The country of origin effect on the consumer behaviour: The impact of the "Made in France" on the Swedish consumer behaviour

BA CHELOR THESIS

Bachelor in Business and Administration

THE C O U N TRY O F ORIGIN EFFEC T O N THE C O NSUMER BEHAVIO UR

The impact of the "Made in France" on the Swedish consumer behaviour

Florent Gradassi 930315T030, Justine Viennot 931111T000

International marketing, 15 ECTS

Halmstad 2014-06-02

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.

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We!would!like!to!be!grateful!to!all!people!who,!in!different!ways,!have!helped!us!and!contributed!to!

this!thesis.!!

Firstly,! we! would! like! to! address! our! thanks! to! the! Halmstad! University! for! allowing! us! to! write! a!

bachelor! thesis! and! for! the! quality! of! its! services! such! as! the! university! library! that! enable! us! to!

develop!this!work!in!good!conditions.!!

Secondly,!we!would!like!to!thank!our!supervisor!Venilton!Reinert!for!his!help!and!valuable!advice.!!

Then,!we!would!like!to!be!thankful!to!all!the!swedes!that!took!part!to!our!survey!and!answered!to!

our!questionnaire.!!Their!contribution!has!been!essential!in!order!to!conduct!our!research.!!

Finally,!we!also!would!like!to!thank!our!friends,!classmates!and!family!for!their!support!during!the!

writing!process!of!this!thesis.!!

!

Justine!Viennot!!

Florent!Gradassi!!

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ABSTRACT.

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Title:!The!impact!of!the!Made!in!France!on!the!Swedish!consumer!behaviour.!!

Authors:!Florent!Gradassi!and!Justine!Viennot!

Supervisor:!Venilton!Reinert!

Level:!Bachelor!in!Business!Administration,!International!Marketing.!

Key. words:! Made! in! France,! Frenchness,! French! products,! Country! of! Origin! Effect,!

Consumer!Behaviour,!Swedish!Consumers.!!

Purpose:!The!purpose!of!this!study!is!to!understand!the!Swedish!perception!of!the!Made!in!

France! and! to! analyse! the! French! origin! effect! on! the! purchase! decision! process! of! the!

Swedish!consumers.!!

Method:!The!selected!research!method!is!a!deductive!method!followed!by!a!descriptive!one.!

The! secondary! data! have! been! collected! from! books! academic,! articles! and! thesis! at! the!

Halmstad!University’s!Library!and!on!the!Internet.!Primary!data!have!been!obtained!through!

a!survey!on!the!Swedish!consumers.!The!instrument!used!to!collect!data!is!a!questionnaire.!

Theoretical.Framework:!The!theoretical!framework!is!constituted!of!general!theories!about!

consumer!behaviour,!details!about!the!consumer!perception,!a!part!about!branding!and!a!

definition!and!explanation!of!the!concept!of!country!of!origin!effect.!!!

Conclusion:.The!main!findings!of!this!study!are!available!in!the!conclusion.!A!common!vision!

and!stereotypes!of!France!and!a!relative!positive!impact!of!the!Made!in!France!are!reminded!

in!this!part.!In!addition,!the!limitations!of!this!research!and!some!propositions!concerning!

further!research!are!given..

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TABLE

OF

CONTENTS.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS._____________________________________________________________. 1! ABSTRACT.________________________________________________________________________. 2! 1..INTRODUCTION._________________________________________________________________. 5!

1.1..BACKGROUND. _________________________________________________________________________.5!

1.2..PROBLEMS.____________________________________________________________________________.6!

1.3..PURPOSE._____________________________________________________________________________.7!

1.4...RESEARCH.QUESTION. ____________________________________________________________________.7!

1.5..DELIMITATION._________________________________________________________________________.7! 2..FRAME.OF.WORK.________________________________________________________________. 8!

2.1..CONSUMER.BEHAVIOUR.___________________________________________________________________.8!

2.1.1..Consumer.behaviour.definition. _____________________________________________________.8!

2.1.2..Types.of.buying.decision.behaviour.__________________________________________________.8!

2.1.3..Buying.process.___________________________________________________________________.9!

2.1.3.1.!Need!recognition!_____________________________________________________________________! 10!

2.1.3.2.!Information!search!____________________________________________________________________! 11!

2.1.3.3.!Evaluation!of!alternatives! ______________________________________________________________! 11!

2.1.3.4.!Purchase!decision!_____________________________________________________________________! 12!

2.1.3.5.!Post!purchase!behaviour!_______________________________________________________________! 12!

2.1.2..Influence.of.the.consumer.behaviour. _______________________________________________.13!

2.1.2.1.!Cultural!factors!_______________________________________________________________________! 13!

2.1.2.2.!Social!factors! ________________________________________________________________________! 14!

2.1.2.3.!Personal!factors!______________________________________________________________________! 15!

2.1.2.4.!Psychological!factors!__________________________________________________________________! 15!

2.2..PRODUCT.PERCEPTION.___________________________________________________________________.17!

2.2.1..Perceived.value._________________________________________________________________.17!

2.2.2..Perceived.quality.________________________________________________________________.18!

2.2.3..Perceived.risk.___________________________________________________________________.19!

2.3..BRANDING.___________________________________________________________________________.19!

2.3.1..Brand.definition._________________________________________________________________.19!

2.3.2..Effect.of.branding.on.consumer.behaviour.___________________________________________.20!

2.3.3..Brand.image./.Brand.equity._______________________________________________________.21!

2.3.4..Association.between.brand.product.and.country.of.origin. ______________________________.22!

2.4..COUNTRY.OF.ORIGIN.EFFECT._______________________________________________________________.23!

2.5..HYPOTHESES. _________________________________________________________________________.26! 3..METHODOLOGY.________________________________________________________________. 27!

3.1..DEDUCTIVE.OR.INDUCTIVE.RESEARCH._________________________________________________________.27!

3.2..DESCRIPTIVE,.EXPLORATORY.AND.EXPLANATORY.RESEARCH.__________________________________________.28!

3.3..QUALITATIVE.AND.QUANTITATIVE.APPROACH. ___________________________________________________.29!

3.4..TYPE.OF.DATA,.PRIMARY.AND.SECONDARY.DATA._________________________________________________.30!

3.5..POPULATION.AND.SAMPLE.________________________________________________________________.31!

3.6..INSTRUMENT.TO.COLLECT.DATA._____________________________________________________________.31!

3.7..DISTRIBUTION. ________________________________________________________________________.32!

3.8.1..Objectives. _____________________________________________________________________.33!

3.8.2..Nature.of.data.collected.__________________________________________________________.33! 4..EMPIRICAL.DATA._______________________________________________________________. 35! 5..EMPIRICAL.DATA.ANALYSIS. ______________________________________________________. 52!

5.1..H1:.SWEDISH.CONSUMERS.SHARE.A.VISION.AND.A.SET.OF.COMMON.STEREOTYPES.ABOUT.FRANCE.AND.FRENCH.PRODUCTS. .______________________________________________________________________________________.52!

5.2..H2:.THE.MADE.IN.FRANCE.HAS.A.POSITIVE.IMPACT.ON.THE.SWEDISH.CONSUMER.BEHAVIOUR.___________________.54!

5.3..H3:.THE.MADE.IN.FRANCE.INCREASES.THE.PERCEIVED.VALUE,.PERCEIVED.QUALITY.AND.REDUCES.THE.PERCEIVED.RISK.IN.THE.

PURCHASE.OF.A.PRODUCT.FOR.THE.SWEDISH.CONSUMER.. ______________________________________________.56! 6..CONCLUSION.__________________________________________________________________. 60!

6.1..SUMMARY.___________________________________________________________________________.60!

6.2..LIMITATIONS. _________________________________________________________________________.61!

6.3..FURTHER.RESEARCH._____________________________________________________________________.61! 7..REFERENCES.___________________________________________________________________. 63! 8..APPENDIX.1..QUESTIONNAIRE. ____________________________________________________. 70! .

1. ^. I NTRODUCTION. .

1.1.

B

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Today,!with!the!process!of!globalization!and!the!internationalisation!of!trade,!products!from!

all!around!the!world!are!invading!the!national!markets.!"Since!several!centuries,!economic!exchanges!

across!national!boundaries!has!taken!place,!but!nowadays!the!remarkable!aspects!of!economic!life!is!

the! manner! in! which! all! countries! increasingly! find! themselves! an! intrinsic! part! of! the! global!

economy”! (Auerbach,! 1996,! p411).! With! more! and! more! companies! entering! into! the! global!

economy!the!consumers!are!now!facing!more!options!for!a!particular!product.!With!so!many!options!

available!on!the!market,!the!consumers!can!now!give!more!preferences!to!the!country!of!origin!of!

the!product.!Thus,!the!country!of!origin!is!an!area!that!is!becoming!more!and!more!important!in!the!

field! of! marketing.! Its! effect! on! the! consumer! behaviour! has! been! emphasized! by! numerous!

marketing! researches.! “Consumer! researches! have! extended! considerable! efforts! to! better!

understand! how! consumer! purchasing! decision! is! framed.! Among! the! myriad! parameters! that!

influence! the! purchase! and! consumption! of! a! product,! there! is! its! country! of! origin”! (Piron,! 2000,!

p311).!The!country!of!origin!effect!on!the!consumer!behaviour!is!basically!the!positive!or!negative!

effect!that!produces!the!product’s!country!of!origin!on!the!consumer!behaviour!(Roll,!2008).!

Currently,! the! consumers! meet! several! products! options! from! the! Asian! countries! and! in!

particular! from! the! workshop! of! the! world:! China.! In! fact,! according! to! the! ranking! made! by! the!

Central! Intelligence! Agency,! China! is! the! first! exporter! country! followed! by! the! United! State! of!

America!and!Germany!(The!world!Factbook,!2012).!In!this!way,!France!is!ranked!at!the!5th!position!

and!represents!an!important!player!on!the!global!market!thanks!to!its!exportation!of!products!from!

various! sectors,! such! as! the! agribfood! industry,! cosmetics! and! perfumes! ‘s! industry,! leather! and!

luggage’s! industry,! and! automobile! industry! (Reynal,! 2011).! Even! if! some! other! countries! export!

products!in!the!same!sectors!of!activity,!France!stays!competitive!into!the!exportation!market!due!to!

the!quality!of!its!goods.!In!fact,!according!to!Baba!(2013),!the!exceptional!“Made!in!France”!knowb how! behind! French! goods! and! in! particular! luxury! goods! makes! them! rare! and! exclusive,! with!

unmistakable!artisan!quality!as!their!hallmark.!

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For!a!country!as!Sweden,!France!represents!a!mediumbsized!supplier!as!it’s!the!8^th!supplier!of!

the!Scandinavian!country!with!4,2%!of!its!exportations!(French!embassy!in!Sweden,!2013).!Today,!in!

a! context! of! European! recession,! the! Swedish! market! constitutes! an! interesting! perspective! for!

foreign! companies,! which! are! willing! to! export! inside! Europe.! Indeed,! thanks! to! stable! economic!

fundamentals,!Sweden!well!resists!to!the!crisis!compared!with!the!rest!of!Europe!(Ubifrance,!2012).!

Thus,! the! Swedish! consumers! have! in! average! resources! and! buying! power! widely! superior! to! the!

majority!of!the!others!European!consumers.!They!are!used!to!have!a!higher!standard!of!living!than!in!

most! of! the! other! European! countries! and! have! high! expectations! (BMCE! Trade,! 2014).! Offering!

qualitative! products,! it! could! be! judicious! for! some! French! companies! to! think! about! the! Swedish!

market!in!their!foreign!new!market!conquest.!

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1.2.

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Concerning! the! Made! in! France,! the! French! people! appear! to! be! proud! of! their! products.!

According!to!a!national!survey,!82!%!of!the!respondents!declare!to!be!proud!of!the!Made!in!France!

(Harris!interactive,!2013).!This!French!pride!seems!to!take!its!roots!mainly!in!the!prestigious!history!

of!the!country,!in!certain!patriotism!and!in!the!perception!of!a!French!knowbhow.!!This!French!knowb how,!token!of!quality!for!French!people!is!an!argument!used!more!and!more!by!French!companies!to!

sell!their!products!on!their!national!market.!In!this!way,!a!label!“Origine!France!Garantie”!(French!

Origin! Guaranteed)! has! been! created! lastly! in! order! to! prove! the! provenance! and! the! quality! of!

French! products! (CEDEF,! 2014).! Thus,! the! positive! effect! of! the! French! origin! on! the! French!

consumers! behaviour! can! be! seen! as! natural! however! the! impact! of! the! Frenchness! on! foreign!

consumers!is!not!as!obvious.!In!fact,!the!image!and!the!influence!of!a!foreign!product!origin!on!a!

consumer!can!be!determined!by!various!factors!specific!to!each!country:!

“Imagery! of! the! country! of! origin! is! defined! as! the! picture,! the! reputation,! the! stereotypes! that!

consumers! attach! to! product! of! a! specific! country.! This! image! is! created! by! such! variables! as!

representative! products,! national! characteristic,! economic,! political! background,! history! and!

traditions”(Nagashima,! 1970,! p68).! Consequently,! it! is! interesting! to! see! the! perception!

characteristics! from! a! foreign! country! like! Sweden! about! the! French! origin! and! to! analyse! the!

influence!of!the!Made!in!France!on!the!Swedish!consumers.!!

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1.3.

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The!purpose!of!this!paper!is!to!understand!the!Swedish!perception!of!the! Made!in!France!

and!to!analyse!the!French!origin!effect!on!the!purchase!decision!process!of!the!Swedish!consumers.!

This! research! will! have! an! interest! for! the! French! companies! that! wish! to! enter! on! the! Swedish!

market! and! to! a! certain! extent! for! other! companies! that! have! something! to! do! with! France! in!

Sweden.!!!

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1.4.

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The!main!question!that!is!going!to!be!answered!in!this!paper!is:!What!is!the!impact!of!the!

Made!in!France!on!the!Swedish!consumer!behaviour?!

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1.5.

D

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This!study!is!going!to!be!focused!on!the!influence!of!a!good’s!origin!on!the!consumer.!Thus,!

only!the!consumption!goods!and!not!the!production!goods!are!going!to!be!discussed!in!the!paper.!

Further,!to!analyse!the!impact!of!the!Made!in!France!on!the!Swedish!consumer!behaviour,!this!thesis!

is! going! to! be! constituted! of! a! theoretical! part! that! will! include! some! general! theories! about! the!

consumer!behaviour,!some!details!about!the!consumer!perception,!a!part!about!branding!and!the!

definition!and!explanation!of!the!concept!of!country!of!origin!effect.!In!this!way,!through!theories!

based!on!the!caracteritics!of!the!consumer!behavior!in!marketing!regarding!to!the!country!of!origin!

effect,!the!impact!of!consumption!goods!Made!in!France!on!the!Swedish!consumer!behavior!will!be!

decribed.! However,! this! study! is! not! going! to! explain! the! reasons! (historical! reasons,! cultural,!

political…)!of!such!impact!on!the!Swedish!consumer!behaviour.!!

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2. ^. F RAME.OF.WORK .

2.1.

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2.1.1.

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Basically,!a!consumer!is!a!person!who!buys!goods!and!services!for!his!personal!consumption!

(Kotler! et! al.,! 2013).! Around! the! action! of! purchase,! the! consumer! can! approach! products! with!

different!behaviours.!Thus,!it!is!important!for!companies!to!analyse!and!to!understand!the!behaviour!

of! a! consumer! before,! during! and! after! the! buying! process! (Engel,! Blackwell! and! Miniard,! 1995).!

Kuester!defined!the!consumer!behaviour!as!“the!study!of!individuals,!groups,!or!organizations!and!

the!processes!they!use!to!select,!secure,!and!dispose!of!products,!services,!experiences,!or!ideas!to!

satisfy! needs! and! the! impacts! that! these! processes! have! on! the! consumer! and! society”! (Kuester,!

2012,!p110).!In!this!way,!the!consumer!objective!is!to!buy!goods!adapted!to!his!needs!and!wishes.!!

The!buying!behaviour!is!a!complicate!process!that!involves!the!consumer!to!make!decision!

between!important!quantities!of!goods!(Nelson,!1970).!For!instance!in!a!supermarket,!the!important!

number! of! different! brands! and! attributes! for! a! type! of! product,! can! make! the! choice! difficult! for!

customers.!In!this!way,!companies!have!to!understand!the!consumer!behaviour!in!order!to!deliver!

efficient!offering!permitting!to!stand!out!of!the!crown.!It!is!therefore!very!important!for!companies!

approaching! the! consumer’s! mind! to! be! able! to! influence! the! purchase! decision! toward! their!

products.!

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2.1.2.

T

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As! each! person! is! different,! the! consumer! can! satisfy! his! own! needs! and! wishes! buying!

goods.!According!to!Kotler!et!al.,!there!are!four!types!of!buying!decision!behaviour!able!to!affect!a!

consumer!into!his!purchase!(Kotler!et!al.,!2013).!

The!complex!buying!behaviour!is!characterised!“by!high!consumer!involvement!in!a!purchase!

and! significant! perceived! differences! among! brands”! (Kotler! et! al.,! 2013,! p159).! This! behaviour!

happens! when! the! buying! product! is! a! high! price,! and! many! brands! that! offer! different! kind! of!

products!are!in!competition,!such!as!for!cars!or!laptops.!Thus,!the!purchase!is!risky!so!the!choice!is!

quite!difficult!for!consumers.!!

The! dissonancebreducing! buying! behaviour! is! characterised! “by! high! involvement! but! few!

perceived!differences!among!brands”!(Kotler!et!al.,!2013,!p160).!In!this!case,!the!price!of!the!product!

is!also!expensive!but!brands!sell!the!same!product!with!the!similar!characteristics.!!

The! habitual! buying! behaviour! is! characterised! “by! lowbconsumer! involvement! and! few!

significantly!perceived!brand!differences”!that!means!the!consumer!is!used!to!buy!the!same!product!

(Kotler!et!al.,!2013,!p160).!He!doesn’t!pay!attention!to!the!other!brands!because!he!already!knows!

that! the! product! he! bought! is! in! coordination! with! what! he! wants.! Here,! any! attributes! push! the!

consumer!to!buy!from!a!new!brand!because!the!purchase!is!not!risky.!

The! varietybseeking! buying! behaviour! is! characterised! “by! low! consumer! involvement! but!

significant!perceived!brand!differences”!(Kotler!et!al.,!2013,!p160).!This!behaviour!happens!when!the!

consumer!try!a!product!for!the!first!time.!After!the!consumption,!he!will!decide!if!yes!or!no!he!can!

continue!to!buy!it!because!he!likes!it!or!if!he!prefers!to!try!other!products!(Vikram,!2010).!

. High.Involvement. Low.Involvement.

Significant.differences.

between.brands.

Complex!buying!behaviour! Varietybseeking!buying!

behaviour!

! Few.differences.between.

brands.

Dissonancebreducing!buying!

behaviour!

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Habitual!buying!behaviour!

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Figure!1.!Source:!Kotler!and!al.!(2013)!“Four!types!of!buying!behaviour”,!p159.!

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2.1.3.

B

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The!buying!process!is!a!tool!of!marketing!that!permits!to!understand!the!purchase!behaviour!

of! consumers.! The! different! stages! are! the! need! recognition,! the! information! search,! and! the!

evaluation!of!alternatives,!the!purchase!decision,!and!the!post!purchase!behaviour.!This!process!is!

not!unique!because!each!consumer!is!different,!but!it!gives!a!general!aspect!of!the!buying!process!in!

which!a!consumer!is!implicated.!

2.1.3.1..Need.recognition.

The!need!recognition!is!the!first!step!of!the!buying!process.!Before!to!purchase!products!or!

services,!a!consumer!has!to!identify!his!needs.!According!to!Watson,!Viney!and!Schomaker,!“needs!

may!be!functional!or!psychological!in!nature,!and!retailers!are!often!trying!to!satisfy!psychological!

needs! as! much! as! functional! ones”! (Watson,! Viney! and! Schomaker,! 2002,! p396).! In! this! way,!

consumers!can!buy!products!able!to!satisfy!vital!needs!such!as!food;!water!and!electricity,!or!they!

can!complete!other!needs!purchasing!products!that!are!not!necessarily!required.!!

!Maslow! classifies! the! human! needs! into! a! 5! stages! pyramid:! physiological,! safety,! social,!

esteem,! and! selfbactualization. The! position! of! the! needs! on! the! pyramid! determines! the! need!! importance!for!the!human.!The!first!step!concerns!the!physiological!needs!that!an!individual!has!to!

complete! such! as! the! hunger! and! the! thirst.! At! the! opposite,! the! needs! situated! at! the! bottom!

concerns!the!selfbactualization!needs!such!as!the!selfbdevelopment!and!realisation.!They!are!the!last!

needs!that!a!human!have!to!achieve!because!he!can!live!without!it.!These!needs!are!just!for!the!well!

being!of!people.!Also!in!his!pyramid!model,!Maslow!considers!that!the!consumer!is!able!to!move!to!a!

superior!needs!when!the!need!below!is!satisfied!(Kotler!et!al.,!2013).!!

According!to!Doole!and!Lowe!(2000)!Maslow’s!pyramid!of!needs!can!be!influenced!on!two!

levels.!On!one!level,!one!need!does!not!have!to!be!assured!before!the!next!step!in!the!pyramid!and!

on!another!level!diverse!products!can!satisfy!related!needs.!For!instance!one!person!in!one!country!

may!starve!himself!or!save!up!on!food!so!that!he/she!can!by!his/her!family!a!refrigerator!and!by!that!

assure!one!need!instead!of!the!next!step.!Another!example!given!is!that!a!Hindu!might!have!a!need!

for!selfbrealisation!meaning!abandoning!all!worldly!belongings!(Doole!and!Lowe,!2000).!

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Figure!2.!Source:!Kotler!and!al.!(2013),!Maslow’s!hierarchy!of!needs,!p157.!

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2.1.3.2..Information.search.

The! information! search! is! the! second! step! of! the! buying! process.! After! identified! needs,! a!

customer!has!to!analyse!the!environment!and!to!look!for!information!concerning!the!ideal!product!

and! brand.! Search! can! be! passive,! using! the! internal! sources! such! as! the! memory,! or! active.! The!

active! search! is! supported! by! external! sources! (Watson,! Viney! and! Schomaker,! 2002)! such! as!

personal! sources! (family,! friends,! neighbours),! commercial! sources! (advertising,! websites,!

packaging),! public! sources! (internet! search,! mass! media,! customer! rating! organization)! and!

experiential!sources!(handling,!examining,!using!the!product)!!(Kotler!et!al.,!2013).!

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2.1.3.3..Evaluation.of.alternatives.

The! “prepurchase! alternative! evaluation! can! be! defined! as! the! process! by! which! a! choice!

alternative!is!evaluated!and!selected!to!meet!consumers!needs”!(Engel,!Blackwell!and!Miniard,!1995,!

p206).!Consumers!don’t!have!the!same!attitude!toward!each!brand!and!some!people!will!prefer!a!

brand!than!another.!In!this!way,!the!evaluation!process!depends!on!the!individual!consumer!and!the!

specific!buying!situation.!In!some!situations,!the!consumers!can!use!calculation!and!logical!thinking!

to!evaluate!the!alternatives.!However!in!other!cases,!the!consumer!does!not!evaluate!carefully!the!

alternatives!and!buy!impulsively!relying!on!intuition!(Solomon!et!al.,!2006).!

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2.1.3.4..Purchase.decision.

After! evaluating! all! the! alternatives! and! brands! that! propose! the! same! products,! the!

consumer! has! to! make! a! choice.! The! purchase! decision! step! begins! with! the! intention! to! buy! the!

product!(Kotler!et!al.,!2013).!Into!his!decision!to!purchase,!the!consumer!can!necessitate!the!help!of!

other! people! and! some! of! them! such! as! the! family! or! friends! will! even! be! able! to! influence! the!

decision.!Unexpected!situation!at!the!last!moment!can!also!influence!the!purchase!decision.!This!is!

the!case!when!the!consumer!was!expecting!a!price!and!at!arriving!to!the!fund,!the!price!changed.!

The!purchase!decision!can!be!the!most!important!step!of!the!buying!process!because!it!determines!if!

yes!or!no!the!consumer!will!buy!the!product!(Puccinelli!et!al.,!2009).!

!

2.1.3.5..Post.purchase.behaviour.

If!the!consumer!took!the!decision!to!buy!the!product,!then!the!last!step!of!the!buying!process!

is! the! post! purchase! behaviour.! In! this! step,! the! consumer! can! analyse! his! purchase! after! having!

bought!it!and!determine!if!he!is!satisfied!or!not.!He!can!consume!the!product!and!give!his!opinion!in!

order!to!convince!or!at!the!opposite!to!dissuade!other!people,!future!buyers!to!purchase!(Puccinelli!

et!al.,!2009).!

Among!all!the!steps!of!the!buying!process,!several!factors!according!the!consumer!behaviour!

can!influence!them.!!For!instance,!the!emotion!plays!a!large!role!because!the!evaluation!or!decision!

can!depend!on!the!good!or!bad!mood!of!the!consumer.!

!

!

!

!

2.1.2.

I

.

! The!consumer!behaviour!is!influenced!by!several!factors!such!as!cultural,!social,!personal!and!

psychological.!!

!

!

!

!

!

!

.

Figure!3.!Source:!Kotler!and!al.!(2013),!Factors!influencing!consumer!behaviour,!p146!

.

2.1.2.1..Cultural.factors.

According!to!Kumra,!“The!culture!is!a!set!of!traditional!belief!and!values!that!are!transmitted!

and!shared!in!a!given!society.!Culture!is!also!a!total!way!of!life!and!thinking!patterns,!speech,!action!

and!artefacts!that!are!passed!from!generation!to!generation“!(Kumra,!2007,!p196).!In!this!way,!the!

culture!plays!an!important!role!on!the!consumer!behaviour!as!the!consumer!is!since!the!beginning!of!

his!life!bathed!in!the!beliefs,!values,!customs,!ritual,!language!and!symbols!that!characterise!his!own!

culture!(Kumra,!2007).!

!! Also!the!consumer!is!influenced!by!some!subcultures.!The!subcultures!are!“groups!of!people!

with! shared! value! systems! based! on! common! life! experiences! and! situations.! Subcultures! include!

nationalities,!religions,!racial!groups!and!geographic!regions!”!(Kotler!et!al.,!2013,!p146).!!

Social!classes!that!divide!the!society!also!influence!the!consumer!behaviour.!In!their!book,!

Kotler! and! al.! isolate! 5! major! social! classes:! Hupper! class,! Middle! class,! Working! class! and! Lower!

occupation.! An! important! variable! that! generally! determine! directly! the! feeling! of! belonging! to! a!

social! class! is! the! income! of! the! household! (Kotler! et! al.,! 2013).! It! can! influence! the! consumer!

behaviour!relative!to!the!purchase!action.!This!is!the!case!concerning!the!price!that!a!consumer!could!

be!able!to!spend!for!a!product:!a!person!from!the!hupper!class!could!get!fewer!difficulties!to!buy!an!

expensive!product!than!a!person!from!the!lower!class.!!

!

2.1.2.2..Social.factors.

It!is!possible!to!distinguish!various!social!factors!able!to!influence!the!consumer:!the!small!

group!or!family!membership!and!the!social!role!and!status.!!!

Be!a!member!of!a!small!group!include!to!pass!time!with!them!so!during!discussion,!groups!

can! influence! the! individual! toward! a! way! of! thinking! or! acting.! According! to!!

Webster! and! Wind,! a! group! implies! “five! classes! of! variables:! the! individual! members'! goals! and!

personal!characteristics,!the!nature!of!leadership!within!the!group,!the!structure!of!the!group,!the!

tasks!performed!by!the!group,!and!external!(organizational!and!environmental)!influences”!(Webster!

and!Wind,!1972,!p18).!!

The!family!is!sometimes!estimated!as!a!group!that!plays!a!large!role!on!the!consumer!buying!

behaviour.! Parents! through! their! education! influence! the! future! children! whereas! parents! are!

strongly!influenced!by!their!children!concerning!new!technologies!for!instance!(Kotler!et!al.,!2013).!It!

can! even! be! more! outstanding! and! “kids! significantly! influence! family! decisions! about! everything!

from!where!they!take!vacations!to!what!cars!and!mobile!phones!they!buy”!(Kotler!et!al.,!2013,!p153).!

The!family!is!therefor!maybe!the!main!influence!of!the!consumer!behaviour.!!

!!The!group!notion!implies!that!each!person!is!known!by!the!society!under!a!defined!status!

and!role.!The!role!corresponds!to!“the!activities!a!person!is!expected!to!perform!according!to!the!

people!around!them”!(Kotler!et!al.,!2013,!p153).!A!person!can!assume!several!roles!at!the!same!time,!

such! as! a! feminine! worker! who! is! a! mother! at! home.! The! role! and! the! status! are! predefined! and!

influence!the!consumer!life!and!therefore!their!behaviour.!!

!

!

2.1.2.3..Personal.factors.

The!personal!factors!that!influence!the!consumer!behaviour!are!determined!through!several!

variables! such! as! the! demographic,! the! economical! situation,! the! lifestyle! and! the! personality! and!

selfbconcept!(Kotler!et!al.,!2013).!

The!demographic!variables!are!the!generalities!by!which!a!person!can!be!influenced!such!as!

the!age,!the!gender,!or!the!occupation!or!the!localisation.!All!these!characteristics!are!different!from!

a!consumer!to!another!that!is!why!people!don’t!buy!the!same!things!and!are!not!influence!at!the!

same! level.! For! example,! according! to! Ladwein! (2003)! women! are! associated! to! the! cosmetic!

products! whereas! men! prefer! buy! cars.! Depending! on! the! age,! “people! change! the! goods! and!

services!they!buy!over!their!lifetimes.!Tastes!in!food,!clothes,!furniture!and!recreation!are!often!age!

related”! (Kotler! et! al.,! 2013,! p153).! Consumer! usually! don’t! buy! the! same! product! when! they! are!

adolescent!than!when!the!have!50!years!old!because!their!tastes!changed.!One!of!the!factors!is!the!

occupation!of!a!person!because!it!can!affect!his!choices!(Kotler!et!al.,!2013).!

The! economical! situation! of! a! consumer! influences! strongly! his! purchase.! In! fact,! his!

economical! situation! determines! if! the! consumer! can! buy! or! not! a! product,! in! function! of! his!

personal!income,!saving!and!the!price!of!the!product.!Purchasing!a!product!implies!the!consumer!to!

get!enough!money!to!satisfy!his!needs!and!wishes!(Solomon!et!al.,!2006).!The!lifestyle!is!unique!to!

each!individual!and!even!if!the!consumers!have!the!same!occupation,!be!part!of!the!same!group!or!

social!class,!their!lifestyle!is!still!different.!Kotler!defines!the!lifestyle!as!“a!person’s!pattern!of!living!

as! expressed! in! his! or! her! activities,! interests! and! opinions”! (Kotler! and! al.,! 2013,! p155).! So! the!

consumer!buys!products!that!represent!his!lifestyle.!The!personality!&!selfbconcept!of!individual!also!

influence!the!consumer!behaviour.!The!personality!refers!to!the!unique!psychological!characteristics!

that!distinguish!a!person!or!a!group.!!

.

2.1.2.4..Psychological.factors.

! Motivation!

Motivation!is!an!internal!state!that!drives!the!consumer!to!satisfy!needs.!Once!the!consumer!

recognizes!that!he!has!a!need,!a!state!of!tension!exists!that!drives!him!to!the!goal!of!reducing!this!

tension!by!satisfying!the!need.!Therefore,!“Motivation!is!a!process!that!gets!started!when!consumer!

has!need!which!he!wants!to!satisfy”!(Kumra,!2007,!p55).!Motivation!can!be!seen!as!the!energizing!

force!that!is!going!to!activate!the!consumer!behaviour.!!

! Perception!

“The! perception! is! a! process! by! which! individual! selects! marketing! stimuli,! organises! and!

interprets! based! on! his! own! needs,! values,! and! expectations! to! make! a! meaningful! and! coherent!

picture!of!the!world!around!him”!(Kumra,!2007,!p101).!The!stimuli!that!characterized!the!consumer!

perception! can! be! advertising! messages! that! are! sent! everyday! and! several! times! per! day! by!

marketers.!The!perception!involves!the!image!of!the!consumer!toward!a!product!or!a!brand.!Each!

consumer!has!a!different!vision!that!can!be!good!or!bad!so!it!is!important!for!companies!to!organize!

action! in! order! to! influence! the! perception! of! the! consumer! (Kotler! et! al.,! 2013).! And! even! after!

sending! marketing! actions,! it! is! possible! that! consumer! still! have! a! bad! perception! so! it! is! very!

important!to!think!about!the!consumer!perception!in!order!to!satisfy!them!and!their!needs.!!

! Learning!

A!consumer!can!learn!everywhere!and!at!any!time.!The!learning!from!school!or!during!the!

everyday! life! influences! the! consumer! behaviour! because! “human! beings! are! not! born! with! the!

knowledge!or!skills!that!could!be!used!as!guidelines!of!how!to!behave!for!their!daily!life.!Knowledge!

or! skills! are! obtained! from! learning.! Learning! is! an! unconscious! activity! that! occurs! frequently”!

(Kumra,! 2007,! p137).! Consequently,! a! consumer! already! knows! what! he! learned! but! the! learning!

process!is!in!constant!development.!Kumra!determines!several!factors!related!to!the!learning!theory.!

The!learning!is!made!unconsciously,!that!mean!they!don’t!know!when!it!happens!and!for!how!long.!It!

is! important! for! consumer! to! learn! about! the! product! or! the! company! because! it! can! help! for! a!

decisionbmaking.! To! sell! the! more! products! possible,! marketers! also! have! to! learn! about! the!

consumer!and!more!precisely,!to!discover!how!to!satisfy!their!needs!(Kumra,!2007).!

! Beliefs!&!attitudes!

According! to! Kotler,! a! belief! is! “a! descriptive! thought! that! a! person! holds! about!

something.!Beliefs!may!be!based!on!real!knowledge,!opinion!or!faith!and!may!or!may!not!carry!an!

emotional!charge!“!(Kotler!et!al,!2013,!p158).!Consumers!are!largely!influenced!by!beliefs!because!it!

is!something!easy!to!understand!and!once!customer!believes!in!something,!there!is!chance!for!it!to!

not!change.!Anyway,!it!is!still!important!for!marketers!to!maintain!these!beliefs!and!to!use!them.!!!

The! attitude! refers! to! “a! person’s! consistently! favourable! or! unfavourable! evaluations,!

feelings!and!tendencies!toward!an!object!or!idea”!(Kotler!et!al,!2013,!p158).!Therefore!an!attitude!

can!be!seen!as!a!predisposition!to!respond!positively!or!negatively!towards!a!certain!idea!or!object.!

The!consumer!attitude!influences!his!future!buying!behaviour.!The!attitude!is!constituted!by!three!

major!components:!the!cognitive!and!evaluative!elements,!the!affective!or!emotional!elements,!and!

the!conative!or!behavioural!elements.!!

The! cognitive! and! evaluative! elements! are! the! knowledge! or! the! supposed! one! of! the!

individual! on! goods.! The! affective! or! emotional! elements! are! relative! to! the! feelings! experienced!

toward!goods!whereas!the!conative!or!behavioural!elements!emphasis!on!the!intention!to!act!and!

willingness!to!react!to!the!brand.!These!permit!to!understand!the!base!of!the!consumer!behaviour!

and!to!anticipate!it.!!

!

2.2.

P

.

The!perception!is!defined!by!Kotler!et!al.!as!!“The!process!by!which!people!select,!organise!

and! interpret! information! to! form! a! meaningful! picture! of! the! world”! (Kotler! et! al.,! 2013,! p157).!

Thus,!the!perception,!concerning!the!product!perception!by!the!consumer,!can!be!related!to!the!way!

that!a!consumer!is!going!to!evaluate!the!alternatives!in!the!buying!process.!To!be!able!to!make!a!

choice! among! different! products,! the! consumer! selects,! organises! and! interprets! the! products!

information! that! he! has.! In! this! way,! the! perception! appears! as! a! consumer! tool! for! the! buying!

decision.!The!perception,!being!a!component!of!the!consumer!behaviour,!is!proper!to!each!consumer!

and! is! influenced! by! many! factors! such! as! cultural! factors,! social! factors,! personal! factors! and!

psychological!factors.!However,!the!process!of!perception!is!mainly!constituted!by!three!elements!for!

the!majority!of!the!consumer!purchase!decisions:!the!perceived!value,!the!perceived!quality!and!the!

perceived!risk.!!

!

2.2.1.

P

.

The!perceived!value!of!a!product!or!service!is!the!worth!that!a!product!or!service!has!in!the!

mind! of! the! consumer.! In! this! way,! the! perceived! value! is! defined! as! “the! consumer's! overall!

assessment!of!the!utility!of!a!product!based!on!perceptions!of!what!is!received!and!what!is!given.!

Though!what!is!received!varies!across!consumers!(i.e.,!some!may!want!volume,!others!high!quality,!

still! others! convenience)! and! what! is! given! varies! (i.e.,! some! are! concerned! only! with! money! exb pended,! others! with! time! and! effort),! value! represents! a! tradeboff! of! the! salient! gives! and! gets!

components”!(Zeithaml,!1988,!p14).!The!perceived!value,!being!based!on!the!idea!of!an!exchange!of!

value!for!the!consumer,!affects!therefore!the!price!that!the!consumer!is!willing!to!pay!for!a!product!

or!service.!Most!of!the!time,!consumers!are!not!really!aware!of!the!true!cost!of!production!for!the!

products!they!buy.!Instead,!they!simply!have!an!internal!feeling!for!how!much!certain!products!are!

worth! to! them.! Thus,! in! order! to! obtain! a! higher! price! for! their! products,! producers! may! pursue!

marketing!strategies!to!create!a!higher!perceived!value!for!their!products!(Zeithaml,!1988).!!

!

2.2.2.

P

.

The! perceived! quality! is! related! to! the! consumer! perceived! value.! In! fact,! the! perceived!

quality!is!a!main!factor!that!influences!the!perceived!value!of!a!product!or!service!for!the!consumer.!!

The!perceived!quality!can!be!defined!as!the!consumers’!judgment!about!an!entity’s!(service’s)!overall!

excellence! or! superiority! (Zeithaml,! 1988).! The! consumer! judgement! about! the! perceived! quality!

rests!on!consumer!expectations!of!quality!for!a!given!product!or!service.!In!fact,!perceived!quality!of!

a!product!or!service!is!a!type!of!attitude!resulting!from!comparison!of!expectations!with!a!perception!

of!performance!(Rowley,!1998).!These!expectations!and!this!perception!of!performance!are!based!on!

the! consumer! personal! experience! and! on! a! variety! of! other! factors! related! to! the! product! or!

services.! Thus,! consumers! often! judge! the! quality! of! a! product! or! service! thanks! to! informational!

cues!that!they!associate!with!the!product.!These!cues!are!intrinsic!to!the!products!and!others!are!

extrinsic.!As!defined!by!Zeithaml!(1988),!cues!that!are!intrinsic!concern!physical!characteristics!of!the!

products!itself,!such!as!product’s!performance,!features,!reliability,!conformance,!durability,!service!

ability!and!aesthetics.!On!the!other!hand,!extrinsic!attributes!are!the!cues!that!are!external!to!the!

products!itself,!such!as!price,!brand!name,!brand!image,!company!reputation,!manufacturer’s!image,!

retail!store!image!and!the!country!of!origin.!Perceived!quality!has!a!significant!influence!on!customer!

purchase! decision! and! brand! loyalty;! especially! during! the! time! customers! have! less! or! no!

information!of!the!products!that!they!are!going!to!purchase!(Aaker,!1991).!

.

.

2.2.3.

P

.

The!consumer!behaviour!involves!risk.!In!fact!according!to!Bauer,!!“any!action!of!a!consumer!

will!produce!consequences!which!he!cannot!anticipate!with!any!approximating!certainty,!and!some!

of!these!at!least!are!likely!to!be!unpleasant”!(Bauer,!1960,!p24).!Thus!the!consumer!perceived!risk!

could! be! defined! as! the! uncertainty! that! consumers! face! when! they! cannot! foresee! the!

consequences!of!their!purchase!decision.!

In!this!way,!two!relevant!dimensions!of!perceived!risk!can!be!pointed!out:!uncertainty!and!

consequences.! When! a! consumer! makes! a! purchase! decision,! risk! implies! possibilities! of! making! a!

mistake! (uncertainty)! and! degree! of! inconvenience! of! making! a! mistake! (consequences).! Risks! are!

perceived! differently! by! the! consumers! and! can! be! of! several! types:! financial,! performances,!

physical,! psychological,! social! and! time! are! different! types! of! risk! than! can! be! perceived! by! the!

consumer!(Jacoby!and!Kaplan,!1972;!Mumel,!1999).!!!

The! notion! of! product! involvement! and! the! perceived! risk! can! be! linked.! The! product!

involvement!is!the!level!of!consumer’s!interest!in!purchasing!a!certain!product.!Product!involvement!

by! consumer! tends! to! be! greater! for! goods! that! have! a! higher! cost! and! are! brought! after! a! long!

process! of! information! research! and! products! evaluation! (Kotler! et! al.,! 2013).! For! example! high!

involvement!products!are!cars!or!computer,!whereas!food!is!rather!a!low!involvement!products!type.!

Thus,!generally!for!a!high!involvement!product,!the!perceived!risk!by!a!consumer!is!higher!than!a!low!

involvement!product.!Consumers!don’t!like!when!there!is!too!much!perceived!risk!buying!a!product.!

In! this! way,! consumers! will! try! to! reduce! the! risk! by! for! instance,! using! more! time! to! search!

information!or!paying!more!for!a!product!that!is!less!risky!(Dholakia,!1997).!!

!

2.3.

B

.

2.3.1.

B

.

A!brand!is!“a!specific!name,!symbol,!or!design!–!or,!more!usually,!some!combination!of!these!

b!that!that!is!used!to!distinguish!a!particular!seller’s!product”!(Doyle!and!Stern,!2006,!p164),!so!that!

identify!products,!services!or!a!company.!The!corporate!brand!is!usually!the!legal!name!of!a!company!

that!has!been!promoting!as!a!brand:!Danone,!Nestlé!and!Auchan,!…!(Marque!entreprise,!accessed!on!

the!30/03/14).!A!brand!can!also!designate!at!the!same!time!a!company!and!their!products.!Share!a!

brand!can!be!dangerous!because!if!consumers!do!not!like!the!product,!it!can!affect!negatively!the!

company.!But!in!other!way,!the!benefits!of!the!company’s!brand!can!also!help!for!the!product!sales!!

(Heurtebise,!2012).!Relative!to!products,!exist!different!categories!of!brand!because!it!is!possible!to!

differentiate! a! product! brand! to! a! range! products! brand! (Marque! produit,! accessed! on! the!

30/03/14).!However,!whether!related!to!goods!and!services!or!a!company’s!brand,!branding!is!very!

important!because!it!determines!the!future!sales!of!the!company.!!

Brand!name,!sign,!symbol,!…!are!essential!for!product!sales.!They!are!the!main!attributes!that!

help!consumers!to!identify,!recognize!and!remember!products,!so!these!terms!have!to!be!relevant!

and!easy!to!memorise.!Brands!also!reveal!the!engagement!or!the!values!that!the!company!follows.!In!

this!way,!during!the!purchase,!consumers!know!exactly!what!to!expect!from!one!brand!or!another!

and!can!link!their!preferences!to!the!brand!offer!(Kotler!et!al.,!2013).!According!to!Malar!et!al.,!to!

companies,!branding!process!meet!five!objectives:!“(1)!to!distinguish!their!product!from!competitors!

and!prevent!it!from!being!a!commodity,!(2)!to!give!the!product!an!image!or!personality,!(3)!to!give!

the! brand! an! identity,! (4)! to! bolster! the! company's! image! and! reputation,! and! (5)! to! facilitate!

relationships!with!consumers!that!lead!to!long!term!value”!(Goldsmith!and!Goldsmith,!2012!p12).!

!

2.3.2.

E

.

It! is! recently! that! companies! take! in! consideration!the! importance! of! the! consumers! trust,!

toward!the!corporate!brand!and!the!values!they!support.!In!fact,!consumers!play!a!major!role!in!the!

brand!well!being.!In!their!article,!Goldsmith!and!Goldsmith!explain!that!customers!are!very!important!

for! the! brand! wellbbeing! because! they! fulfil! to! six! objectives:! “(1)! consumers! use! brands! to!

distinguish!a!company's!offering!from!those!of!other!companies;!(2)!this!information!allows!them!to!

make!efficient!judgments!of!quality,!suitability,!value!and!can!prompt!quick!purchase;!(3)!consumers!

use!brands!to!create!and!display!selfbimage!and!identity;!(4)!consumers!can!interact!with!the!brand!

and! even! cobcreate! it;! (5)! consumers! form! relationships! with! the! brand! and! consequently! the!

company! that! they! find! satisfying;! (6)! brand! helps! consumers! establish! and! maintain! social!

relationships”!(Goldsmith!and!Goldsmith,!2012,!p12).!

Consumers!buy!only!if!they!think!the!product!comes!from!a!trusting!company.!In!this!case,!

they! even! can! become! loyal! and! buy! several! times! products! from! the! same! brand.! According! to!

Chaudhuri!and!Holbrooks!(2001),!consumers!are!able!to!pay!more!for!a!brand!they!like!because!they!

know! the! company! sells! good! quality! products.! In! this! way,! the! brand! also! influences! the! buying!

decision! because! in! front! of! a! variety! of! brands,! the! consumer! buys! the! brand! he! trusts! and! that!

follows!the!same!values!as!him.!!

A!consumer!is!very!emotional!concerning!brands.!He!will!first!try!several!products!and!make!

a! decision! for! then! to! buy! only! products! he! knows! and! appreciates.! “Brand! liking! and! brand!

satisfaction!are!seen!as!basic!connections!which!emerge!as!a!consequence!of!positively!experiencing!

the!brand.!They!are!positioned!at!one!end!of!a!spectrum!that!gradually!increases!in!intensity!to!reach!

brand!loyalty,!widely!viewed!as!the!strongest!tie.!Other!terms!frequently!used!include!brand!passion!

and!brand!attachment”!(Cole,!2014).!

The! name! of! the! brand! is! also! important! in! the! buying! decision! process! of! consumer.! If! a!

consumer!wants!to!buy!a!product!he!has!never!bought!before,!watching!the!name!of!the!brand,!he!

has!to!understand!the!product!and!be!attracted!by!it!(AimébGarnier!and!Lai,!2008).!It!is!usual!that!a!

brand!product!name!doesn’t!work!or!is!out!of!breath!so!the!company!decides!to!change!the!name!of!

the!brand.!!!

!

2.3.3.

B

/

B

.

According! to! Kotler! et! al.,! “Brands! are! more! than! just! names! and! symbols.! They! are! a! key!

element!in!the!company’s!relationships!with!consumers.!Brands!represent!consumers’!perceptions!

and!feelings!about!a!product!and!its!performance!–!everything!that!a!product!or!a!service!means!to!

consumers”! (Kotler! et! al.,! 2013,! p257).! A! brand! image! is! linked! to! the! consumer’s! perception!

relatives! to! the! brand.! It! is! important! for! companies! that! consumers! have! a! nice! brand! image!

because!it!can!influence!their!decision.!For!instance,!if!they!have!to!make!a!decision!between!two!

brands,!they!will!choose!the!brand!that!seems!to!be!close!to!them!and!gives!the!best!intentions.!Thus!

a!brand!image!is!a!communication!tool!that!“enables!consumers!to!identify!the!needs!satisfied!by!the!

brand!and!differentiate!the!brand”!(Roth,!1995,!p163).!The!image!perceived!by!consumer!determines!

which!brand!they!purchase!and!so!one!the!increase!or!decrease!of!company’s!sales.!

The! brand! image! can! also! influence! the! reputation! of! a! company! positively! as! well! as!

negatively.! Supermarket! understood! this! and! henceforth! proposes! their! owns! brands! in! order! to!

increase!their!brand!image.!In!this!way,!various!characteristics!can!affect!the!brand!image!such!as!the!

cultural!factors,!the!sociobeconomical!factors,!the!product!performance!and!the!consumer!tastes!and!

preferences!(Roth,!1995).!Each!of!these!characteristics!is!personal!and!specific!to!each!consumer!so!a!

brand!image!can!also!be!different!from!a!consumer!to!another.!Exists!three!types!of!brand!image!

based! on! the! satisfaction! of! consumers! needs:! functional,! for! people! who! have! to! cope! with!

problems;! social,! because! consumers! are! member! of! groups! and! affiliations;! and! sensory,! for!

consumers! who! are! looking! for! novelty,! variety! seeking! and! sensory! gratification! (Roth,! 1995).! To!

build!the!brand!image,!companies!are!focused!on!values!that!are!supported!by!the!society!(Moëc,!

2009,!accessed!on!the!14/04/27).!

According! to! Kotler! et! al.! “Brand! equity. is! the! differential! effect! that! knowing! the! brand!

name!has!on!customer!response!to!a!product!and!its!marketing.!It’s!a!measure!of!the!brand’s!ability!

to!capture!consumer!preference!and!loyalty”!(2013,!p257),!that!means!brands!use!their!name!or!sign!

to!promote!some!values!in!order!to!be!appreciate!by!consumers!(Anholt,!2010).!Nowadays,!values!

respected! by! brands! determine! their! identity! so! it! plays! an! important! role! in! the! consumer!

satisfaction.! It! is! possible! to! distinguish! several! values! that! brands! use! everyday! to! differentiate!

themselves! from! competitors,! such! as! the! quality,! the! innovation,! the! price,! the! authenticity,! the!

reliability,! the! service…! (Eveno,! 2012).! All! these! characteristics! can! influence! consumers! in! their!

decision!making!between!two!or!more!brands.!Some!brands!are!more!powerful!than!others!and!in!

this!case,!the!term!used!is!“a!brand!mark”.!To!analyse!if!the!brand!is!strong!enough!to!capture!the!

consumer,!it!is!possible!to!identify!two!brand!equities:!the!positive!and!the!negative.!“A!brand!has!

positive!brand!equity!when!consumers!react!more!favourably!to!it!than!to!a!generic!or!unbranded!

version!of!the!same!product.!It!has!negative!brand!equity!if!consumers!react!less!favourably!than!to!

an!unbranded!version”!(Kotler!et!al.,!2013,!p257).!

!

2.3.4.

A

.

The! perception! of! consumers! toward! brand! is! essential! for! product! sales.! Consumers! take!

care!about!the!product!brand!name!and!it!is!usual!that!because!of!the!name,!consumers!decide!to!

buy!or!not!a!product.!In!fact,!a!brand!name!can!show!the!country!of!origin!of!the!product!(Usunier!

and!Lee,!2005).!That!is!why!it!is!usual!to!see!brand!name!linked!to!a!famous!place.!For!instance,!some!

companies! link! the! brand! name! to! a! famous! place! that! reminds! the! country! of! origin! to! the!

consumer,! such! as! L’Oreal! Paris! or! Paris! Baguette! that! uses! the! French! capital! to! promote! their!

company! (Kapferer,! 2011).! In! fact,! many! consumers! link! their! purchase! decision! to! the! product! in!

function!of!the!value!that!the!country!transmits.!Here,!L’Oreal!is!luxury!brand!linked!to!France!so!it!

implies!products!that!follow!a!certain!quality.!!

The!brand!name!of!products,!without!directly!quote!it,!can!also!influence!the!purchase.!The!

objective!is!to!convince!the!consumer!that!the!product!comes!from!a!country!that!in!reality!can!be!

right!or!false.!For!example,!the!brand!name!“Kinder”!means!“children”!in!German!that!is!why!a!lot!of!

people! can! think! the! product! comes! from! Germany.! In! reality,! Ferrero! owns! the! brand,! which! is!

Italian.!But!because!Germany!is!reputed!for!the!quality!of!products,!such!as!cars,!and!can!the!country!

is!situated!near!the!two!major!countries!producer!of!chocolate!product!(Switzerland!and!Belgium),!

consumer! buy! these! brand! products! (Usunier! and! Lee,! 2005).! At! the! opposite,! some! brands! don’t!

hide!the!country!of!origin!of!the!brand!and!are!proud!to!show!it.!Everyone!knows!that!Apple!is!an!

American!brand!and!it!is!what!makes!the!reputation!of!its!products!that!are!supposed!to!be!a!good!

quality.!!

!

2.4.

C

.

According!to!Saeed,!the!Country!Of!Origin!(COO)!“denotes!the!country!with!which!a!firm!is!

associated.!Typically,!this!is!the!home!country!for!a!company.!COO!is!inherent!in!certain!brands.!IBM!

and! Sony,! for! example,! imply! U.S.! and! Japanese! origins,! respectively”!(Saeed,! 1994,! p! 598).! Saeed!

completes!also!its!definition!of!the!COO,!assuming!that!COO!can!be!also!associated!with!the!country!

of!manufacture.!However,!in!today’s!world,!with!increasing!globalization!and!organizations!aiming!to!

reduce!their!production!costs,!by!designing!a!product!in!one!country!and!manufacturing!it!in!another!

(Hamzaoui!and!Merunka,!2006),!the!COO!definition!of!Saeed!seems!incomplete.!In!fact,!COO!is!not!a!

single!concept!anymore!and!studies!about!COO!have!been!more!complex!and!show!that!this!concept!

includes!several!dimensions.!According!to!Luo!(2011),!the!COO!can!include!the!following!dimensions:!

COD! (country! of! design),! COA! (country! of! assembly),! COP! (country! of! parts),! COM! (country! of!

manufacture)!and!COB!(country!of!brand).!!

!

.

Figure!4.!Source:!Ming!Luo!(2011)!

Thus,!the!COO!or!the!“Made!in”!can!stands!for!different!things:!manufactured,!assembled,!

designed,!invented!in,!made!by!a!producer!whose!domicile!is!in!or!even!wanting!to!look!like!it!was!

made!in!a!certain!country.!!

The! first! study! in! the! countrybofborigin! literature! is! regarded! to! be! the! work! of! Schooler!

(1965),!who!concluded!that!the!countrybofborigin!of!a!product!could!have!an!effect!on!a!consumer’s!

opinion!of!the!product.!Thus,!Schooler!was!one!of!the!first!authors!talking!about!the!country!of!origin!

effect!(COE).!!

For! Saeed! (1994)! the! COE! means! any! influences! or! preferences! caused! by! the! countrybofb origin.!In!this!way,!the!COO!provides!some!influencing!cues!to!consumers!regarding!the!quality,!the!

dependability!and!the!value!of!the!product;!when!more!specific!information!is!not!readily!available!

(Han!and!Terpstra,!1988;!Hong!and!Wyer!1989).!A!cue!is!a!characteristic!or!dimension!external!to!a!

person!that!can!be!encoded!and!used!to!categorize!a!stimulus!(Schellinck,!1983).!The!cues!are!used!

by!person!to!form!beliefs!about!objects,!which!in!turn!influence!the!person!behaviour!related!with!

those!objects.!!In!this!case,!the!COO!as!a!product!cues,!helps!the!consumer!to!form!his!perception!

and!his!beliefs!about!a!product!and!consequently!influences!his!buying!behaviour.!Moreover,!COO!

may!be!perceived!as!a!risk!property!(Cordell,!1993).!Consumers!may!perceive!more!risk!in!purchasing!

products!from!a!country!with!a!poor!image,!or!they!may!seek!to!reduce!the!risk!or!to!enhance!their!

status!by!purchasing!products!from!country!with!a!positive!image.!Thus,!the!countrybofborigin!effect!

or! the! madebin! image! can! be! defined! as! the! psychological! effect! describing! how! consumers'!

attitudes,! perceptions,! evaluation! and! purchasing! decisions! are! influenced! by! product’s! country! of!

origin.!!

The! country! of! origin! effect! can! be! also! associated! with! the! notion! of! stereotypes.! In! fact!

Roth! and! Romeo! (1992)! assert! that! countrybofborigin! effect! means! consumers’! stereotypes! of! one!

specific!country.!In!this!way,!in!a!study!made!by!Reierson!(1966),!in!which!155!American!students!

were!asked!to!give!their!opinions!of!fashion!merchandise,!food,!and!mechanical!products!from!the!

following!nations:!USA;!Germany;!Japan;!France;!Canada;!Italy;!UK;!Sweden;!Belgium;!and!Denmark.!

Stereotyping! of! foreign! products! was! evident! among! the! American! students.! This! finding! indicates!

the! need! for! countrybofborigin! researches! to! take! into! consideration! the! nature! of! national!

stereotypes.!National!reputations!for!technological!superiority,!product!quality,!design!and!value!can!

be! generalised! by! the! consumers! but! this! generalisation! can! vary! from! country! to! country.! The!

country!of!origin!image!and!stereotypes!differ!according!to!the!nationality!of!the!consumer!and!its!

specific! characteristics.! In! fact,! in! international! marketing! cultural! differences! among! customers!

create!a!variety!of!perceptions!and!behaviour.!For!a!company!that!sell!products!or!services!abroad,!

it’s!therefore!essential!to!consider!how!a!country’s!image!is!perceived!by!the!target!market!and!what!

consumers!associate!with!it.!According!to!Lindstrom!(2005),!marketers!should!not!underestimate!the!

value!of!a!country.!This!is!a!notion!that!should!be!considered!when!creating!a!brand!from!its!initial!

phase,!where!should!the!brand!be!manufactured!and!where!should!people!perceive!it,!to!have!been!

manufactured.! For! some! authors! (for! instance,! Kaynak! and! Cavusgil,! 1983),! country! of! origin! can!

even!be!considered!as!a!fifth!element!of!the!marketing!mix.!!

In! today’s! world,! products! with! standardised! core! features! can! be! made! almost! anywhere!

and!so!it!is!therefore!common!practise!that!marketers!use!country!association!to!differentiate!their!

brand! from! competitors! (Papadopoulos! and! Heslop,! 2002).! The! consumer! awareness! of! foreign!

countries! and! their! products! are! more! and! more! important! due! to! influences! such! as! the! media,!

desire!to!travel,!education!and!increased!imports,!confirming!product!country!image!as!a!purchase!

criterion!(Papadopoulos!and!Heslop,!2002).!!

!

!

!

2.5.

H

.

The! purpose! of! this! dissertation! is! to! explain! the! impact! of! the! Made! in! France! on! the!

Swedish! consumer! behaviour.! In! the! theoretical! framework,! the! reader! has! therefore! been!

introduced!to!the!theories!about!consumer!behaviour!and!to!the!concepts!of!perception,!brand!and!

country!of!origin!effect.!These!different!elements!of!the!theoretical!framework!enable!to!make!the!

following!hypotheses!that!are!going!to!be!checked!in!this!study.!!

H1:!Swedish!consumers!share!a!vision!and!a!set!of!common!stereotypes!about!France!and!French!

products.!!

H2:!The!Made!in!France!has!a!positive!impact!on!the!Swedish!consumer!behaviour.!

H3:!The!Made!in!France!increases!the!perceived!value,!perceived!quality!and!reduces!the!perceived!

risk!in!the!purchase!of!a!product!for!the!Swedish!consumer.!!

In! this! way,! the! empirical! data! is! going! to! be! made! in! order! to! be! able! to! check! these!

hypotheses.!The!following!part!called!methodology!is!therefore!going!to!explain!how!the!empirical!

data!is!going!to!be!designed.!!!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

3. ^. M ^ETHODOLOGY .

3.1.

D

.

For! Saunders! et! al.! (2007),! a! research! project! involves! two! possible! research! approaches:!

deductive!or!inductive.!!

With!a!deductive!approach,!formulated!theory!leads!to!the!research!strategy!to!collect!data!

and!then!verify!this!theory!(Saunders!et!al.,!2007).!In!this!way,!a!research!is!deductive!if!it!starts!from!

general!ideas!and!theories!to!specific!and!particular!situations!(Neville,!2007).!

With!an!inductive!approach,!the!theories!are!made!from!the!empirical!data.!Thus,!inductive!

theories!stay!very!close!to!the!empirical!data.!Inductive!theorists!follow!the!data!wherever!they!may!

lead!(Graziano!and!Raulin,!2004).!In!this!way,!a!research!is!considered!as!inductive!if!it!starts!from!a!

particular!situation!to!general!idea!(Neville,!2007).!

!

Figure.5..Deductive./.Inductive.research.!Source:!Neville,!2007!

!

!

Working!on!a!topic!(consumer!behaviour!and!country!of!origin!effect),!where!it’s!possible!to!

find!a!large!amount!of!theories,!it!was!obvious!to!start!this!paper!with!general!ideas!and!theories!

existing!about!the!topic.!In!this!way,!the!frame!of!references!made!in!beginning!of!the!work!enable!

to!get!the!necessary!knowledge!to!study!a!particular!situation.!!

Starting! from! general! ideas! and! theories! about! consumer! behaviour! and! country! of! origin!

effect,!we!tried!to!compare!these!general!ideas!and!theories,!with!a!particular!situation!by!observing!

the!Swedish!consumer!behaviour!about!the!Made!in!France.!!

The!research!approach!applied!in!this!work!is!therefore!the!deductive!approach.!!

!

3.2.

D

,

.

There!are!different!ways!to!design!a!research.!A!research!design!is!the!framework!or!plan!for!

a! study! used! as! a! guide! in! collecting! and! analysing! data.!There! are! three! basic! types! of! research!

design:!Descriptive,!exploratory!and!explanatory!(Shrivastava,!Shailaja!Rego,!1958).!

The!descriptive!research!involves!describing!the!situation!and!phenomenon.!The!descriptive!

research!describes!usually!a!population!with!respect!to!important!variable.!For!Newman!and!Benz!

(1999),!the!main!goal!of!this!type!of!research!is!to!describe!the!data!and!characteristics!about!what!is!

being! studied.! According! to! Neville! (2007),! descriptive! research! allows! to! identify! and! classify!

elements!of!a!subject.!Usually,!quantitative!techniques!are!used!to!collect,!analyse!and!summarize!

data.!!

The!explanatory!research!involves!clarifying!why!and!how!there!is!relationship!between!two!

or!more!aspect!of!a!situation.!In!this!way!for!Saunders!et!al.!(2007),!explanatory!researches!analyse!

causes!and!relationships!and!attempt!to!identify!patterns!related!to!the!subject!studied.!According!to!

Neville! (2007),! explanatory! researches! also! called! analytical! researches! are! an! extention! of! the!

descriptive! approach! and! allow! understanding! why! and! how! something! is! happening.! Main!

characteristics!of!this!kind!of!research!are!in!locating!and!identifying!the!different!factors!involved.!!

The!exploratory!research!is!used!to!explore!an!area!where!knowledge!is!weak.!According!to!

Saunders! et! al.! (2007),! exploratory! research! is! used! on! areas! that! have! not! yet! been! explored! in!

previous!research!and!strive!to!generate!in!hypotheses!for!further!research.!The!goal!of!exploratory!

research!is!to!discover!ideas!and!insights.!!

The!type!of!research!that!is!used!for!this!paper!is!the!descriptive!research.!In!fact,!the!data!

collected!for!the!purpose!of!this!research!will!be!used!to!describe!the!effect!of!the!Made!in!France!on!

the!Swedish!consumer!behaviour.!!

!

3.3.

Q

.

To!be!sure!to!analyse!all!perspectives!of!a!subject,!it!is!possible!to!use!the!qualitative!and!

quantitative!approaches.!!

The! qualitative! analysis! was! previously! used! in! “anthropology,! sociology! and! psychology!

areas,!in!order!to!explore!the!meanings!underlying!the!physical!messages”!(Zhang!and!Wildemuth,!

p1).! It! is! now! developed! in! areas! where! it! is! possible! to! observe! phenomena! in! order! to! describe!

them!(Morgan!and!Smircich,!1980).!The!qualitative!approach!is!determined!by!nonbnumerical!data!in!

order! to! count! “words! or! extracting! objective! content! (…)! to! examine! meanings,! themes! and!

patterns”! (Zhang! and! Wildemuth,! p1).! Thus,! it! helps! to! understand! the! consumers’! point! of! view!

through!collective!interview,!observations!of!texts,!…!!

The!quantitative!approach!is!ideal!to!know!the!preferences!of!people!and!prove!hypothesis!

through!statistics.!It!is!used!for!a!“mass!communication”!through!instruments!that!imply!to!count.!

“Quantitative! content! analysis! is! deductive,! intended! to! test! hypotheses! or! address! questions!

generated!from!theories!or!previous!empirical!research”!(Zhang!and!Wildemuth,!p1).!

In!this!thesis,!we!are!going!to!use!the!quantitative!analysis!in!order!to!confirm!or!oppose!the!

hypothesis!made!before.!Our!aim!is!to!understand!the!Made!in!France!effect!on!Swedish!consumers!

so!we!have!to!ask!to!the!population!their!buying!habits,!and!their!point!of!view!about!France!and!to!

know!if!they!buy!French!products!and!which!type!of!products.!With!the!answers!given!by!the!people,!

we!will!be!able!to!organise!statistics!to!observe!and!analyse!them.!!

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