1 _____________________________________________________________________
The Evolution of Scania:
How the landscape grew with the industrialization
E. Bäckman J. Ellmarker University of Halmstad, 2017-02-24
emmbac13@student.hh.se josell13@student.hh.se
_____________________________________________________________________
It has been a constant fight for Scania between Sweden and Denmark, but in 1658 the landscape finally became Swedish. New technologies and innovations emerged with the industrial revolution and influenced Scania. The society developed and the standard of living was improved. The agriculture sector in Scania has always been strong because of the farmable land.
From a geographical point of view, the landscape has a good location since it is connected to the Baltic Sea. This has contributed to good trading and communication possibilities, which is why Scania has been a desirable landscape. The industrial revolution contributed to the development of many societies, which resulted in economic growth in Scania.
Keywords:History, The Industrial Revolution, Scania, Skurup, Agriculture
_____________________________________________________________________
1. Introduction
Scania is a landscape in the southern part of Sweden where a lot of the land consist of fields and meadows. What is special with Scania, from a historical perspective, is that it has not always belonged to Sweden.
History shows that it has been a constant fight about Scania between Denmark and Sweden until 1658, it finally became Swedish land. The industrial revolution that started in England, highly influenced Scania. In the beginning of 18th century, the landscape was a self-sufficient agricultural society but transformed to a community where the output from the farms were sold to others.
New technology influenced Sweden and the agricultural sector became much more effective. Innovative tools and machines resulted in a more productive and beneficial work. New railways were also created in the time of the industrialization, which resulted in better communication and possibilities for trade. Along the railways, travelers
needed service which lead to that communities were built around these places. Skurup is for example one community that grew from a small parish to a larger municipality because of the railway.
The industrialization also lead to improved living standards in Scania which resulted in that the population increased.
Clusters were developed since the landscapes in Sweden started to specify its business. Some landscapes focused on the metal industry while others focused on the textile industry. Agriculture was the most common labour in Scania.
This qualitative paper is structured as followed. In this section, called introduction, our purpose was to give an understanding for the current topic. In section two, we present how information has been gathered and in section tree, we present the received data. Section four consists of an analysis, where we examine the transformation of Scania from an agricultural society to an industrial society.
2 In this section, our findings are also
presented. In section five, the paper is concluded with highlighting the main parts of the study.
2. Methodology
For this qualitative paper, we chose to analyze the history of the landscape Scania that is located in Sweden, and how the landscape was affected by the industrialization. Before we started to collect data, we first decided the title of the paper. This helped us to better understand what to look for during the research of books and papers. In the retrieval of data, we understood that for us to find the most relevant articles about the chosen subject, we had to divide the theory into different sections. Since the industrialization affected societies but also the trade between cities and countries, we decided to not only focus on different aspects of the industrialization.
The theory was divided into history, agriculture, industrialization and Skurup.
We chose to analyze Scanias history, because we wanted to know how it was before it became Swedish and how the fight for the landscape proceeded. This because the history would influence the cities and development of Scania, which is why we also chose agriculture. We thought that it was necessary to get a better understanding of how the life before the industrialization was and what they were good at. The industrialization was chosen along with Skurup to provide information and examples about how Scania was affected by improved technologies, the new railways etcetera. These four titles were then used as keywords when searching for relevant papers and theories.
We searched for papers, which had been highly cited, via the databases Scopus, Web of science and Google Scholar. The papers we chose were taken from journals and reviews as Harvard business review, The American economic review, European Journal of Operational Research, California Management Review, The Economic History Review, Scandinavian
Economic History Review, Academy of management review, The journal of economic perspectives, Journal of Transport Geography. It resulted in a total of 28 references consisting of a mix of papers and books, that we printed and used for our qualitative research.
3. Received theory
3.1 History
The landscape Scania, belonged to the eastern part of Denmark from the 11th century until the transition to Sweden in the 17th century, Gustafsson (2009, p.9). During the late 16th century, the relationship between Denmark and Sweden changed, which would during the 17th century evolve into repeated wars between the two countries. A hereditary enmity between the two countries occurred, which affected the landscape Scania, Skansjö (1997, p.164).
The fight for land, controlling the trades and the fight for the power of the Baltic Sea, influenced the 16th and 17th century for many countries and might have been one of the reasons for the provoking of wars, Gustafsson (2009, p.98).
In 1643-1645 the “Danish-Swedish war”, also called “Horns war” in Scania, took place. The war was named after a Swedish commander, called Gustav Horn, whom in February 1644 with 11,000 men attacked the Danes in Scania. The Danish defense was not prepared, resulting in that Horn and his men took over Helsingborg, Lund and Karlskrona. The Danish army responded by going north of Scania, to prevent the Swedish army from having connection to their homeland. However, the Danes failed and the swedes took over Laholm in April 1644 as well. In the middle of august in 1645, peace occurred between the two countries in Brömsebro. Scania had practically been in the middle of the war zone for one and a half year which greatly affected the civilian population, Skansjö (1997, p.170-171).
In 1658, under the steering of the Swedish king Karl X Gustav, the swedes entered Själland in Denmark after a war
3 with Denmark, France and Russia. They
declared war with Denmark once again and the Danish defense was nonexistent, which lead to the peace agreement in Roskilde the 26th of February in 1658. The agreement stated that Scania along with other landscapes should accrue to Sweden, Skansjö (1997, p.173). In 1675 the Danes wanted revenge, so they entered Sweden and started the “Scania war” in 1675, which lasted until 1679. Once again, Scania was in the middle of the war which resulted in destroyed villages and a guerilla war, Gustafsson (2009, p.113). Peace occurred once again in 1679 but this time with no further agreements about land, Skansjö (1997, p.183).
In 1699, coalitions of countries with hostile thoughts against Sweden came together. The coalition consisted of Denmark, Russia and Sachsen and together they started the “Nordic war”. The war took place in Denmark, Sweden, Poland and Russia and lasted until 1721. After this war, 150 years of war between Denmark and Sweden was finally ended. The “Nordic war” was the last time Denmark tried to take over Scania, Skansjö (1997, p.188-190).
3.2 Agriculture
The landscape Scania was in the 16th and 17th century a central agriculture area of the Baltic sea. A large part of the trade took place in cooperation with the Netherlands and focused on grains and bullocks, Olsson (2002). The connection to the Baltic sea was beneficial for Scania and it became even more important during the industrial revolution.
The period between 1790s and 1850, refers to the transformation from an agricultural society to the industrialization of the Swedish history, Schön and Schubert (2010, p 23). New jobs occurred due to the industrialization, which resulted in a growing economy. Before the industrial revolution, the agriculture was the mainstay of the economy. The living conditions of the agriculture society were relatively tough, resulting in that people lived a very short
life. More specifically, people lived half of the time of what is normal today, Schön and Schubert (2010, p 11). In the 19th century, three quarters of the Swedish population worked with farming. The rest of the population, worked in the industry and service sector, Schön and Schubert (2010, p 15), which later on, became the biggest business. Olsson and Svensson (2016) argues that Scania, ever since it was conquered of Denmark, has been the “bread basket” of Sweden. It has been a land usable for farming and the role of Scania has therefore played a significant role for the Swedish agriculture trade.
According to Olsson and Svensson (2016), the land for agriculture was used by two types of owners. Two-thirds of the land was owned by peasants, while one-third was possessed by the nobility. The nobility had most of their farms in the surroundings of the capital city Stockholm and in the regions of Scania. What is worth mentioning is that the nobility owned more than half of the land in Scania. It can be questioned whom of the two types of landowners that were most productive. In the study made by Olsson and Svensson (2016), the result indicates that the both types of landowners were equally productive in the early 18th century. Further on, it showed that the landlord demesnes had a higher productivity in the beginning of the century, while the peasants overtook the productivity in the late 18th century. The cost for investments in relation to the output were much lower for the landlord demesnes compared to the small-scale farmers. The landlord demesnes could produce more and had therefore a higher level of economies of scale. According to Krugman (1980), the concept economies of scale means that it is possible spread the fixed cost over a larger number of goods. The landlords’ demesnes could also manage crises better since they had more resources and a higher capacity.
Another factor that made the landlord demesnes successful was the ability to invest in new effective tools. The peasant’s farms were much smaller compared to the
4 landlord demesnes, but it did not matter.
According to Olsson and Svensson (2016), it gradually became more profitable to be in the agriculture sector and with time, the peasants started to use the same innovations as the landlord demesnes. This resulted in that the productivity grew and in the 1800s, the peasant where more productive than the landlord demesnes, Olsson and Svensson (2016). It can be concluded that between the 1800s and the 1850s, when the productivity of peasant’s agriculture increased in Scania, the population grew from 258,737 to 442,711.
3.3 Industrialization
The industrialization is an episode that have received much attention in history books.
It was a revolution that started in England and gradually occupied to Scandinavia.
Why the revolution started in England can be questioned and many theorists highlight different variables. Crafts (1977) states that it was not only one factors that contributed to the start of the revolution in England. It was several factors, for example technological, political, social and cultural that together stimulated the industrial advance. The Swedish industrialization was not a revolution that happened over night. It was a process, where the Swedish society changed gradually. The population increased substantially from the 19th century due to the improved technology and better living standards, Lucas (2002). The industrialism opened for new thinking and the Swedish economy grew fast in the first half of the 19th century because of the improved technology and new innovations.
The agriculture was revolutionized by new innovations. Better equipment made it easier for the farmers to produce faster and more, Schön and Schubert (2010, p 49).
Improvements in manufacturing and new ways of transporting products also contributed to economic growth. More money was also spent on research and development by the Universities, which stimulated new thinking and resulted in economic development, Schön and
Schubert (2010, p 16).
Sweden was a country that were dependent on other nations to get economic growth, Schön and Schubert (2010, p 32).
The modernization made it possible of the agricultural sector to widen its network, and new transport ways were one factor that contributed to a more beneficial trade. The railway, that was introduced in 1856 between Malmö and Lund, Schön and Schubert (2010, p. 138), created good communication and trade opportunities with the rest of Sweden. The increased level literacy also resulted in better trade, both within Sweden and between other countries.
The level of functional literacy where especially high in the region of Scania, where the enclosure movement started early compared to the rest of Sweden, Schön and Schubert (2010, p.65).
What was special during the Swedish modernization, was that many regions specialized in certain industries. Two landscapes of Sweden, Ångermanland and Hälsingland, specialized in textile manufacturing while another province focused on the metal industry. The region of Scania, focused on farming since the land was good for agriculture, Schön and Schubert (2010, pp. 76-77). Another example of an industry that grew strong in the region of Scania was brickworks, Schön and Schubert (2010, p. 79).
3.4 Skurup
Skurup is a conurbation located in Scania, Sweden. The town was at first a parish with only 500-1000 locals and in the middle of 17th century, around 600-800 people were living there, Søilen (2013). In 2012 the town had been developed to a municipality with 15000 locals.
Between the 10th and 13th century, the development of households in Scania and Scandinavia was palpable because of the increasing population. During this time, Skurup was built, but not only because of the increasing population, also because of Christianity. During the 17th century the farmers in Sweden had in comparison to the
5 Danish farmers, better circumstances.
Sweden took over Scania in 1658, but until 1683 the farmers in Scania were still judged by the Danish law. During the repeated wars, most of the population was on the Danish side. After the “Scania war” in 1675-1679, the present king of Sweden, Karl XI, decided to implement a Swedish influenced policy. As mentioned earlier, the last try from Denmark to win back Scania was during the “Nordic war”, which affected the farmers of Skurup greatly, Søilen (2013).
Skurup was later known as the “Station society”. The society was created in pace with the industrialization in Sweden.
Skurup as a conurbation have been developed from being a farmer society, to a trade and industry-society due to the development of the railway, Søilen (2013, p.10-11). When the railway was finished in 1874, it was usual that the locals went there to look at the train and with time, goods were delivered by train as well. Successive, Skurups’ trade was moved nearby the railway. The railway did not only contribute to an easier and more effective transportation for landowners, it also resulted in that service for travelers was needed. This resulted in that many stores and industries were built nearby the railway and the economic growth of Skurup was substantial, Søilen (2013, p.14,18).
4. Analysis
In this section of the paper, we analyze the received theory. We also draw parallels to Skurup to make the analysis more understandable. Skurup grew from a small parish to a larger village and is a good example of how a society change due to the industrialization in Scania.
4.1 The evolution from an agricultural society to the industrialization
Looking back in the history, there was a constant fight between Denmark and Sweden about Scania. The landscape was a very vulnerable area of Sweden since it was located relatively close to Denmark.
Moreover, the landscape was a very attractive part of Sweden with good opportunities for farming. Even though it was a constant fight between the two countries, Scania became Swedish due to the peace agreement in Roskilde. Since then, Scania has expanded and contributed to the growth of Sweden from many aspects.
We argue that Scania has been a wealthy landscape with its rich and arable land but it can be questioned what wealth is.
According to Beinhocker (2007, pp. 3-4) wealth is something that can differ depending on culture, religion and standard of living. What is valuable for one person may not be characterized as value for another individual. From this arguing, we can conclude that the meaning of value has changed during the centuries, which also have result in a changing economy.
Historically, working within agriculture has always been very strong routed in Scania, and it is still strong today. During the agricultural period, people were self- sufficient and the human existence was much shorter than today because of the primitive and though lifestyle. When the industrial revolution occurred, the agriculture sector in Scania became more productive. The industrialization made it possible to work more efficiently and resulted in better and more output. We argue that the peasant had an important role for the industrial change since they were willing to introduce new tools and techniques to achieve a better work.
Johnson (1997) argues about the same fact, that farmers had a crucial role in the change from agriculture to the industrialized society. At the same time, Johnson (1997) states that it was not only the farmers that contributed to the change. The people who developed the new tools and machines had an essential role as well.
Wise and Baumgartner (1999) have in recent days shown that an industry can gain on moving downstream, which means that a company is working closer to the end-user.
Even if this is a conclusion made in the
6 modern society, we can see similarities to
the industrialization. The agriculture in Scania transformed from a self-sufficient society to a community where the crop from the farming were sold to others. Based on the received theory, we argue that the most significant change to the industrialization was the transformation from the self- sufficient society to a community where the workers got salaries. We also believe that beyond the increased production and population growth, the industrialization changed the human being mentally. The new technology and way of work created new standards and values, and people estimated life differently compare to the old days.
According to Frank (2008), it is a positive link between the amount of money people earn and how much they spend.
Earning more money is resulting in that it is often related to spending more as well. We can see that when the farmers in Scania started to earn money on their business, it was possible for them to invest in better tools for their work.
We believe that for a revolution to start, a high workforce, resources, technology and capital is needed. We argue that market economies stimulate development, which according to Frieman (2009, p. 4) means that free competition is possible. A special demand of products must exist and should be seen as the driver for change. During the industrialization, Scania was a landscape with arable land, good resources and workforce which resulted in an expansion when new technologies emerged. It created better living standards, and resulted in a higher population in the region of Scania, Olsson and Svensson (2016).
During the industrialization, the landscapes in Sweden started to specify their businesses, Schön and Schubert (2010, pp. 76-77). What we can conclude is that the landscapes specified in industries based on what resources that was available in the surroundings. Vargo and Lusch (2004) also states that during the industrialization, exchanged value between parties and
industries often occurred. Focusing on a special industry resulted in enhanced knowledge within the specific business. As mentioned, Scania continued to develop the agriculture sector and we believe that the long history of farming, might have been a factor that contributed to that Scania still is a successful producer of land.
Porter (1996) states that companies in an industry must focus on their core competence to survive and stay ahead of competitors. This fact was presented by Porter (1996) far behind the revolution but is worth mentioning since it describes the evolution of Scania. Already in the 18th century, Scania realized the capacity of the arable land and it resulted in a well- established industry in the south of Sweden.
If a country build industries based on the nation's available resources, it is also more likely to get a functional trade with the rest of the world, Porter (1990).
During the industrialization, businesses were developed based on the available resources which resulted in different clusters in Sweden. According to Porter (2000) clusters have had an important role in the economy and it means that trades and companies in special industries are concentrated in specific geographic areas.
This is exactly what happened in the industrial revolution in Sweden. Rosenfeld (1997) states that firms tend to locate their business in areas where they can be close to suppliers and customers, which results in that it is possible to run the business more cheaply and effectively. Even if this fact also has been discovered after the revolution, it can describe the phenomenon of why Scania continued to develop the agriculture sector in the industrialization.
Pisano and Teece (2007) are other researcher that argue about the importance of industry architecture and mean that it is important to know which “players” there are in a specific industry. Referring to the industrialization in Sweden, the division of businesses was very clear between the landscapes.
7 How societies grow can also be described in
the words of Jacobs (1970). She argued that new industries occur from old ones and proceed since new innovations change the way of work, resulting in new division of labour. This contributes to a positive evolution and economic growth. Bower and Christensen (1995) also argues that new technologies create competition and develop industries. We agree with both Jacobs (1970) and Bower and Christensen (1995) and think that these theories are useful when describing what happened in the industrial revolution in the region of Scania. New technologies occurred by the revolution and influenced the industries.
The work became more effective due to new tools and machines, which resulted in a positive development for Sweden.
4.2 Trade and communication
The industrialization influenced countries with new thinking in terms of technology, innovations and new ways of transporting goods. Due to the industrialization in Sweden, the railway in Scania between Lund and Malmö was introduced in 1856.
The railway contributed to good communication and trade opportunities, and in the town Skurup which is located in Scania, it changed the whole society. Lepak, Smith and Taylor (2007) argues that value is created when a society develops. New jobs can for example contribute to enhanced wealth which results in better standard of living. When the railway was finished, Skurups’ trade was moved nearby the railway and with time industries and shops were built nearby as well, resulting in a substantial economic growth for Skurup.
It can be concluded that the industrialization and the railways contributed to the development of new industries. The railway also contributed to better communications between different cities within Scania. The industrial revolution was also a time when more money was invested into research and development. Nelson and Winter (2002) states that spending money on research and
development contributes to development of societies, and this is what happened in Scania. The spending on research and development contributed to economic growth and resulted in more money to improve the societies, resulting in better living standards.
The importance of the railway can in our opinion be compared to the present time’s Oresund Bridge. We argue about this fact because the railway contributed to an easier and more effective trade, just like the Oresunds Bridge does today. The Oresunds Bridge was opened the first day of July in 2000, and is a connection between Denmark and Sweden, Knowles and Matthiessen (2009). The combined tunnel and bridge between the two countries has contributed to improved infrastructure in the Oresund region. Nowadays many companies consider it as an important transportation- way between Scania and Zealand, Skjött- Larsen, Paulsson and Wandel (2003). We argue that the similarities between the drastic change with the railway, and the Oresunds Bridge is distinct. It can be concluded that the trade and communication possibilities increased because of them both, leading to economic growth and a push for further development in the societies.
The industrialization has led to many new opportunities in forms of a more effective and easier trade. At the same time, it can be concluded that the revolution also had some negative effects, especially regarding the environment. Nowadays, countries, companies and the private sector must take into consideration how they affect the environment in the least possible way.
The development of our society will always proceed, which is why due to the huge amount of new technologies and the non- consideration to the environment, it has to be taken seriously. Porter and Linde (1995) argues that pollution in forms of harmful substances are a sign of that the resources have not been used properly, rather ineffectively or inefficiently.
8
Figure 1. The connection of our findings.
Further on, the authors state that companies must learn how to frame environmental improvements by having resource productivity. We agree with Porter and Linde (1995), because we believe that the meaning with the industrialization from the beginning was to rationalize the work for the farmers by providing better equipment.
The meaning was also to sell the goods via new transportation ways, by improving the trade between cities.
The industrialization has developed the society in many ways, by for example connecting cities and countries via new transportation ways. It has made the trade of goods easier which contributes to economic growth which is essential for further development. Today, we have realized that he industrialization was the start for some of the environmental issues. People always want to create new things but this requires better and better technology at the expense to the earth's resources. The modernization will always proceed in our society, but in pace with the changing technology and the pressuring demand. It is important to analyze if the resources are productively used and that an environmental thinking is implemented in the company, country or private sector.
4.3 Findings
Our findings from the analysis based on the received theory and data, indicates that there is a relationship between the industrialization and how Scania was developed. A visual model of the relationship is presented in Figure 1.
Scania became a part of Sweden in 1658, after a 150-year war between Sweden and Denmark. The industrial revolution started in England during the late 18th century and the effects of the revolution started to show in Sweden in the beginning of the 19th century. Improved technology and new innovations that occurred due to the industrialization, contributed to better living standards in Scania.
In 1856 the railway between Malmö and Lund was introduced. The development of the railway affected the whole region Scania but also the smaller societies, for example Skurup. More industries were developed nearby the railway, resulting in easier trades. Because of the farmable land, wide clusters of farming appeared in Scania.
The railway resulted in that the farmers easier could sell their goods, contributing to economic growth. The modernization of the society led to that the agriculture sector in Scania developed due to new tools and machines that were useful for the farmers.
Improved communication possibilities made the trade between cities easier and more effective, which resulted in economic growth in Scania.
Our findings state that the farmers have had an apparent effect on the industrialization. Scania had a farmable land, which contributed to that the fight for the landscape proceeded during many years.
In the beginning of the industrialization, the nobility were the ones that afforded to invest into new innovations and therefore, their productivity was better. The farmers were getting more productive with time,
9
Figure 2. How the productivity changed during the industrialization between the nobility and the farmers.
more specifically in the later period of the industrialization. This was the result of new tools and machines that were provided. A diagram of the how the productivity increased due to the industrialization is shown in Figure 2.
Further on, the result of the industrialization were that new societies arose in Scania. Back then the farmers valued tools that helped their farming and nowadays, material products are more valuable. Today we strive to buy new or improved products and we don’t value the smaller things in life, like the people during the 18th and 19th century did. Something that should not be forgotten is that even though the industrialization has acceded the farming, the agriculture has a big impact on a country’s growth.
The industrialization also contributed to better communication possibilities, which made it easier to have a cooperation with other cities and countries. Scania is located in a strategically good place for the import and export of goods, because of the Baltic Sea. Easier and more effective trade resulted in that societies were developed, and the demand of products and services increased. This has affected our planet
because of the strive to always develop societies and countries and by not prioritizing sustainability.
5. Conclusion
We can conclude that a lot to be learned from the history. The farmable land of Scania has been important for Sweden from a historic perspective and are still important today. Scania contributed to a good trade and communication with other countries, in some senses modernizing the whole of Sweden. The farmers have had a critical role in the development of the societies, since they were the ones who could sell and trade goods when the railway was introduced.
The industrial revolution contributed to both good and bad results. The industrialization developed the society, but it also set the standards for always wanting more and improved goods. This has influenced the way of thinking for many years. The industrial revolution started about 200 years ago, but is still very powerful and has a high impact on the society. It has developed because of the need for new products and services. In the
10 past, there was a need for more physical
products but nowadays the need for high technology products is bigger than ever.
What the future holds for us and how the society will be structured is still to discover, but what we can say is that we look forward to the future.
References
Books
Beinhocker, E. D. (2007). The origin of wealth: The radical remaking of economics and what it means for business and society.
Harvard business school Press.
Friedman, M. (2009). Capitalism and freedom. University of Chicago press.
Gustafsson, H. (2008). Skåne i Danmark:
en dansk historia till 1658 (Vol. 16).
Makadam förlag.
Olsson, M. (2002). Storgodsdrift.
Godsekonomi och arbetsorganisation i Skåne från dansk tid till mitten av 1800-talet (Vol. 20). Almqvist & Wiksell International.
Schön, L., & Schubert, K. (2010). Sweden's road to modernity: an economic history.
Stockholm: SNS förlag.
Solberg Søilen, K. (2013).
Tegelarkitekturen i Skurups tätort:
kulturhistoria och rundvandringar.
Åberg, A. (1997). Skånes historia i fickformat. Natur och kultur.
Articles
Bower, J. L., & Christensen, C. M. (1995).
Disruptive technologies: catching the wave.
Crafts, N. F. (1977). Industrial Revolution in England and France: Some Thoughts on
the Question,“Why was England First?”.
The Economic History Review, 30(3), 429- 441.
Frank, R. H. (2008). The economic naturalist: Why economics explains almost everything. Random House.
Jacobs, J. (1970) The Economy of Cities, Vintage Books, pp. 49-84
Johnson, D. G. (1997). Agriculture and the Wealth of Nations. The American economic review, 87(2), 1-12.
Knowles, R. D., & Matthiessen, C. W.
(2009). Barrier effects of international borders on fixed link traffic generation: the case of Øresundsbron. Journal of Transport Geography, 17(3), 155-165.
Krugman, P. (1980). Scale economies, product differentiation, and the pattern of trade. The American Economic Review, 70(5), 950-959.
Lepak, D. P., Smith, K. G., & Taylor, M. S.
(2007). Value creation and value capture: a multilevel perspective. Academy of management review, 32(1), 180-194.
Lucas, R. E. (2002). The industrial revolution: Past and future. Lectures on economic growth, 109-188.
Nelson, R. R., & Winter, S. G. (2002).
Evolutionary theorizing in economics. The journal of economic perspectives, 16(2), 23-46.
Olsson, M., & Svensson, P. (2016). The landlord lag–productivity on peasant farms and landlord demesnes during the
11 agricultural revolution in Sweden 1700–
1860. Scandinavian Economic History Review, 64(1), 55-71.
Pisano, G. P., & Teece, D. J. (2007). How to capture value from innovation: Shaping intellectual property and industry architecture. California Management Review, 50(1), 278-296.
Porter, M. E. (1990). The competitive advantage of nations. Harvard business review, 68(2), 73-93.
Porter, M. E. (1996). What is strategy?.
Published November.
Porter, M. E. (2000). Location, competition, and economic development: Local clusters in a global economy. Economic development quarterly, 14(1), 15-34.
Porter, M. E., & Van der Linde, C. (1995).
Green and competitive: ending the stalemate. Harvard business review, 73(5), 120-134.
Rosenfeld, S. A. (1997). Bringing business clusters into the mainstream of economic development. European planning studies, 5(1), 3-23.
Skjött-Larsen, T., Paulsson, U., & Wandel, S. (2003). Logistics in the Öresund region after the bridge. European Journal of Operational Research, 144(2), 247-256.
Solberg Søilen, K. (2013). Skurups by: det gamla Skurup. Skurups bibliotek.
Vargo, S. L., & Lusch, R. F. (2004).
Evolving to a new dominant logic for marketing. Journal of marketing, 68(1), 1- 17.
Wise, R., & Baumgartner, P. (1999). Go downstream: the new profit imperative in manufacturing. Harvard business review, 77(5), 133-141.
