Rahul Singh
Blue skies or dark clouds for the pilots and flight attendants?
Loyalty, self-loyalty, commitment and motivation in the flight industry
Arbetsvetenskap
Magister thesis
Term: VT 2020 Supervisor: Jonas Axelsson
Acknowledgments:
First, I want to thank my supervisor Jonas Axelsson, who is an expert in the field of loyalty and self-loyalty, for his excellent guidance and support during my thesis. I especially appreciated that you supported me with your articles which were the engine during my thesis.
Your models about loyalty and self-loyalty acted like a jet turbine because they applied so well to this study. Thank you very much that you supported me as a Captain from the departure to the arrival of my thesis. Additionally, I want to thanks Miriam Krumbach, a native English school teacher of Helmholtz-Gymnasium in Zweibrücken (Germany) and Irene Groot, fresh Uppsala alumni (2020) in Conflict and Peace Studies, for proofreading and giving suggestions for improvement under the motto of my thesis “The Sky has no limit”.
Special thanks to all the respondents for sharing useful knowledge with me. Without you this research would not have been possible!
Uppsala, August 2020
Summary
Title
Blue skies or dark clouds for pilots and flight-attendants?
Level Date
Magister-level August 2020
Author Supervisor Examiner Rahul Singh Jonas Axelsson Birgitta Ericsson
Abstract
While worldwide the flight industry was increasing in the last decade, little is known about the working environment of pilots and flight attendants. This paper aims to develop a deeper understanding based on the theories of loyalty, self-loyalty, commitment, and motivation for pilots and flight attendants in the low-cost segment and the carrier segment in the flight industry. A qualitative study with a semi-structured interview is provided. In total, three pilots and three flight attendants who work for a low-cost airline and carrier airlines from all over the world were interviewed. The findings show that a differentiation between before the COVID 19 pandemic and during COVID 19 has to be made. Before COVID 19, pilots were almost satisfied with their working conditions whereas flight attendants felt their working conditions could have been improved in terms of better wages. However, during the COVID 19 time, both the flight attendants and pilots are afraid of losing their job. Due to COVID 19, many flights were cancelled which might have an impact on the flight industry in the future.
My studies open up possibilities for new research in the future about the transformation of the flight industry after COVID 19.
Keywords: Loyalty, Self-loyalty, Motivation, Commitment, Pilot, Flight attendant, Flight industry, Low-cost airline, Carrier airlines
Table of Content
1. Introduction ... 1
1.1. History of the airline industry ... 1
1.2. Problem description ... 3
1.3. Purpose ... 4
1.4. Research questions and limitations ... 5
1.5. Outline of the thesis ... 6
2. Previous Research ... 7
2.1. Summary of previous research ... 9
3. Theoretical Framework ... 12
3.1. Loyalty in the working environment ... 12
3.2. Self-loyalty ... 14
3.3. Organizational commitment ... 16
3.4. Motivation theory ... 17
3.4.1. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory ... 17
3.4.2. Herzberg’s two-factor theory ... 18
3.5. The connection between, loyalty, commitment and motivation theory ... 20
3.6. Summary of theories ... 21
4. Methodology ... 22
4.1. Selection of methods ... 22
4.2. Pre-understanding ... 23
4.3.Selection of the method for this study ... 24
4.4. Semi-structured interview form ... 25
4.5. Selection of interviewees ... 26
4.6. Interview procedure ... 28
4.7. Method of analysis ... 29
4.8. Validity ... 31
4.9. Reliability ... 32
4.10. Discussion of the method ... 33
4.11. Ethics ... 33
5. Results and analysis ... 35
5.1. Loyalty in the working environment ... 35
5.2. Self- loyalty ... 42
5.3. Organizational commitment ... 49
5.4. Motivation ... 54
5.4.1. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory ... 54
5.4.2. Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory ... 58
6. Conclusion ... 68
6.1. Discussion ... 74
6.2. Recommendation for further research ... 75
7. References ... 76
Appendix ... 80
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1. Introduction
“My soul is in the sky.” - William Shakespeare
Our dream of flying has come true: Sailing freely through the air – this is what a human being has always longings for. Many of us had dreams that we could fly like birds: “Is something in us (human beings) that we want to go high?”
For many human beings flying is one of the greatest inventions. The Wright brothers who were bicycle repairmen and enjoyed experimenting with bicycles in their free time made the most important step towards flying in 1903 where they built their first flying machine called the Wright Flyer. By this, they opened the era of aviation (Wright State University, 2020).
117 years later, the headlines in the news are full of high emissions from commercial aviation, new airport opening, striking of the pilots and flight attendants, airplane crashes, and the impact of COVID-19 in the flight industry.
While worldwide the flight industry was increasing in the last decade, little is known about the working environment of pilots and flight attendants in terms of loyalty, self-loyalty, commitment, and motivation from the pilot and flight attendant perspective.
1.1. History of the airline industry
According to Belobaba et al. (2016:32), the airline industry plays an important role in the world economy. This industry is related to aircraft manufacturing and tourism. The growth of the airline industry started in the 1950s when major technological innovations like jet airplanes were used for commercial flight. Wide-body airplanes, also called “jumbo jets”, were introduced in the 1970s the environment in the airline industry changed with cost efficiency, operating profitability, and competitive behaviour. Nowadays, the airline industry worldwide counts more than 1400 commercial airlines which are operating with more than 25000 commercial aircraft in over 3800 airports (Belobaba et al., 2016:32).
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According to IATA (2014A), over 36 million commercial flights transported over 3.1 billion passengers in 2013. In general, the airline industry grew around 5 % per year in the last 30 years. Belobaba et al. (2016:32) stated that in the airline industries there are variations in growth because of the economic conditions and differences in economic growth in different regions and countries.
Today, the region with the most passenger traffic is North America followed by Europe and Asia-Pacific (Figure 1). In the 1980s and 1990s, total passenger transportation grew faster in the Asia-Pacific region than in North America and Europe. Since 2005, the Asia-Pacific region has been as large as the European air traffic market. Figure 1 shows the growth rates of airline passenger traffic from 1970 to 2015 by region.
According to Bamber et al. (2009) the airline industry has been suffering increasingly from negative effects. In the first 5 years of the twenty-first century the US airline industry lost $30 billion. Moreover, four of the biggest airlines went bankrupt because of equity investors who wiped the airlines out financially. After World War II, most of the carriers in Europe and Asia were held by the government like Air Canada, Air India, Aer Lingus, KLM, Lufthansa, Qantas, SAS, and Singapore Airlines (Doganis, 2006:226). Since the 1980s, many governments sold their stakes to their state-owned airlines because of a move towards privatization (Doganis, 2006:225). Additionally, new entrants from the Middle East which are
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large government-owned airlines such as Emirates, Qatar Airways, and Etihad Airways restructured the airline market with their fast expansion (Doganis, 2006:225). These airlines profited from their geographical and economic location (Airbus, 2011). Furthermore, Bamber et al. (2009: 36) stated that the airline industry changed in the 1970s because of the new phenomena of low-cost airlines. The established carrier airlines faced more competition because of the deregulation and new entrants of the low-cost airlines. This trend continued in the 1990s and low-cost carriers gained a bigger market share in the airline industry.
Meanwhile, more passengers flew by planes because of the lower price of flight tickets (Bamber et al., 2009: 36)
However, Bamber et al. (2009: 40) stated that in the US airline market some airlines like Southwest Airlines and Continental Airlines have been able to offer their passengers a high- quality service and good jobs for the employees as well as making profits and being less subject to volatility. These examples show that veteran airlines (carriers) and low-cost airlines can be sustainable and balance the interests of the multiple stakeholders. Furthermore, Bamber et al. (2009: 40) highlighted that in Anglo-Saxon countries the model of maximizing shareholder gains is more common than in Scandinavian and Germanic countries as well as Japan where they have a coordinated-market approach to governing their economies and a better balance of the interests of different stakeholders. These variations between different countries and airlines have to be considered related to their treatment of their employees.
1.2. Problem description
Bamber et al. (2009: 37) argued that the airline industry is subject to high volatility which affects airlines. In the year 2006, US airlines had a boom session where they made large profits. At the same time, employees demanded a higher income and are treated fairly by getting a share of the gains. In general, the airline industry has to deal with volatile cycles because of the factors of globalization or attacks like 9/11/2001 in New York and Washington, D.C. where the airline industry made a major loss with negative consequences for the employees.
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The high volatility in the airline industry changed the working conditions for pilots and flight attendants in the last years. This may have an impact on motivation, commitment, self- loyalty, and loyalty.
In 2019/ 2020, the COVID-19 outbreak around the globe has influenced commercial aviation, with high consequences for the employees that are not fully realized. Many airlines have to cancel their flights and reduce their flights because fewer passengers are not getting on airplanes. For the airline industry, the COVID-19 outbreak is one of the greatest threats because commercial aviation is an important connective component in the global economy (Nytimes, 2020 May).
The carrier airline Air Canada lay off more than 5,100 flight attendants due to the COVID-19 (CTV News, 2020 March).
1.3. Purpose
This paper aims to develop a deeper understanding of loyalty, self-loyalty, commitment, and motivation for pilots and flight attendants in the low-cost segment and in the carrier segment (high-cost segment) of the flight industry.
Additionally, my thesis offers many interesting theories such as loyalty, self-loyalty, commitment, and motivation applied to the flight industry. However, these theories can be also applied to other professions such as investment, sport, music, or as an entrepreneur.
Therefore, an individual can figure out their niche what they love to do work with. By this, individuals can find their passion and stay with it which may lead to success. For example, pilots and flight attendants can wider their competence in many different ways such as the context of the flight industry, discovering nice destinations, new cultures, new foods, technical knowledge about airplanes, being a training coach, and serving high-quality food.
As mentioned in the history part of the thesis, external factors such as the rise of low-cost airlines, new entrants for example Middle East Airlines (which lead to an increase in competition), world crises such as economic downturn or a pandemic (COVID-19), and the
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variations in labor treatment in the different countries may have an impact on the flight industry and employees in terms of loyalty, self-loyalty, motivation, and commitment.
1.4. Research questions and limitations
The thesis aims to enhance the understanding of employee loyalty, self-loyalty, motivation, and commitment for pilots and flight attendants (carrier and low-cost) in the airline industry.
Question 1:
Which factors and needs are important for the pilots when they work for an airline?
Question 2:
Which factors and needs are important for the flight attendant when they work for an airline?
Question 3:
Do pilots have thoughts about loyalty at work? And in that case of loyalty, how do they explain it?
Question 4:
Do flight attendants have thoughts about loyalty at work? And in that case of loyalty, how do they explain it?
Question 5:
What are the main similarities and differences in the working conditions between pilots and flight attendants?
Limitations
The thesis is a qualitative study which means that it cannot be generalized for the whole flight crew and employees in the airline industry. This study should be seen more as an example.
The respondents are working for airlines in different parts of the world. The respondents are pilots and flight attendants who work for airlines in the low-cost segment as well as the high- cost segment (carriers). In this study, I focus exclusively on airline employees that operate in the air and thereby exclude any other type of airline service provision.
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1.5. Outline of the thesis
The thesis starts with an introduction about the flight industry and the changes that happened concerning the employees of the airlines as well as the economic potential of the global airline industry. In the next chapter, previous studies are represented. In chapter 3, a literature review is given with important theories like loyalty, self-loyalty, commitment, and motivation. Chapter 4 discusses the methodology of the thesis and in chapter 5 the results and analysis are given. In the last chapter, the research question is answered and a conclusion is presented.
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2. Previous Research
This chapter focuses on previous studies which deal with employment relations in the flight industry.
Management and employment-relations strategies in European airlines
The authors Bamber et al. (2009) published an article entitled Contrasting Management and Employment-Relations Strategies in European Airlines. They emphasized in their study that in the airline industries many changes have taken place in the operating environment as well as in management practices of airlines since the 1980s. Airlines have been privatized after the airline market was deregulated. Since the deregulation of the airline industry, many airlines became tougher employers, reducing the benefits and economic rewards of their employees and thereby airlines increasing their shareholder value in the short-term.
This is an interesting study because the authors focused on external factors of the airline industry such as deregulation of the industry and on different political economic systems (varieties of capitalism) which have a huge influence on the employer-employee relationship and employee commitment. However, the authors did not focus much on internal factors such as loyalty and motivation of the employees. External factors and internal factors of the employee-employer relationship are both important to get a big picture of the airline industry.
My study concentrates on internal factors such as loyalty, commitment, and motivation of pilots and flight attendants in order to provide a broader picture of the employee-employer relationship in the airline industry. Additionally, I want to find out if there are differences in the internal factors (motivation, loyalty, self-loyalty, and commitment) between carriers and low-cost airlines for pilots and flight attendants.
Organizational rewards and employee commitment: a Chinese study
Newman et al. (2010) did a study on organizational rewards and employee commitment in China. Chinese society follows a Confucianism traditional and collectivist orientation. They surveyed 290 Chinese employees who work for one of the biggest Chinese airlines. The authors stated that individuals or society in a highly traditional culture take less responsibility for work-related activities than those who have low traditions because they feel powerless due
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to their traditional beliefs. The authors Newman et al. (2010) concluded that China is still a traditional society even though their society is changing due to globalization. However, their traditional beliefs may not be significant in the relationship between organizational rewards and employee commitment to the organization because the wages in the Chinese airline industry are very low which leads to dissatisfaction. This reduces the impact of tradition that the employees are satisfied with their employer.
The Newman et al. (2010) study is also interesting because the authors focused on other internal factors such as tradition, respect for authority, pay satisfaction, autonomy, and satisfaction with supervision. These are more applicable to Chinese society. I focus on other internal factors (theories) which are similar such as loyalty (my study) and tradition (Newman et al.) or motivation (my study) and satisfaction/dissatisfaction (Newman et al.). Hence, the models of loyalty, self-loyalty, commitment, and motivation are flexible models that can be used for all types of societies. Therefore, my study is interesting if other studies using similar concepts come to a similar conclusion for the airline industry.
However, my study covers fewer employees in the airline industry and I set other limitations than Newman et al. (2010) did. My study focuses on pilots and flight attendants who work for different airlines (low-cost and carriers) around the world whereas Newman et al. (2010) focused on one specific airline. In comparison to Newman et al. (2010), my data can be seen as more in-depth because an interview is a good way to understand the context. It is easier to get a big picture of a topic whereas a survey can be seen as more superficial.
Building trust through promises and performance – Can your organization achieve the stellar results and employee loyalty found at Southwest Airlines? // Edward J. O`Connor and Michael H. Annison (2002)
The study of O’ Connor and Annison (2002) is interesting because they focused on Southwest Airlines, a low-cost airline that managed successfully to have the most committed and work- efficient employees who achieve excellent results. Moreover, Southwest Airlines has been consistently profit-making, even in the early 1990s when other airlines made billion-dollar losses. In comparison with other airlines, Southwest Airlines is the only airline that earned a profit yearly since 1973. The airline manages costs, service, and availability in a manner which is consistent with its commitment to democratizing air travel. For the authors Southwest Airlines is an interesting airline because it is known for long-term trust. Their
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president Herb Kelleher built up a reputation for his commitment to his employees and for keeping his word. Therefore, Southwest Airlines is a good example to consider theories such as honesty, integrity as well as long-term trust which are based on agreements about values, purpose, vision, and goals.
In my study, I used the similar concepts of loyalty, commitment, and motivation. However, I miss a survey or an interview in this study to get a deeper knowledge of the success of Southwest Airlines. Their information and data are only based on examining existing literature. Moreover, an examination of other types of airlines like carriers would have given a broader picture of the airline industry. My study covers low-cost airlines such as Southwest Airlines and carrier airlines. By interviewing pilots and flight attendants, I may get in-depth information.
2.1. Summary of previous research
To sum up the previous studies, an interview with the employees in the flight industry is missing. This is important to gain in-depth knowledge in the flight industry. However, it is difficult for a researcher to get interviews because the employees who work for an airline rarely give interviews about the working condition of their airlines. The data are very sensitive. Additionally, airlines are not interested in providing employees for researchers.
Pilots and flight attendants have a huge network (because of their colleagues) to do a study about the flight industry. However, it is unusual that pilots and flight attendants are working as researchers because it is challenging for them to combine these professions. Pilots and flight attendants have to travel to many different destinations which is time-consuming. This complicates to carry out a study about the flight industry.
Within this study, I could fulfill a research gap by providing a perspective of pilots and flight attendants about their working conditions in the flight industry in terms of loyalty, self- loyalty, commitment, and motivation. This study was possible because I have a network of pilots and flight attendants in different airlines around the world.
Newman et al. (2004) chose a quantitative approach to research internal factors for one airline which is not representative of the airline industry as a whole. The results of quantitative research are not in-depth in comparison with qualitative studies with interviews. Moreover,
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using a quantitative method means it is more difficult to find out how everything is related to each other. In my opinion, this is important if a researcher is concentrating on internal factors.
By interviewing the respondents, the researcher can easily find out how everything is related to each other. Edward O’Connor and Michael H. Annison (2002) also focused on one particular airline which is not representative of all airlines. In contrast, I interviewed pilots and flight attendants who work in different airlines all over the world which may give a broader view of the flight industry. By this, I could ask the respondents additional questions if I have not understood the context. Therefore, I got an in-depth understanding of the flight industry which is difficult by using quantitative methods. Bamber et al. (2009) only concentrated on external factors such as political-economic systems. By concentrating on external factors, it is difficult to get a big picture of the flight industry because the internal factors are missing. It would be interesting to research what a pilot or flight attendant thinks about the external factors such as working-condition laws in the country where they are working.
When I started with this study in 2019, I did not concentrate on external factors because my study only focused on internal factors due to the time limitation. However, the external factor COVID-19 in 2020 had a huge impact on the flight industry. Therefore, I included COVID-19 as an only external factor in my study because I could have a huge impact on loyalty, self- loyalty, commitment, and motivation. However, I found out that external factors such as country culture and the laws in different countries have an impact on the working conditions of pilots and flight attendants which might affect internal factors such as loyalty, self-loyalty, commitment, and motivation.
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3. Theoretical Framework
This chapter discusses includes the theoretical framework of the study. It begins with the first theory of loyalty in the working environment because pilots and flight attendants are employed by an airline. The second theory is self-loyalty because pilots and flight attendants have to focus to reach their career goals. The third theory is commitment and the chapter ends with the fourth theory: motivation.
3.1. Loyalty in the working environment
Elegido (2013) emphasized that employee’s loyalty is defined as a deliberate commitment.
He noted that loyalty may demand a sacrifice of some aspects of one’s self-interest.
According to Guillon et al. (2014:839), loyalty is a kind of “psychological contract” between employers and employees. Royce (1908:25) defined loyalty as” The willing and practical and thoroughgoing devotion of a person to a cause”. Foust (2012:5) stated that the scholar McDermott explains loyalty as treacherous and ambivalent.
According to Arvidson and Axelsson (2014), nowadays loyalty has become a stronger focus in the working environment due to fast-changes in working environments and in society which have been driven by social media. Because of this they updated the term loyalty, dividing it into two stages: In the first stage, the authors renewed the classic range of loyalty to sharpen the term into an overall level. In the second stage, the authors established a distinction between different forms of loyalty by implementing two dimensions. The first dimension is voluntarily and involuntarily, the second dimension is horizontal and vertical.
For Arvidson and Axelsson (2014) the form of loyalty can be used indifferent social contexts for example in families or in the relationship between employee and employer. The authors mentioned that individuals often have to be loyal to an organization and respect the requirements of loyalty because it is expected of them. This shows that loyalty can be involuntary. On the other hand, they noted that individual’s feel at times that they must take a position against that of their colleagues, the organization or their superior which is an example that loyalty can be involuntary.
Arvidson and Axelsson (2014) emphasized that loyalty is often understood as a vertically focused term where a manager expects loyalty from their employees. Employers have a
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superior role and have expectations and requirements of employees who have a subordinate role. This type of vertical loyalty exists for example in southern Italy where some people put the family above the democratic system. This is a client–guard system, a vertical form of loyalty, whereas a democratic system (at least on paper) is supported by the majority of the population and is a horizontal form of loyalty.
Therefore, Arvidson and Axelsson (2014) created a model (see figure 3) which illustrates the basic forms of loyalty which are divided into four different fields. With this model, it is possible to differentiate the different types of loyalty.
The four social loyalty forms:
Examples:
An example of a voluntary-horizontal loyalty is if colleagues in the same position develop an informal collective culture where they protect each other. An involuntary-horizontal form of loyalty can be group pressure like “Jantelagen” in Nordic countries. An example of an involuntary-vertical loyalty is if a young employee is being brainwashed by the organization culture (to think positively about the organization). And an example for a voluntary-vertical is a violinist in an orchestra which is led by a conductor (Arvidson and Axelsson, 2014).
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Related to the theory of loyalty in the working environment, here is the second theory self- loyalty. Self-loyalty focuses on an individual itself. An individual can be disloyal to an organization, but loyal to him/herself. Hence, individuals who are highly self-loyal choose jobs or life-styles which are in line with their interests.
3.2. Self-loyalty
Nowadays, individualism plays a stronger role in society than before. An example is the popularity of selfies which are a way to self-portrait oneself. Arvidson and Axelsson (2017) stated that loyalty has its “selfie”, namely self-loyalty which can be understood as to be loyal to oneself. This special form of loyalty is directed towards oneself. Self-loyalty is seen as an emotion that is channelled through social forms. Arvidson and Axelsson (2017) described loyalty as an emotion like other emotions such as pride, joy, and anger which is affected by social actions and social structures.
Arvidson and Axelsson (2017) discussed the difference between self-discipline and autonomy. Both words stand for freedom and individualism, but self-discipline is seen as too hard in comparison to autonomy which is seen as too soft. Therefore, self-loyalty stands in between the poles of self-discipline and autonomy. Further, they argued that loyalty depends on the perspective. If an individual leaves the organization, it can be seen as a form of disloyalty. However, this individual is loyal to his/herself.
In a previous study, Arvidson and Axelsson (2014) argued that self-loyalty can be voluntary or involuntary in its resistance to strategies, individualization, and social acceleration.
Loyalty relations at work are flexible because they depend on the context. By this, loyalty can be vertical or horizontal and voluntary or involuntary. Hence in the later study, Arvidson and Axelsson (2017) also included a second dimension to the term self-loyalty, namely voluntariness and involuntariness.
Arvidson and Axelsson (2017) explained that if self-loyalty is voluntary, the individual is setting their own goal and vision. Therefore, the individual can be loyal to his/herself instead of loyal to the employer or society. They defined voluntary self-loyalty as an individual who is focusing on their passion like business people, musicians, and sport athletes and has strong beliefs. These individuals are focused on following their dreams even when they face resistance. Hence, Arvidson and Axelsson (2017) pointed out that self-loyalty can be a
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connection between loyalty and resistance. The strongest form of resistance is seen in radical political activities whereas loyalty is more emotional.
On the other hand, Arvidson and Axelsson (2017) noted that self-loyalty can be involuntary where the individual has to “play the game” to fulfil the demands and norms of a society. An example of this is the employability of an individual where the jobseeker has to optimize their CV. A CV has to be presented in a clear form which can be seen as a demand by a firm. This is a typical form of involuntary self-loyalty where the individual is forced to live with a social norm that may not be aligned with their views. In figure 4, the theory of self-loyalty theory by Arvidson and Axelsson (2017) is illustrated with the dimension voluntary and involuntary as well as self-discipline and autonomy.
The next theory is commitment and it differs from loyalty because commitment is about making a promise to someone or agreeing to do something rather than fulfilling it. On the other hand, loyalty and self-loyalty mean faithfulness to a cause, individual, or company.
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3.3. Organizational commitment
According to Meyer & Herscovitch (2001:320), commitment to an organization has different forms that may affect organizational effectiveness as well as employee satisfaction. Hence, they explained that the term commitment has been defined in various ways.
Meyer and Allen (1991) emphasized three forms of commitment, namely affective, continuance, and normative. This is also called the three-component model. The term affective commitment is an emotional attachment of individuals to organizations. As an example, an employee may argue: “I would be happy to spend the rest of my life with this organization” (Meyer & Herscovitch, 2001:320). Continuance commitment refers to an intention to remain with the organization because of the costs of leaving or the rewards for staying (Meyer and Allen, 1991). An example for continuance commitment is if an employee argues: “It would be costly for me to leave this organization now (Meyer & Herscovitch, 2001:320). Normative commitment is associated with a felt obligation to remain a member of an organization (Meyer and Allen, 1991). An example of normative commitment is if someone argues: “I would feel guilty if I left this organization now (Meyer & Herscovitch, 2001:320).
O’Reilly and Chatman established a multidimensional framework. They developed a three- dimensional structure of their commitment measure (Meyer & Herscovitch, 2001:305).
O’Reilly and Chatman (1986) and Mowday (1998:390) stated that the bond between an employee and an organization can have three forms: compliance, identification, and internalization. Compliance includes instrumental behavior designed to gain rewards.
Identification develops when employees want a relationship with an organization because of its attractive values or goals, even if the employees are not aligned with these values or goals (O’Reilly and Chatman 1986; Mowday, 1998:390). Internalization includes behavior driven by internal values or goals that are in line with those of the organization (O’Reilly and Chatman 1986; Mowday, 1998:390).
Mowday (1998:390) highlighted that there is an overlap of commitment between O’Reilly and Chatman’s (1986) concept of the internalization dimension and Allen and Mayer’s (1991) concept of affective commitment.
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Bakker et al. (2008:151) argued that organizational commitment is important to the organization because committed employees work with higher dedication. Employees who are committed have higher motivation.
Finally, the last theory of motivation differs from commitment. Commitment is the decision that is based on what motivates an individual. Motivation can be seen as the drive that fuels the commitment.
3.4. Motivation theory
3.4.1. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory
Maslow differentiated the classification of basic needs into five categories. At the bottom level of Maslow’s hierarchy is physiological need which then continues through safety and security, belongingness, esteem to self-actualization (Maslow, 1970; Lester, 2000:3). Lester (2013:15) suggested that the classification of basic needs is a hypothesis by Maslow where the needs are a sequence of evolution and human individual development from birth to adulthood. Additionally, the needs which are categorized lower are more powerful than the needs which are categorized higher.
Moreover, Stephens (2000:3) emphasized in Figure 5 that if the physiological needs are satisfied, it is no longer a motivator. This leads to a new set of needs, which is classified as safety needs. If both of these needs are satisfied, the needs for love, affection, and belongingness will emerge. This can be seen from group membership, clubs, churches, work affiliations to friendship and family. Hence, Stephens (2000:4-5), argued that every person requires a stable, firmly based, high evolution of themselves for self-respect, for self-esteem and for the respect of others. Under the term self-esteem, individual desire for a feeling of self-confidence is meant. After these needs are gratified, a new stage may develop namely self-actualization.
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Maslow’s theory focuses on human needs and their satisfaction whereas Herzberg’s theory relies on reward and recognition.
3.4.2. Herzberg’s two-factor theory
Herzberg et al. (1959) developed another well-known theory in the category of motivation, namely the seminal two-factor theory of motivation. They noted that satisfaction and dissatisfaction were not two opposite extremes of an equal continuum because they are two individual entities which are caused by different facets of work.
Furnham et al. (1999:1036) described the theory of Herzberg as having two types of needs, namely hygiene needs and motivator needs.
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Furnham et al. (1999:1036) emphasized that hygiene needs include the physical and psychological conditions in which people work whereas motivator needs are similar to Maslow’s higher-order needs. Herzberg et al. (1959) highlighted that motivator needs are fulfilled by motivator factors or satisfiers. Furthermore, Furnham et al. (2009:767) noted that motivator factors (needs) are intrinsic factors which include achievement, recognition, work itself, responsibility as well as advancement.
Furnham et al. (2009:767) stated that hygiene factors are extrinsic and include supervision, interpersonal relations, physical working conditions, salary, company policies and administrative practices, benefits, and job security. If these factors are destructive, job dissatisfaction results. When hygiene factors are satisfied, the barriers to job satisfaction are eliminated, but this does not necessarily lead to job satisfaction. However, satisfied hygiene needs can reduce or eliminate dissatisfaction. Hygiene factors are linked to the context of
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work whereas motivation factors are linked to the nature of that particular work itself as well as the outcome of work (Furnham et al., 1999:1036).
3.5. The connection between, loyalty, commitment and motivation theory
According to Naus et al. (2007) loyalty is a central term that is seen as a “psychological contract” between employers and employees. Guillon et al. (2014:839) found that the economic performance of a firm is independent of the industry but relies on the participation, commitment, and loyalty of their employees. Elegido (2013) described employee loyalty as a deliberate commitment.
According to Meyer et al. (2004:1), theorists and researchers who are interested in employee commitment and motivation have difficulties in accepting each other’s work. Researchers in commitment see motivation as a process through which commitment affects behavior whereas motivation researchers do not recognize the important distinctions in the forms and bases of commitment. However, Meyer et al. (2004:1) stated that researchers in commitment discuss motivation and motivation researchers discuss commitment. Hence they concluded that both topics have to be seen more interdependently as both theories are related to each other.
However, Meyer et al. (2004:1) suggest that commitment can be seen as a component of motivation. Integrating both theories of commitment into motivation theory may lead to a better understanding of the topic of workplace behavior (Meyer et al. 2004:1).
Additionally, Bakker et al. (2008:151) argued that employees who are committed have higher motivation.
I selected motivation as a theory because individuals mostly choose a profession that they are enthusiastic about. This means the individual identifies with the job and leads to success. This mostly happens if the job matches the interests of the individual. If the individual can identify with the job, it may lead to a commitment to the job or organization because the individual is hard working and thus, sees a purpose in his/her life. Therefore, I chose commitment as another theory. The individual commits to show up and do the job well and in return, the employer commits to pay the wages.
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Additionally, a profession like being a flight attendant or pilot has many hurdles because of the tough assessment process and other factors such as the high amount of traveling in different countries and during holidays which requires a high level of self-loyalty for the flight crew. Before these studies, I recognized self-loyal individuals in sports because it takes a lot of hard work as well as the talent to become a world-class sportsman/sportswoman.
Loyalty to an organization is the main theory for my studies because it can be seen as a
“psychological contract” between employers and employees. If the individual fits in well with the colleagues, supervisor, and the culture of an organization, then loyalty will be high. On the other hand, loyalty will decrease if the individual does not fit in with their colleagues, supervisor, or the culture of the firm. Before I started with my thesis, for me loyal employees were individuals who stay a long time in an organization. The firm and the organization have to match with both sides sharing similar values and opinions. I would recognize loyal employees when the organization and the individual work successfully together and when both sides talk positively and value each other.
3.6. Summary of theories
For Arvidson and Axelsson (2014) the concept of loyalty can be used indifferent social contexts for example in families or the relationship between employee and employer.
Axelsson et al. (2017) addressed the different forms of loyalty and self-loyalty which can be horizontal or vertical as well as voluntary or involuntary.
Meyer & Herscovitch (2001:320) stated that commitment to an organization has different forms that may affect organizational effectiveness as well as employee satisfaction.
Furthermore, Meyer and Allen (1991) established the three-component model which includes three forms of commitment: affective, continuance, and normative commitment. Additionally, O’Reilly and Chatman established a multidimensional framework with a three-dimensional structure of commitment measurement.
Finally, Maslow developed his model, the hierarchy of needs theory, which includes five categories of needs (Stephens, 2000:3). Herzberg et al. (1959) developed another motivation theory, the seminal two-factor theory of motivation. This model includes two types of needs, hygiene needs and motivator needs.
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4. Methodology
In this chapter, the research method is described. This begins with a discussion of the selection of methods, a pre-understanding, and the selection of the method for this study, namely semi-structured interviews. This chapter proceeds with a discussion of this method, the selection of interviewees, and interview implementation. There follows the method of analysis, validity and reliability, discussion of the method and ethics.
4.1. Selection of methods
Benton et al. (2001:103-104) classify the hermeneutic approach to social sciences, which was originally used for the interpretation of the spiritual truth of the Bible. According to Benton et al. (2001:105-106) the main goal of hermeneutics is to understand human action. Gadamer’s notion about hermeneutics is a more traditional and authoritative approach. Danermark et al.
(2015:200) argue that every person interprets the interpretations of other people. Therefore, an understanding of significance and meanings is important to explain the social world. People understand and explain the meaning of actions in order to understand and explain the social world. So concepts were developed to get a deeper understanding and attain a better explanation. This is called the double hermeneutics of social science (Danermark et al., 2015:200).
According to Saunders et al. (2009: 324), the researcher has to understand the reasons for the decision that the respondents have made. To understand the reasons for their attitudes and opinions, the researcher needs to conduct a qualitative interview. This thesis aims to increase the understanding of the flight industry in terms of loyalty, self-loyalty, commitment, and motivation of pilots and flight attendants. Therefore, I want to figure out which factors and/or needs are important and what pilots and flight attendants understand by the terms loyalty, self-loyalty, motivation, and commitment. Thus, it is important to understand the pilots and flight attendants in order to answer the research question. This is a hermeneutic approach. By this, I choose to implement a qualitative study where the respondents can describe their work experience. Additionally, by interviewing the respondent, I have the opportunity to discuss the opinions of the pilots and flight attendants in-depth. By this, I get a deeper and broader knowledge of airlines in high-cost as well as a low-cost segment and the working environment for their pilots and flight attendants. According to Saunders et al. (2009: 318),
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an interview between two or more people can help to gather valid and reliable data to answer the research question.
Moreover, semi-structured and in-depth interviews have the advantage that the interviewer can check the answers and the respondents have the opportunity to explain and build on their answers. This approach is necessary for the researcher to interpret the interview. The researcher needs to understand the context and the meaning of their participants’ responses.
Additionally, the interview can lead to other topics that are not previously planned but may be relevant for answering the research question (Saunders et al., 2009: 324).
4.2. Pre-understanding
Benton et al. (2001:104-105) state that every individual understands primarily through their prejudices for example the prejudgements of the historical moment and they argued that a human being cannot know anything without any prejudices, but a human being may change their minds if they become aware of new facts.
As a passenger of an airline, I can see how the flight attendants are working during a flight.
Therefore, I get an idea about the job of flight attendant which can be seen as a pre- understanding. Additionally, I see the difference between the service onboard of a low-cost airline and carrier airline. Airlines in the low-cost segment offer less service than carrier airlines which have more classes such as first-class, business class, and economy class. In other words, my pre-understanding can affect the result.
Additionally, I followed the news of various strikes of pilots and flight attendants in the carrier as well as in low-cost airlines. During these strikes, they demanded higher wages and higher job-security. I noticed that pilots could strike successfully because the timing of their strikes was before holidays such as Christmas. By this, they could put their airline under pressure because if flights are canceled, it causes chaos for the airline management and passengers. Thus, the flight crews send a signal of their power towards the airline.
As an example, in 2019 I followed the strike of Ryanair pilots, a low-cost airline which is known for very bad working conditions for their pilots and flight attendants in Europe. The pilots of Ryanair and the unions demanded higher wages, job security, and a better pension when they retire. On the other hand, Ryanair recruit mostly young people from Southern
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Europe who accept bad working condition because of the poor economy of their home country. However, in my previous research about the flight industry, the employees of Southwest Airlines, an American low-cost airline, were very satisfied to work for their airline which made Southwest Airlines economically successful. This is the opposite situation in comparison to Ryanair. Thus, I felt that the policy of the CEO of an airline may have a great impact on the working situation of the employees. Additionally, some airlines like Southwest Airlines allow unions which were not the case in the past for Ryanair. Unions are representing the interests of the employees which have an impact on the working conditions. Finally, I read a study where the employees of Southwest Airlines were one of the most satisfied employees with their airline. Therefore, I was aware that employees can be satisfied with the working conditions with a low-cost airline and not only in carrier-airlines.
Moreover, I do not have any working experience for an airline. Otherwise, I might have a deeper understanding of the flight industry. On the other hand, I can be more objective to research the flight industry in comparison to employees who may have a more subjective view of the airline industry.
On the other hand, in some countries which have an authoritative regime, pilots and flight attendants are not allowed to strike for better working conditions because it is forbidden by law. However, as a researcher, I do not have the real perspective of a pilot or a flight attendant because I worked previously in other industries. I have only experienced the role of a passenger in low-cost and carrier airlines. Therefore, I need to interview them to dig deeper into their working life situation and learn about their knowledge and experiences.
4.3.Selection of the method for this study
According to Trost (2005: 14), a qualitative method is the optimal way to do a study when the researcher wants to understand the context before answering a research question. The best way to explain and report the view of the pilots and flight attendants for loyalty, self-loyalty, motivation, and commitment is to do qualitative interviews. Kvale and Brinkmann (2014:15) stated that human interaction is a basic form. By talking with other people, we gain knowledge from their experience. In the interview, the researcher has possibilities to ask questions about the interviewees experience, feelings, attitude, and their point of view regarding the purpose of the study.
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By using this method, the researcher may get better information and a deeper understanding of their research field. I selected the hermeneutic approach because it enables the researcher to understand and explain a particular topic. By using the hermeneutic approach, the researcher understands the action through conversations in the form of interviews (Patel &
Davidson; 2012:28f).
The selection of the method has a big impact on the quality of the answer to the research question. By using the quantitative method, it would be difficult to get a deeper understanding and explanation about loyalty towards the airlines from the pilots and flight attendants.
Therefore, the qualitative method is a better approach for this study.
4.4. Semi-structured interview form
A semi-structured interview is non-standardized (Saunders 2009: 320). For this study, I collected data through semi-structured interviews. According to Saunder (2009: 320), for the semi-structured interviews, the researcher has to prepare a list of themes as well as questions to be covered in the interview. Therefore, each interview can be different and some questions maybe left out. I used the semi-structured interview form because it gives the respondent more freedom to develop their answer which can result in more information being given about a research question. By choosing a semi-structured interview form, I can categorize the questions into different topics, namely loyalty, self-loyalty, commitment, and motivation following a red line. The questions are asked in a pre-determined order interview guide in the Appendix). The interview guide shows the questions that are related to the study aim categorized into the four theories of loyalty, self-loyalty, commitment, and motivation. I asked open questions at the beginning of each subtopic so that the respondent can develop their answer.
For Saunder (2009: 320) the order of the questions is flexible because the conversation flow will vary. Additionally, extra questions may be necessary to answer the research question and objective. This was the case when I did not understand the technical terms like first officer (=
co-pilot) or purser (= chief flight attendant). The conversations can be recorded or notes can be taken. Due to the sensitive questions (such as Question 29: Can you identify with the values and goals of your airline?), I chose to take notes because pilots and flight attendants
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may not be willing to participate in a recorded interview. Thereby, there is a risk that some information may get lost. After each interview session with the respondents, I wrote my result part to minimize the risk to lose important information. However, it would be an advantage for this study to have the opportunity to record the conversations.
By interviewing the respondents, each interview was different because of the different emphasis of their experiences and the respondents could share their ideas and experience of the working environment in the airline industry. I motivated my respondents to answer freely about their experience.
The questions are standardized and were sent out by email before the interview was held.
Thus, the respondent has a fair chance to think about the topics and the answer they want to give. Another advantage for the respondents is that it allows them to develop their answers and provide deeper information about the topic which is being answered (Denscombe, 2010:
232f). Some questions are particularly sensitive and respondents need time to decide how to answer that kind of question or not to answer it. The respondents live all over the world, and due to the COVID 19 virus safety regulations, it was not possible to visit the respondents.
Thus, I interviewed all of them by phone. During the phone interviews, I took notes.
4.5. Selection of interviewees
The selection of interviewees for the study has been limited to pilots and flight attendants who work for low-cost or carrier airlines around the world. Employees working on the “ground”
are excluded from this study. Similarities and differences between pilots who work for a low- cost airline and carrier airlines are examined. The same approach is used for flight attendants who work for low-cost and carrier airlines. The idea behind this is to get a new picture of flight attendants and pilots around the world. In total, I interviewed three pilots and three flight attendants.
I also tried to get contacts directly from the airline. Most airlines are involved in similar projects and therefore, it was not impossible to interview their pilots or flight attendants. So I interviewed pilots and flight attendants on the phone during their free time. I collected enough material to get the big picture due to the willing cooperation of the six respondents. Therefore, it was not necessary to interview more respondents. In total, four men and two women
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participated in this study. Five respondents are in the age group between 25- 35. They have less than 10 years of working experience in the flight industry. One respondent is between the age group 45-55. This respondent had over 10 years of work- experience in the flight industry. Moreover, four respondents are married and two respondents are unmarried.
A = Flight attendant
Flight attendant low-cost segment: Respondent 2 Flight attendant carrier segment: Respondent 3 Flight attendant carrier segment: Respondent 4
B = Pilot
Pilot low-cost segment: Respondent 1 Pilot low-cost segment: Respondent 5 Pilot carrier: Respondent 6
Source Criticism
Patel and Davidson (2011) highlighted that the author has to be critical to the source to evaluate if the experience is probable. This is important because other pilots or flight attendants in the selection of interviewees can influence the study. Doing such interviews is extremely rare because the flight industry is exclusive. For the researcher, it is a big challenge to get contacts with pilots or flight attendants. Pilots and flight attendants have to be cautious about what they say in the interview. I did not want to bring the respondents in a difficult situation. Therefore, I decided to send out the interview guide before the interview. The respondents have enough time to reflect on what they want to say.
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Olson and Sörensen (2011) state that the selection of interviewees methods can be called the subjective selection of interviewees. It refers to that voluntary selection of interviewees were used in this study. Moreover, Dencombe (1998) mentions that a convenience sample is about respondents who are ”the first best persons” for this study. For this study, I rely on the convenience sample because airlines have not replied if I can interview their pilots and flight attendants.
4.6. Interview procedure
Before the interview, I sent the questions via email to allow the respondents time to prepare their answers to the questions. This approach may help to increase the quality of the data because the answers are more reflected. Moreover, the respondents feel more confident which may have a positive effect on the interview (Saunders et al., 2009: 351). On the other hand, there is a risk that respondents are less spontaneous and honest if they get the questions before the interview.
Trost (2004:44) sees handing out information before an interview as a good preparation that ensures the interview will be successful. Before I interviewed the respondents, I informed them all about my goals and the content of this study.
Saunders (2009:349) discusses the advantages and disadvantages of telephone interviews. A telephone interview has an advantage if there is a long distance between the researcher and the respondent. Another advantage is that the researcher receives information immediately and the costs are lower. A disadvantage with a telephone interview is that the researcher does not have personal contact with the respondent. For example, if the researcher is asking a sensitive question, the researcher must already build trust. Otherwise, the reliability of the answer may be reduced because the respondent does not feel comfortable enough to answer the question in detail. Another disadvantage is that the researcher cannot see the respondents’
body language which can influence the data. It is more difficult for the researcher to evaluate whether they can dig deeper or not. In my case, I had to do interviews via phone because of the geographic distance of my respondents and the COVID 19 pandemic. I did not record any answers because the information is very sensitive and therefore, the respondents are more comfortable to interview without any recording. But the risks are higher that some
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information may be lost. However, I had the chance to contact the respondents again if I forget their answers.
The order of the interview questions was defined in the interview guide which was categorized by topic according to the theories for this study. The duration of the interviews from 45 to 73 minutes and was done in the free time of the respondents.
4.7. Method of analysis
For a researcher, the interview method is relevant to get a deep understanding about the loyalty of pilots and flight attendants towards their airline. The researcher has to ask additional questions regarding this topic if something is unclear. According to Benton et al.
(2001:104), history is essential for understanding. Furthermore, the process of understanding involves a “hermeneutic circle” (Kvale and Brinkmann 2014). That means that it is difficult to understand the whole if we do not understand a part and without understanding the whole it is not possible to understand its parts. Therefore, understanding needs a constant movement by the researcher, namely from the part to the whole and from the whole to the part. So the researcher has to decide when the material should be processed. Thus, the researcher can change their perspective between an objective view and a subjective view or trust in their pre- understanding during the evaluation process of the material.
I chose the deductive approach and also partly an inductive approach to answer the research questions. According to Saunders (2009:501), a deductive approach provides the researcher with key themes and patterns to find in the data. Pattern matching includes predicting a pattern of outcomes that are based on theoretical propositions to explain what the researcher expects to find. The researcher has to develop a conceptual framework, using existing theory to explain the findings. That means if the pattern of the data matches what was predicted by the conceptual framework or theories, the researcher has found an explanation. For example, by interviewing pilots and flight attendants I could see a pattern in their interest fields like travelling to great destinations, good colleagues and supervisor, and flying itself.
For Corbin and Strauss (2008) grounded theory is a form of empirical research. It is an analyzing method. Corbin and Strauss (2008) highlighted that the grounded theory was developed by Glaser and Strauss (1967) to generate theory from data.
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The basis of grounded theory is coding because theories are launched from data via coding which includes developing categories and labelling common properties in data (Danermark et al., 2015:130-131). The categorizing or conceptualizing has to be done by careful data analysis. Coding is an approach which is a grounded abstraction. Codes are, for example, concepts that give data a particular meaning, the building blocks of the theory (Danermark et al., 2015:130-131).
According to Saunders (2009: 502) it is an inductive approach that works well to develop a connection between the social reality of the research participants and the theory that emerges.
For using an inductive approach, the researcher needs a competent level of knowledge about that area. Additionally, in this study, I had already used the four theories as basics before I began with the analysis part. Therefore, I did not only use grounded theory which has an inductive approach.
According to Corbin and Strauss (2008:160), open coding requires a brainstorming approach to analysis because the researcher has to open up the data with all its potentials and possibilities. During the interview, I took my notes to transcribe the data with the help of keywords for every text. The keywords are different terms that were generated during the coding process. In the analysis, I used quotes from the respondents which I found interesting for analysis using the existing theories. With the help of quotes, I found keywords that I used in the analysis part. Examples of these keywords are teamwork, supervisor, passion, enjoyment, lifestyle, jetlag, salary, and working conditions. After this, I sorted the keywords into the categories of loyalty, self-loyalty, commitment, and motivation to figure out how they relate to each other. After this, I developed sub-categories that are related to the categories and sorted the keywords into different sub-categories: involuntary-horizontal, involuntary- vertical, voluntary-horizontal, voluntary-vertical, self-loyalty-voluntary, self-loyalty- involuntary, autonomy, self-discipline, Maslow’s motivator factors, and Herzberg’s hygiene factors and motivators of loyalty in the organization, self-loyalty, commitment, and motivation.
This follows the finding of Kvale and Brinkmann (2018:14) that the analysis of such data is easier when the researcher uses keywords that lead to categories. With the help of memos, I could relate the keywords to each other when I recognized a pattern. Memos are a way to
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create a theme and then relate those themes with the relevant theory (Corbin and Strauss 2008).
4.8. Validity
Hence, Saunders (2009:157) stated validity refers to what the findings are really about. Kvale and Brinkmann (2014:296) stated that validity refers to the strength and accuracy of an opinion. Validity aims to measure the strength and the correctness of a statement. Moreover, it is about examining what the researcher wants to examine (Kvale and Brinkmann 2017:
296). First, I read previous research about commitment and motivation in the flight industry to develop an interview guide that is relevant to the aim of the study. Only in very few cases was it difficult for the respondents to understand what I meant with particular terms such as motivation, commitment, self-loyalty, and loyalty.
According to Patel and Davidson (2019), validity in a qualitative study includes the whole research process and not only the interview with the respondents. Hence, before the interview, I informed the respondents per phone message about the purpose of this study, namely to get knowledge about the flight industry and not about a particular airline. All of them were curious about my study and therefore, they were especially motivated. This might affect the respondents to provide me with good and accurate answers. Directly after the interview, I
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began with transcribing the interview of the respondents to get the best possible material for this study (Patel & Davidson 2019). The interviews were held in English which is not the mother tongue of every respondent. This has to be considered as well as conversational language during the interview.
4.9. Reliability
According to Saunders (2009:156), reliability is about which data collection techniques or analysis procedures the researcher uses to get a consistent finding. Reliability means if the research will have the same result on other occasions and similar observations will be reached by other researchers as well as the transparency of how results were found from the raw data.
Moreover, Saunders (2009:156) stated that there are factors that reduce reliability like subject or participant error. An observer error may threaten reliability. Therefore, I ensured that my questionnaires have a high degree of structure. Different times of the week may generate different results. So the researcher should choose a neutral time, which is usually from Tuesday till Thursday. On Monday or the days before the holidays, the respondent may not be motivated to respond in-depth. However, in the flight industry, there does not exist a neutral time because the pilots and flight attendants have to work in shifts around the clock. Before the COVID 19 pandemic, pilots and flight attendants were very busy which may decrease the quality of an interview because the respondents had not much freetime. However, I did my interview during the COVID 19 pandemic and this had an impact on the study. All the respondents had enough time to interview because they had to stay at home due to the cancellation of almost all flights. For my research, this was positive because I could do the six interviews in ten days. Normally, it would have taken me much more time because pilots and flight attendants would be travelling. After a flight, the respondent needs to rest in their freetime. If I would have interviewed during their freetime before COVID 19, the motivation for an interview might have been less. This would have decreased the quality of the interview.
On the other hand, due to the COVID 19 pandemic and geographic distance, it was not possible to interview the respondents in person which might have increased the quality of the interview.
