Made up of Weak ties and inclusive in nature

Sports clubs/associations Acquaintances

Vertical Social Capital Provides linkages to distant resources

It is between people and groups of different social and economic status like Leaders and individuals in the community.

Horizontal Social Capital

For individual on the same social and economic standards

Mainly for less privileged members of the community.

Usefulness Mobilising

psychosocial support For social support

Usefulness Link to external resources Employment opportunities E.g. Youth service groups

Usefulness Access to rare resources Rare and unique information New ideas

Influencing policy

Negotiation for improvement in working conditions

Ultimately the benefits of social capital include;

Improvement in social economic status of individuals Every useful in instrumental actions like looking for a job Facilitates the achievement of individual goals

Cooperation and collective action for mutual benefits.

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3.5 Interpretation of the conceptual framework

Information in the conceptual framework is derived from the social resources theory and the conceptions from different literature as used in the study. The conceptual framework is useful in understanding how different elements social capital are connected to one another and these can be very useful in interpreting the data from the respondent as selected in the study.

The framework shows that social capital can be summarized as connections that come in the form of networks of different sizes between individual. The networks are embedded with resources such as contact resources like wealth and network resources like positions held by network members and their status and influence in society or in the community. Using such resources other members within the network can tap through for individual and/ or group benefit.

It is also clear from the literature that social capital is of different forms; however three forms of social capital are most prominent in all, i.e. bonding, bridging and linking social capital.

Bonding social capital is the social capital that exists between close individual like friends and family while bridging is more of the relationship between people that are not so close but of relatively the same social and economic status. The two forms of capital i.e. bonding and bridging can be categorized as horizontal social capital since they are both between people of equal economic and social status and usually who are able to see one another more often.

Linking social capital on the other hand, denotes the kind of social capital that exists between people, groups, communities and institutions with different social and economic status. It is called linking because it connects individuals from different social niches for example leaders and citizens, communities and states or agencies. This kind of social capital is also called vertical since the relationships are on unequal footing.

The frame work also denotes the fact that social capital does not exist without the ultimate goal or foreseeable benefits and it can be said that most individuals form relationships or join networks with the view to improve their socio-economic status (SES) so that they are able to fulfill their goals in life and also to foster collective action when individual efforts are inadequate in fulfilling certain action.

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CHAPTER FOUR 4.0 Literature review

4.1 Introduction

The purpose of this chapter is to review previous studies that have been carried out on the subject of social capital and its role. Reviewing existing literature placed this research into context and provided a rationale for conducting this study. An electronic search for literature was conducted through the University of Gothenburg online library which offered entry into different scholarly journals and books. Both full text literature and abstracts were used.

Information on websites was also used to address the objectives of this study. The search words used included; social capital for immigrants, social capital and employment, social networks among immigrants in Europe, economic returns of social capital, immigrants on the Swedish labor market. Both literature from original theorists and contemporary ones were used to provide a wide reflection on the subject and firm foundation for the current study.

4.2 Social capital

The concept of social capital has evolved over time and literature does not indicate one clear definition of the concept (Radhika, 2012, Ayios et al 2014 & Bankston, 2014). However what is agreed upon in the literature is that social capital concerns social networks and relations and the resources within the networks that can be accessed and used by the membership for individual group or community benefit (Stanley et al 2012, Enfield, 2008, Granovetter, 1973;

and Woolcock & Narayan, 2000). It can be located on two axes, vertical or horizontal, depending on the distance and closeness of the individual actor and /or institution (Woolcock and Narayan 2000) and this closeness can either be strong or weak resulting in strong and weak ties as developed by Granovetter (1973) and Ferlander (2007)

Social capital is the aggregate of the actual or potential resources which are linked to possession of a durable network of more or less institutionalized relationships of mutual acquaintance and recognition. It is about membership in a group which provides each of its members with the backing of the collectively owned capital (Bourdieu, 1986). He further notes that that, these relationships may exist only in the practical state, in material and/or symbolic exchanges which help to maintain them. They may also be socially instituted and guaranteed by application of a common name such as family, tribe, party, school and many collective names.

In his description of social capital (Bourdieu, 1986) notes a critical point which is key for this study when he writes that the volume of social capital possessed by a given agent depends on the size of the network of connections he can effectively mobilize and on the volume of the capital which can be economic, cultural or symbolic that this agent possesses.

The key elements the description includes; actual and potential resources, durable networks and relations. These are important elements that will be used in the study

Coleman (1988) on the other hand argues that social capital can only be defined by its function. He however notes that, it is not a single entity but a variety of different entities.

These entities have two elements in common. One is that they all consistof some aspect of

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social structure and that they facilitate certain action of actors, whether persons or corporate actors. Coleman further notes that like all other forms of capital, social capital is productive, making possible the achievement of certain ends that in its absence would not be possible. As such he shows that social capital is not limited to only individuals but also corporate actors.

In his conceptualisation, Coleman also notes that, like physical capital which is embodied in tool, machines and other productive equipment and human capital which is created by changes in persons that bring about skills and capabilities and make them to act in new ways, social capital too come about through changes in relations in persons that facilitate actions.

He goes further to show that social capital is constituted by useful resources for individuals such as obligation, expectations nad trustworthness of structures, information channels and norma and effective sactions among other resources.

Putnam (2000) expands the concept of social capital, his conception focuses more on how a strong and active civil society can contribute to strengthening democracy. The features of social capital include social organisations such as networks, norms and social trust that facilitates coordination and cooperation for mutual benefit (ibid)

Studies indicate that social capital is an investment in personal relationships or social structure that facilitates the achievement of individual goals (Glanville & Bienenstock, 2009) Lin, (2005) puts it clearly when he notes that, networks are the ones that provide the necessary links that provide access to and use of embedded resources.

It has also been argued that social networks can be distinguished by their direction, strength and level of formality (Ferlander, 2007). The direction is in form of horizontal or vertical, which can be either weak or strong. Horizontal networks may include formal voluntary associations and informal ones are family, relatives, friends, neighbors and colleagues while vertical ties include the church, work hierarchies, network ties between citizens and informal ties such as criminal networks, clan relations, and civil servants (ibid)

Social capital is productive, it makes the achievement of certain ends possible that in its absence such achievements would not be possible, through relationships built on trust, it makes access to resources such as government services or jobs easier and thus it can be said that this kind of capital is associated with positive social economic outcomes (Weaver &

Habibov, 2012).

4.3 Forms of social capital and their resources

Although literature on social capital shows different categorization of social capital, there is relative agreement that the components that make up social capital among others include social networks, resources embedded in those networks, trust and reciprocity among others (Glanville & Bienenstock, 2009) In their article, A typology for understanding the connection among the different forms of social capital, Glanville and Bienenstock contend that, these components, are in away related. That notwithstanding, scholars like Bourdieu and putnam choose to categorize social capital on the basis of how close or apart individuals are resulting into bonding and bridging forms of social capital and also linking social capital often credited to Woolcock (1998). Linking social capital denotes the social capital that exists between those most distant from one another both in terms of space and socio-economic status.

Social capital and employment for African immigrants in Sweden: Investment in social networks produces socio- economic returns