“Excuse me, sir, but may I be of assistance? Ah, I see I have alarmed you. Do not be frightened by my beard: I am a lover of America”

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Master’s thesis

Author: Linus Bergström Supervisor: Anne Holm Examiner: Anna Thyberg Date: Spring 2020

Subject: English Level: Advanced Course code: 4ENÄ2E

“Excuse me, sir, but may I be of

assistance? Ah, I see I have alarmed

you. Do not be frightened by my

beard: I am a lover of America”

Highlighting bias in The Reluctant Fundamentalist with

Positioning Theory, for the purpose of teaching students to

critically assess narratives

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Abstract

This paper sets out to analyze The Reluctant Fundamentalist by a narratological application of positioning theory with the aim of highlighting the bias of the main character.

The paper argues that using said novel in the English as a Foreign Language (EFL) classroom in conjunction with positioning theory could result in an improved understanding of how language is used in different situations for different purposes, which in turn can teach students to critically assess narratives in any medium. This paper also suggests that The Reluctant Fundamentalist could be a beneficial novel to use with the aim of providing students with

ethical knowledge and awareness.

The findings show that there are several acts of positioning from the main character where his bias against Americans is evident. These instances often consist of the main character contrasting himself and his behavior with Americans where differences of ethical values are expressed. The paper argues that his bias was formed because of an identity crisis, which was constituted of a multitude of factors. Furthermore, the pedagogical implications section suggests some benefits of working with positioning theory and the novel in the EFL classroom, in addition it also discusses some problematic aspects that could be important to be aware of when working with said novel.

Keywords

The Reluctant Fundamentalist, Positioning theory, Ethics, Narratives, Discourse, Bias, EFL classroom. Upper Secondary school.

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1 Introduction

Teachers are faced with many substantial tasks that can be experienced as difficult to carry out successfully. A considerable responsibility is put on teachers to prepare pupils for adulthood. One of the fundamental requirements from the Swedish curriculum is that the teaching should impart respect for human rights and democratic values that are an essential part of Swedish society (Natl. Ag. f. Ed). Specifically, the syllabus for the subject of English at the upper secondary level states that pupils should be given the opportunity to develop knowledge of “Living conditions, attitudes, values, traditions, social issues as well as

cultural, historical, political and cultural conditions in different contexts and parts of the world where English is used” (Natl. Ag. f. Ed 1). Furthermore, if one reviews the core content for the subject of English, specifically English 6 and 7, it states that the teaching should include contemporary and older literature as part of the teaching (“English” 7-11). That being noted, literature could be one of the fruitful tools for achieving these aims of the Swedish curriculum and syllabus for the subject of English.

Besides having the potential of fulfilling aims from the Swedish National Agency for Education, there are some significant positives from working with older or contemporary fiction. Scholars involved in the studying of literature emphasize that reading fiction allows insight into the minds of other people. Literary scholar Dorrit Cohn expresses that narrative fiction is the only literary genre where we get insight into another person’s thoughts, feelings, and perceptions other than the speaker (7). In addition, literary critic Maria Nikolajeva proposes that the main attraction of fiction is the potential for learning and understanding other people in a way that is unattainable in real life (75). In regards to that, one of the major benefits of getting insight into another person’s mind according to Nikolajeva is its potential for socialization for novice readers (77). Gaining insight into another person’s mind means

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that there is potential for increased emotional understanding and empathy. That said, there are undoubtedly other benefits from reading literature, but to what extent has been debated for a long time, however, factual evidence has been provided from the last decade which suggests that cognitive and emotional engagement with fiction is real. Studies have shown that the ability to attribute mental states to oneself and others is improved by reading literary fiction (Kidd and Castano 1).

Knowing the requirements of the syllabus and the learning potentials, teachers try to find and include literature that is adequate for this purpose and desirable for pupils to read.

Providing pupils with entertaining literature that is in service to syllabus aims is not always easy. One could think that literature does not necessarily have to provide entertainment to serve curriculum requirements, but stories that appeal to students make the process much easier for the obvious reason of, not having to work as hard to convince them to read it.

This paper attempts to argue in favor of a particular contemporary novel that could provide entertainment and serve curriculum and syllabus requirements, namely The Reluctant Fundamentalist (2007) written by Mohsin Hamid. The story revolves around a Pakistani man,

Changez, who tells an unnamed American about his experiences in the USA during the early 00’s while sitting in a restaurant in Lahore. The story switches back and forth from present to past as Changez tells his story and the relation between the two grows more tense and

mysterious as the story goes on. The Reluctant Fundamentalist deals with real historical events, most significantly the attack on the World Trade Center and the social repercussions of it. The story also deals with the issue of bias and its tendency to develop from life

experience and environment. In regards to bias, an interesting aspect that the story provides for consideration is the correlation between ethics, bias, and our actions. This aspect makes the story an interesting one to contemplate, especially for adolescents. Awareness of ethical beliefs is a vital constituent in the process of understanding how other people think, according

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to Nikolajeva (178). Therefore, the story could be an advantageous component in the process of socialization for adolescents.

There are many thinkable approaches for working with The Reluctant Fundamentalist in the English as a Foreign Language (EFL) classroom. However, this paper will argue for an approach that focuses on a theory that looks at positioning, namely positioning theory. This theory is described by scholars Rom Harré and Fathali M. Moghaddam as “how people use words to locate themselves and others” (Words of Conflict 2). Positioning is a common occurrence in everyday life, especially in situations where bias, prejudice, or racism is implicitly or explicitly expressed. Positioning theory as a method in the EFL classroom can, therefore, be useful as it allows one to review the language used in situations where racism, prejudice, or bias occurs. Highlighting these instances of language thus permits a discussion to break down misconceptions that exist and in turn make pupils more aware of instances in society where certain rhetoric is being used in a negative manner. One of the requirements from the core content of English 7 is that the teaching should include strategies to review

“How oral and written communications in different genres are built up. How stylistics and rhetorical devices are used for different purposes and how language is used as an instrument to exercise power” (“English” 11). Therefore, positioning theory could be a fruitful approach towards achieving this.

For this study, the bias of the main character Changez will be highlighted by a narratological application of positioning theory. Positioning is an integral part of a narrative according to professor of engaged humanities David Herman; he describes positioning theory as a basic element of narrative, “over time, self- and other-positioning speech productions help build overarching storylines in terms of which we make sense of our own and others´

doings” (55). The decision to analyze the bias of the main character can be motivated by the compelling narration of the story, which is told by Changez and gives an interesting insight

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into the mind of someone that has formed a bias against Americans because of a multitude of difficult circumstances.

The Reluctant Fundamentalist has been analyzed before, and there are a variety of

different papers and articles about the novel, however, one cannot easily locate examples of a literary analysis that uses positioning theory in conjunction with a contemporary novel in a paper that suggests its pedagogical potential. That being said, this paper attempts to showcase the potential of The Reluctant Fundamentalist as a contemporary novel to use in the EFL classroom alongside the applicability of positioning theory as an analytical tool for literary analysis.

In conclusion, this paper will argue that The Reluctant Fundamentalist is a promising novel to incorporate in the EFL classroom as it deals with important social issues; by using positioning theory as an analytical tool for literary analysis it could evoke an improved understanding of how language is used in different situations for different purposes and in turn teach pupils to critically assess narratives. In addition, the novel can serve as a tool for providing adolescents with ethical knowledge and awareness.

2 Positioning theory and ethics

This study will attempt to highlight the bias of the main character by using a narratological application of positioning theory. In the analysis, certain sections will be chosen and discussed with the help of theoretical content that focuses on positioning theory and ethics. To begin, the theoretical framework section will start by introducing the concept of positioning theory followed by a description of the basic elements of narrative and how positioning theory is connected to the narrative. Herman’s description of the basic elements of narrative will be used mainly in the first section of the analysis to frame the story in order to give some context to the bias of Changez. The next part of the theoretical framework will

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focus on ethics, especially how contemplation of ethics is important in order to understand someone’s bias and why it is beneficial for adolescents to contemplate.

2.1 Positioning theory

Positioning theory is described by David Herman as a method of analysis, “proposed by researchers working in the subfield of social psychology known as discursive psychology”

(55). According to Rom Harré who is the founder of the concept, and colleagues, positioning theory is a contribution to “the cognitive psychology of social action” (5). People act in a certain way towards each other, and there are patterns of reasoning involved in acts that are both explicit and implicit. Positioning theory is concerned with revealing these patterns of reasoning, and an important factor in doing so is understanding the role of social background.

Depending on social factors and where someone is born, there are different moral domains in which someone acquires their understanding of moral concepts. The local moral domain will usually appear as beliefs and practices that involve rights and duties. Concerning these rights and duties, people are positioned or position themselves and act accordingly. Considering moral domains is therefore important and will cause one to consider historical context and social factors when trying to comprehend what people are saying and doing (Harré et al. 6).

Moreover, to understand someone’s bias, it requires attending to these factors.

Positioning plays a significant part in stories, and Herman considers it a basic element of narrative. In any type of narrative there is usually some positioning happening, which will help the construction of overarching storylines “in terms of which we make sense of our own and others´ doings” (Herman 55). In turn, the overarching storylines will provide the means for connecting positioning-allocations with certain utterances. In other words, a negative comment can contribute to portraying a bigger story about someone (55). Harré refers to the term indirect or presumptive positioning when someone uses attributions of, “mental (stupid), characterological (unreliable), or moral (puritanical) traits to position someone, favorably or

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unfavorably, with respects to oneself and one’s interests, or the interests of one’s own group”

(The Self and Others 6). Harré states that this is a technique of establishing and occupying a moral high ground and is not only evident in personal interactions, but also on the scale of nations or cultures (6). In The Reluctant Fundamentalist there are evident examples of different types of positioning, as well as acts of presumptive positioning from the main character. These acts can be interpreted as deliberate attempts to portray a particular story about himself and Americans, these examples will be discussed in the analysis.

In order to make sense of bias and positioning, it requires investigation of the context in which a discourse takes place. A strategy for this could be to research elements that are a common part of a narrative. Herman suggests that there are basic elements in a narrative, which include, “situatedness, event sequencing, worldmaking/world disruption, and what it’s like” (9). The first three elements will be used for the first section of the analysis in order to frame the story and its context.

These elements all relate to the context of the narrative. The first one explains that all narrative representations are situated in a specific discourse context. This means that time and place has a significant impact on what is happening or what is being said. Herman emphasizes that it is essential to research the communicative context in order to fully understand a

narrative. In turn, the second element indicates that the narrative representation focuses on particularized events that take place on a structured time-course. These events will serve as cues for a reader to construct a mental representation of the story-world. The third element suggests that disruptive events are a significant part of a narrative. Commonly, a narrative will follow a path of equilibrium to disequilibrium, and then back to equilibrium. In other words, the state of the world might be balanced in the beginning, followed by a disruptive event that causes the world to become unbalanced, and then the balance is restored when a conflict is solved. The fourth element proposes that stories offer a possibility to experience what it is like

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to experience events in a story-world (Herman 17-21), however, the fourth element will not be used for the framing of the story in the present study.

Recognizing that The Reluctant Fundamentalist is a story with factual elements, involving the events of September 11th, 2001, most readers with historical knowledge will build their mental representations of the story-world with the help of their knowledge of that situation. A novice reader, born in the 21th century, might not be able to fully recognize why the narrator perceives certain situations like he does, but with additional reading and help from a tutor they could learn to understand the historical context and its relevance to it.

2.2 Ethics

The following framework will focus mainly on the ethics component of literature and the potential benefits of contemplating ethical situations for novice readers. An important aspect in the process of highlighting bias is to accentuate ethics and its role in the narrative and behavior of characters. Among other factors, social background and temporal setting will contribute to the process of understanding a person’s ethical values and subsequently their biases. As previously mentioned, this is important for people in general, but especially for adolescents to contemplate.

Contemplating ethics and bias is highly relevant when reviewing the curriculum and syllabus for English 7. First and foremost, one of the requirements expresses that the teaching should include the following content of communication, “Societal issues, cultural, historical, political and social conditions, and also ethical and existential issues in different contexts and parts of the world where English is used” (“English” 11). Old and contemporary literature is therefore a suitable tool for fulfilling this aim as it is possible to include literature from a wide cultural variety from different time periods that deal with these areas. Including a variety of literature is also important in order to accommodate students’ desire of having their cultural identities acknowledged in a school environment, which has been expressed as a concern in

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the USA for instance (Carjuzaa and Ruff 68). A strategy to use in conjunction with

contemplation of ethics, could be an incorporation of positioning theory as an analytical tool.

A requirement from the syllabus of English 7 states that the teaching should include strategies on how to review communication and how rhetorical and stylistic devices are utilized for different purposes, and language is used to exercise power (“English” 11), therefore,

positioning theory corresponds well with this requirement, to use in the EFL classroom. This approach could be fruitful as it is a method of reviewing the rhetoric in both conversational and written form. This paper argues that The Reluctant Fundamentalist is a promising novel to use for all of these aims as it represents a perspective from a different culture other than the western and deals with all the issues and conditions expressed above.

When attempting to interpret someone’s actions, it is important to consider ethical differences that may exist between cultures. Nikolajeva emphasizes the importance of being aware of other people’s ethical beliefs when it comes to mind reading and empathy.

Nikolajeva claims that we may understand how other people think and how their thought processes motivate their actions, but people can act against common sense because of ethical convictions. Furthermore, Nikolajeva and other literary scholars claim that ethical values are closely interconnected with emotions and the conflict between the two is central for human existence. Therefore, fiction offers a convenient opportunity to ponder this conflict in a safe mode (Nikolajeva 177). The notion of fiction providing a safe zone where a reader can gain experience is further solidified by literary scholar Suzanne Keen who argues that fiction offers the opportunity to feel empathy and, “related moral affects such as sympathy, outrage, pity, righteous indignation, and (not to be underestimated) shared joy and satisfaction” (4).

However, in regards to providing experience through literature, Nikolajeva emphasizes that novice readers do not have a comprehensive enough ethical experience to judge the ethical behavior of fictional characters (179). That said, with this opportunity for experience, one

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should be aware of problems that could arise when choosing literature for adolescents to read if proper tutoring is not provided. One of the problems with reading literature and providing this experience lies with novice readers that sometimes over empathize or identify with a character to a degree that could be harmful. Nikolajeva refers to this as immersive

identification, which implies that readers, “get so absorbed in fiction that they are unable to liberate themselves from the subject position imposed by the text. They “become” the character, in a kind of fictional narcissism” (85). Total immersion with characters is

something that should be avoided, especially when choosing literature that has characters who are conflicted in the manner which the main character in The Reluctant Fundamentalist is.

For that reason, in the case of using The Reluctant Fundamentalist as a way of

providing this experience, it could be important for parents or teachers to provide guidance in the contemplation of ethical situations, stances or dilemmas, especially for novice readers that might interpret situations incorrectly by not being able to understand the intricacies of ethics and context. As Nikolajeva explains, “ethics and value systems are historically, socially and culturally dependent” (181). Consequently, in order to understand why someone is biased, it requires contemplation of social background and other factors like temporal setting.

Moreover, according toDr. Catherine Emmott, it is important to consider the social relations between characters in narratives, and for a narratologist it is most necessary to understand

“how characters relate to each other in temporal-spatial settings” (295). Social relations can be complex and in The Reluctant Fundamentalist it is crucial to understand the context in which the narrative takes place and the main character relates to others. Additionally, it is important to understand that people from different cultures have different systems of symbolic representations, which means that they can misinterpret each other’s mental states (Priborkin 162). In The Reluctant Fundamentalist, this misinterpretation, or bias is transparent, but to a novice reader it might not be obvious why.

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Furthermore, Nikolajeva discusses fiction that poses ethical questions. Regarding children’s literature, it usually includes a mouthpiece that guides readers towards ethically acceptable positions (181). In the case of more advanced literature, the mouthpiece could be misguiding, perhaps untrustworthy and the ethical position might not be obvious for the reader. Certainly, in the case of The Reluctant Fundamentalist, it would arguably be more appropriate for students at the upper secondary level to read it because of the narration of the story and the substance matter being rather difficult, as well as ethical dilemmas that are not easy to comprehend without proper insight. The pedagogical implications section will problematize and discuss this matter further.

There are other aspects that could be considered when choosing literature for adolescents to read. In his discussion of commitments to consider when reviewing literary work, Professor James Phelan suggests that one of these should be awareness of ethical differences. When reviewing a story, a reader should look for, “the ethical values implicit in this kind of telling about this kind of incident, rather than identifying one or more ethical systems as especially adaptable for the ethics of all or even most literary communication”

(57). Phelan also emphasizes that one should be open to the great diversity of ethical positions represented in literary work (57). Being aware of ethical differences is important, and using The Reluctant Fundamentalist is one step towards diversifying the literary canon as it is

written by a Pakistani author with a Pakistani main character. It is also a step towards acknowledging different cultures in the EFL classroom for the purpose of making sure that not only the Swedish and English cultures are represented, but also cultures from other part of the world. In the analysis section, instances of ethical differences expressed in the novel will be highlighted, which could serve as material for discussion regarding differences that may exist as well as misconceptions.

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On the topic of misconceptions, the issue of ethnocentrism is a universal concern and evident in Swedish schools. Cambridge Dictionary defines the adjective form of the term as

“believing that the people, customs, and traditions of your own race or nationality are better than those of other races” (Ethnocentric”). Empirical evidence suggest that the relation between ethnocentrism and ethnic diversity and lower levels of ethnic prejudice is not conclusive. Even though some societies are ethnically diverse, they can still be highly segregated (Dejaeghere et al. 1). This evokes an important question regarding the prevention of ethnic prejudice and the concern that ethnic diversity in the classroom alone is not enough to prevent prejudice. What role can literature play in this then? These concerns will be further discussed in the section about pedagogical implications.

3 Highlighting bias with the help of positioning theory

In this section a handful of selections from the novel will be chosen for the analysis where acts of positioning occur and Changez’s bias is evident. In order to make sense of Changez’s bias, this section will begin with a description of the discourse context. In this description certain events will be highlighted and Changez’s reflections regarding these events will be discussed. The question of reliability is relevant to consider as this novel is written in first person and uses the technique of a frame story; with Changez telling his story in retrospect, it is important to consider how these events influenced him and subsequently, how they impacted his biases. As Changez phrases it himself, “But it may be that I am inclined to exaggerate these irritants in retrospect, knowing the course my relationship with your country would later take” (Hamid 24).

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3.1 Discourse context

The Reluctant Fundamentalist is a story that is set in Lahore, the second largest city in

Pakistan. The story revolves around the main character Changez, a Pakistan native who tells a story to a mysterious man in a restaurant during the course of one evening. As previously mentioned, Changez is telling a story in retrospect, about his experience in America as an exchange student and employee for a big corporation. The exact year that the present narrative is set is uncertain. At the end of the novel, Changez discusses the conflict between Pakistan and India: “The threat of war with India reached its highest point the summer after I returned from New York” (201). Changez then mentions that negotiations between the two nations had made some diplomatic progress, yet, “Of course, humanity’s respite was brief: six months later the invasion of Iraq would be under way” (202). Knowing that the invasion of Iraq began in March 2003 and the novel was published in 2007, it is likely set somewhere between those dates.

As Herman describes the first three basic elements of narrative, situatedness, event sequencing, world-making/world-disruption, narrative representations are situated in a specific discourse context and the narrative representation focuses on particularized events that take place on a structured time-course, which will serve as cues for a reader’s mental representations of the story-world (17-18). Additionally, there is the element of disruptive events which undoubtedly impacts the discourse. Having briefly described the setting of the story in the previous paragraph, the conflicts between the USA and the Middle East, and the conflict between Pakistan and India are significant. It is these events that play a considerable part in understanding the discourse context. The most central disruptive event would arguably be the attack on the twin towers, which subsequently caused these conflicts to escalate and the international political climate to deteriorate.

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Changez’s reflections about these events are essential to understand his bias and contribute to make sense of the discourse context. When Changez describes the attack on the twin towers, his reaction is rather controversial: “But as I continued to watch, I realized that it was not fiction but news. I stared as one—and then the other—of the twin towers of New York collapsed. And then I smiled” (82-83). Making sense of Changez’s reaction towards this is difficult as he phrases it himself, “So when I tell you I was pleased at the slaughter of thousands of innocents, I do so with a profound sense of perplexity”, Changez emphasizes that he was not pleased with any individual being hurt, but rather that someone had brought America to its knees (83-84). Changez is not a protagonist that makes any attempt of being an all good protagonist, but instead he is a conflicted individual that is somewhat self-aware of his issues. It appears as if this incident resulted in a considerable disequilibrium in Changez’s life, which Herman suggests is a common occurrence in a narrative (19-20). In the following paragraphs, some context will be provided to make sense of Changez’s reaction and his mental state.

One of Changez’s major insecurities is the comparison between Pakistan and America, which is a reoccurring theme in the novel. As Changez describes it, in ancient times, the Indus civilizations had been well advanced and now the cities were unplanned and unsanitary and could not be compared to the wealthier cities in America. Changez feels troubled by these comparisons, “To be reminded of this vast disparity was, for me, to be ashamed” (38). In a section Changez describes an instance of being annoyed with an American commenting on the current state of Pakistan. This individual describes Pakistan as a place with a lot of

injustice and suffering, and Changez admits that his comments are not necessarily inaccurate, but due to his condescending tone, Changez had to refrain himself from becoming angry (62- 63).

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Changez’s pride of Pakistan and its history can be observed in several sections of the novel, which sheds some light to why he’s rather defensive about the country. Commonly, Changez refers to times of historical superiority and contrasts those times with the current state of Pakistan, “For we were not always burdened by debt, dependent of foreign aid and handouts; in the stories we tell of ourselves we were not the crazed and destitute radicals you see on your television channels but rather saints and poets and—yes—conquering kings”

(115-116) This comment from Changez is not in disagreement with what the American previously said, which may indicate that he is fully aware that there are problems in Pakistan, but it is not fair that Pakistan is only recognized for its flaws, which are emphasized by international media.

Besides feeling proud over his Pakistan heritage, Changez expresses in several sections insecurity about being viewed as poor. In this particular section, Changez is reflecting about wealth and how his family has been wealthy for a long time, when talking about the process of being hired for a well-respected firm, “We employ several servants, including a driver and a gardener—which would, in America, imply that we were a family of great wealth” (10-11). As alluded to previously, the common narrative about Pakistan is that it is a country with a lot of poverty and injustice. Because of this, Changez is suggesting that he is immediately categorized as poor, which is not the case as he says that he and his family are actually rather wealthy and far from poor.

Changez’s feelings of resentment towards America are complex, as suggested in the previous paragraphs, they seem to be connected to his pride of Pakistan and the comparison with America, as well as, the conflicts between Pakistan and India, and America’s conflict with the Middle East. To contrast Changez’s view on these conflicts, a few paragraphs will first be highlighted, and then discussed. In this first paragraph Changez reflects about the invasion of Afghanistan, “My reaction caught me by surprise; Afghanistan was Pakistan’s

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neighbor, our friend, and a fellow Muslim nation besides, and the sight of what I took to be the beginning of its invasion by your countrymen caused me to tremble with fury” (113-114).

In a later passage of the novel, Changez comments on the way that America conducts itself internationally:

I reflected that I had always resented the manner in which America conducted itself in the world; your country’s constant interference in the affairs of others was

insufferable. Vietnam, Korea, the straits of Taiwan, the Middle East, and now Afghanistan: in each of the major conflicts and standoffs that ringed my mother continent of Asia, America played a central role. (177)

In contrast to the previous paragraph, Changez expresses judgement towards America’s lack of assistance to Pakistan, despite Pakistan declaring its support to America:

Opinion was divided as to whether the men who had attacked the Indian parliament had anything to do with Pakistan, but there was unanimity in the belief that India would do all it could to harm us, and that despite the assistance we had given America in Afghanistan, America would not fight at our side. (144)

Based on these paragraphs, one can discover that Changez feels very troubled by these

conflicts and his role as a foreigner in America. The escalating conflict in Asia and America’s lack of assistance to Pakistan has him feeling somewhat betrayed. Changez’s feelings

regarding this matter can be explained by highlighting an important theme in the novel;

Changez’s conflict with his own identity. Playing a part in American society and then feeling ashamed of his native country is a major concern for him and he feels uncertain about his role in all of this. This is expressed in several sections, for example in one instance when Changez reflects on a business trip to Manila, he expresses his trouble of identifying with his

colleague:

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I looked at him—at his fair hair and light eyes and, most of all, his oblivious

immersion in the minutiae of our work—and thought, you are so foreign. I felt in that moment much closer to the Filipino driver than to him; I felt I was play-acting when in reality I ought to be making my way home, like the people on the street outside.

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Changez’s troublesome feelings about identity seem to have been significantly influenced by the aftermath of the attack on the World Trade Center. When Changez first arrived in

America, he could immediately identify as a New Yorker. He remarks that in a subway car, he would be in the middle of the color spectrum, and on the streets people would ask him for directions (37). The vast diversity of ethnicities and cultures made him feel welcome, but then there was a shift in the attitude towards foreigners such as himself. He experienced racism firsthand by people approaching him on the streets (133), and he heard stories about people from Pakistan being severally beaten and Muslim men disappearing (107). He no longer felt welcome, especially in New York City. Moreover, Changez struggles to identify with

coworkers and feels separated from his family in Pakistan who is in the midst of an escalating conflict with India. All these components combined result in Changez lashing out

emotionally, which is showcased by Changez growing out his beard and him attempting to provoke people on the streets by flaunting his beard (190).

To conclude, Changez’s comment about smiling when the planes crashed into the twin towers will be revisited. It is uncertain whether Changez did in fact smile when he heard about the incident or not. There is a possibility that Changez has been impacted by all the events described, and the thriller element of the story with the mystery between Changez and the man in the restaurant adds to that uncertainty. However, Changez’s relation with America and his conflict with identity does add some insight to his reaction and helps make sense of the discourse context.

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Finally, to reconnect with Herman’s elements of narrative, specifically the third element, one cannot pinpoint any specific moment where the order is every fully restored in this story. This means that the path from equilibrium to disequilibrium, and back to

equilibrium, that Herman suggests is a common trajectory for a narrative is not the case for this novel. The conflicts that are a part of this narrative are still ongoing to some degree in real life and for Changez they seem to be as well considering the thriller element of the story. The Reluctant Fundamentalist concludes with an open ending and the reader is never informed of

what the relation between Changez and the other person was. In the following section, the focus will be on how Changez is positioning himself and others, and how his bias is apparent by doing so.

3.2 Analysis of bias

As Nikolajeva emphasized, ethics and value systems are dependent on historical, social, and cultural factors (181). Therefore, the previous section provided some context to the discourse, which arguably makes Changez’s bias more understandable. This section will delve into Changez’s acts of positioning and attempt to describe and make sense of them.

A reader does not have to browse further than the first page of The Reluctant Fundamentalist to locate an example of positioning. On this first page, the reader is

introduced to the main character Changez and an unknown individual whose real identity is untold throughout the novel. The novel begins with a question from Changez, “Excuse me, sir, but may I be of assistance? Ah, I see I have alarmed you. Do not be frightened by my beard: I am a lover of America” (1). If reading between the lines, the reader may interpret this situation as Changez positioning the other person as being prejudiced towards certain

ethnicities, alluding to the notion that Americans are frightened by individuals with dark skin that have beards thinking that they may be a terrorist. Whether this person is American is something that remains uncertain throughout the novel, as this person is voiceless, but it is

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implied so. Additionally, in this first piece of text, Changez is self-positioning himself by using the noun “lover,” which means that he has a strong liking for America. This comment and selection of noun may be interpreted as Changez suggesting that the other person is irrational to be “frightened”, and an attempt from Changez to establish the moral high ground as Harré claims that one does in acts of presumptive positioning (6). Whether the person was frightened because of Changez’s beard or something else is uncertain as there is no additional information provided about this initial interaction. However, the beard does seem to have been something that Changez previously experienced reactions for, as he expresses:

“sometimes I would find myself walking the streets, flaunting my beard as a provocation”

(190). This would indicate that a common reaction was for people to be frightened by his beard and appearance, although that may just be an assumption. However, it is a known fact that long beards have been a physical trait that has caused suspicion of terrorist acts at airports for example, since the attack on the World Trade Center. Changez’s conception of the

situation could also be a case of misinterpretation, as Priborkin addresses that, people from different cultures may have different systems of symbolic representation, which means that a person could misinterpret another by misreading their physical reactions (162). Although, it is more likely that Changez’s interpretation of the situation is a result of his recent experiences that have caused him to form a bias against Americans.

Another example of a situation where Changez provides a rather unclear

interpretation of how Americans regard his company can be found in a section where he talks about a holiday trip to Greece: “I was friendly with one of the Ivy men, Chuck, from my days on the soccer team, and was well-liked as an exotic acquaintance by some of the others, whom I had met through him” (19). Here, Changez is positioning the group as individuals that like him only because of his ethnic appearance. Additional information as to why Changez thinks that they only liked him as an “exotic acquaintance” is not provided. The choice of the

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adjective “exotic” is interesting, as it refers to something that is unusual and from far away, and that word choice contributes to position Changez as someone that is an opposite of the others. Whether Changez interpreted the situation in that manner when it took place is uncertain, however, one can argue that his interpretation of the situation was influenced by events previously discussed. Changez’s bias against this group could have been altered by him feeling unwelcome in America after the events of 9/11; his personal attributes were no longer important and his “exotic appearance” was the only thing that deemed him not

welcome, in contrast to this trip where he felt that he was welcome because of his appearance.

Changez goes into further detail about his trip to Greece and comments on the behavior of his company, which he contrasts to his personal ethics and behavior:

I will admit there were details which annoyed me. The ease with which they parted with money, for example, thinking nothing of the occasional—but not altogether infrequent—meal costing perhaps fifty dollars a head. Or their self-righteousness in dealing with those whom they paid for a service, “But you told us,” they would say to the Greeks twice their age, before insisting things be done their way. I, with my finite and depleting reserve of cash and my traditional sense of deference to one’s seniors, found myself wondering by what quirk of human history my companions—many of whom I would have regarded as upstarts in my own country, so devoid of refinement were they—were in a position to conduct themselves in the world as they were its ruling class. (23-24)

Several things about this paragraph are interesting to consider from a positioning perspective:

the first being how they spend money without consideration, the second being their lack of respect for service workers, and the third being their lack of respect for the elderly. Using the noun “self-righteousness,“ which Cambridge Dictionary refers to as someone who is narrow- minded moralistically (“Self-righteousness”) works in favor of Changez, as he is self-

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positioning himself to be the opposite. Changez would not spend money recklessly, he would not be disrespectful to service workers and he would not address seniors without respect.

Ethically, this behavior is unacceptable for Changez. Moreover, he is positioning the group by referring to them as “upstarts,” which is a noun that Cambridge Dictionary defines as “a person, especially a young one, who has suddenly got power or an important position and takes advantage of this in an unpleasant way” (“Upstart”). Changez is suggesting that they would be considered in that manner if they were from Pakistan, and because of this they would not be right to conduct themselves with a lack of consideration towards others. In this instance, Changez is also using the phrase “devoid of refinement,” which can be interpreted as the group lacking sophistication. Once again, if these thoughts are exaggerated in retrospect is uncertain considering Changez’s bias against Americans. To revisit a previous comment from Changez about his altered perspective, “But it may be that I am inclined to exaggerate these irritants in retrospect, knowing the course my relationship with your country would later take”

(24). Regardless, this section in the novel is certainly interesting as it shows the local moral domain that Harré and colleagues refer to regarding rights and duties (6). From Changez’s perspective, there is a difference between him and the group and their perception of behavior that is acceptable. Americans may conduct themselves obnoxiously in situations like this, but Changez and other Pakistanis will not because of their ethical values.

An additional example of moral domains, with Changez positioning himself as the opposite of an American, can be located in a section where he suggests why he adapted so well into the business-realm: “Or perhaps it was my ability to function both respectfully and with self-respect in a hierarchical environment, something American youngsters—unlike their Pakistani counterparts—rarely seem trained to do” (47). By using the adverb “respectfully”

and the noun “self-respect” to describe and contrast himself, Changez is further emphasizing that Americans have a tendency of not showing respect to the elderly, in contrast to people

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from Pakistan that have been brought up to be respectful and are, therefore, more adapted to thrive in a hierarchical system.

Ethical values regarding wealth, kindness, and compassion become a topic once again when a beggar appears in the restaurant. Through the narration from Changez, the reader is informed that the other person declines to give the beggar any money, and Changez expresses that that is the right thing to do as one should not encourage beggars but instead focus on giving money to charities that address the causes of poverty. Despite this, Changez decides to give the beggar money anyway, “What am I doing? I am handing him a few rupees—

misguidedly, of course, and out of habit” (45). This action can be interpreted as Changez self- positioning himself to be kind and compassionate in contrast to the other person. This

interpretation benefits from considering that Changez previously positioned Americans to be disrespectful to individuals that are less wealthy and self-positioned himself to be more thoughtful and considerate to those less wealthy. These examples from Changez where he is directly and indirectly attributing moral traits that are favorable for him and unfavorable for others, can be interpreted as acts of presumptive positioning, which, as previously stated, Harré suggests people often do to establish moral high ground (6). Since Changez has prior to this contrasted himself and Pakistanis with Americans, these instances contribute towards the construction of a narrative that is less favorable for Americans.

A common factor in most of these instances is that Changez is assuming what others are thinking. This becomes apparent, yet again, when Changez comments on the fact that the other person seems distracted because of a group of girls:

You appear distracted, sir; those pretty girls from the National College of Arts have clearly recaptured your attention. Or are you watching that man, the one with beard far longer than mine, who has stopped to stand beside them? You think he will scold them for the inappropriateness of their dress—their T-shirts and jeans? (25)

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In this paragraph, Changez is proposing that the person is thinking that the bearded man will scold them because of the way that they dress, which suggests that the person believes that women in Pakistan do not have the right to dress in a way that could be provocative.

Similarly, to other instances in the novel, Changez is positioning the other person by making another assumption about his thoughts. The bias in this instance may be difficult to

comprehend, but one may interpret Changez’s bias in this situation by relating it to other instances of reflection, like when Changez reflects about the time he got agitated when somebody addressed the situation in Pakistan and emphasized all its deficiencies (63), or when Changez himself notes, “in the stories we tell of ourselves we were not the crazed and destitute radicals you see on your television channels” (115). By keeping these reflections in mind, Changez could indirectly be suggesting that the common narrative about Pakistan is that women have few to no rights, and therefore, he assumes that is what he is thinking.

In regards to the situation mentioned in the previous paragraph where Changez got agitated by a comment about the state of Pakistan, another one of his sentiments about

American behavior can be discovered. Changez proposes that “But his tone—with, if you will forgive me, its typically American undercurrent of condescension—struck a negative chord with me” (63). Here he is suggesting that the person has a patronizing attitude by using the noun “condescension,” moreover, positioning this quality to be typical of Americans. This comment further adds to the portrayal of an unfavorable narrative about Americans.

As mentioned, with all these instances, one could say the narrative that Changez is pursuing is constructing a particular narrative about people from America, which Herman suggests that someone does when making sense of another person's actions and others (55).

The question of why Changez does this becomes an essential one, and on the topic of why Emmott emphasizes that it is important to consider how characters relate to each other in temporal-spatial settings (295). In The Reluctant Fundamentalist, the reader is only

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introduced to the perspective of Changez, therefore, it is crucial to consider the context in which he is relating to Americans; a discourse where the political climate is very tense and there is prejudice between cultures as a result of these conflicts.

These instances of bias against Americans may be hard for a novice reader to

understand. As Nikolajeva emphasizes, novice readers usually do not have a comprehensive enough experience to judge the ethical behavior of fictional characters (179). It is possible, that without guidance these instances of bias may be enforced upon a novice reader. However, these instances can also provide great learning experiences. The ethical experience that a young reader may gain by attending to and discussing these examples could be beneficial for their socialization, as Nikolajeva proposed (177). Attending to social factors and historical context, with the attempt to determine why Changez regards Americans in this manner; this provides an opportunity for contemplation regarding misconceptions and discussion of differences that may exist between cultures.

To conclude with arguably the most evident example of Changez’s bias, and the hardest to contemplate from a moral perspective, him saying that he smiled when the twin towers collapsed. Changez articulates the following about that situation, “Yes, despicable as it may sound, my initial reaction was to be remarkably pleased” (83). Like previously noted, this reaction is easier to understand if one considers it from the current discourse context. His reaction may have, or not, have been changed in retrospect. Changez’s answer to his reaction was to refer to the symbolism of bringing down America to its knees (83). Knowing the aftermath of this incident and the troubles Changez experienced with his identity, it would arguably be easier to understand why he would react in this manner in retrospect. Regardless of any moral domain, this reaction would be considered awful, therefore it is hard to suggest any other interpretation other than that Changez’s reaction was altered in retrospect.

Considering the conflict between ethical values and emotions that Nikolajeva (177) suggests

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is central for human existence, Changez is undoubtedly experiencing this conflict. Changez’s experiences in America caused him a lot of harm emotionally. In several sections in the novel, Changez expresses his ethical beliefs about what is right and wrong. He believes that people should treat each other with respect, therefore, his reaction to this incident is uncharacteristic of the person he believes or aspires to be.

An interpretation of Changez’s reaction could perhaps be explained by highlighting his feelings about individuals involved in the capitalistic upper echelon. Changez provides some insight into this in a section where he experiences a moment of self-realization: “I was looking about me with the eyes of a foreigner, and not just foreigner, but that particular type of entitled and unsympathetic American who so annoyed me when I encountered him in the classrooms and workplaces of your country’s elite” (141). In this reflection, Changez is describing a type of Americans by using the adjectives “entitled” and “unsympathetic,” which in other words refer to individuals that feel that they have a right to do what they want without caring about others’ feelings. Changez is positioning these qualities to be typical of certain Americans, and in a sense, he is self-positioning himself to be one of these entitled and unsympathetic individuals, and in a moment of self-realization he has realized that that is not who he is. It is evident that Changez has had negative interactions with individuals that he considers “elite.” On a national scale it appears that he regards the USA as a whole in that manner too. In the previous section where Changez comments on how the USA conducts itself internationally, there are similarities with the descriptions. Changez feels that obnoxious behavior towards other people or nations is wrong, and when the incident with twin towers occurred, he felt that it was necessary because Americans and the nation of the USA needed to be humbled.

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3.3 Summary

An initial stance on Changez’s bias was to consider it from the current discourse context, as pointed out by Herman that a narrative is situated in a particular discourse context (17). Any reflection of events provided by Changez where bias was evident, was considered to have been influenced by experiences afterward. The whole component of Changez

narrating a story and telling his story in retrospect, with the added element of the mysterious relationship with the other person makes his reliability somewhat questionable. One can only speculate why Changez is telling this story and why he is telling it the way he does. Themes of identity, loyalty, pride, and betrayal seem to be central components for the representation of Changez’s character. It is evident that Changez is prideful of Pakistan’s history and he expresses loyalty to Pakistan and neighboring countries such as Afghanistan. Before significant disruptive events transpired, Changez was flourishing in New York and immediately identified as a New Yorker (37). When these events unfolded, Changez no longer felt welcome in New York and subsequently experienced a variety of difficult emotions regarding his own identity and his role as a foreigner in America. The conflict between Pakistan and India caused him to feel even more resentful towards the USA because of their lack of support for Pakistan. A combination of no longer being able to identify as a

‘New Yorker’ and experiencing racism caused Changez to lash out emotionally against the USA. This is especially evident when Changez reflects about his final moments in the USA where he flaunted his beard and attempted to provoke other people (190).

Changez’s bias is apparent throughout the novel. As previously noted, it is evident when he vocalizes his thoughts on wealth and Americans that he considers to be part of a wealthier class. For example, Changez’s trip to Greece and his reflection regarding the group’s spending habits and their behavior towards service workers and the elderly.

Moreover, Changez’s feelings regarding Americans and their behavior is further obvious

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when he suggests why he adapts well in a business environment in contrast to younger

Americans whom he feels lack respect and therefore are less suitable to adapt in a hierarchical environment. Changez’s feelings toward particular Americans are likely relatable to his feelings towards the USA as a whole. This is clear in sections where Changez is remarking about the USA and how the nation conducts itself internationally. One can also discover Changez’s bias in sections where his appearance becomes a topic, most significantly his beard. In the section where Changez talks about his trip to Greece, he suggests that he was only regarded as an exotic acquaintance, and in the first section of the book he proposes that the person was frightened because of his beard. Whether these notions are irrational is up for individual interpretation, but they are arguably understandable considering the experiences that Changez went through. The most controversial instance of bias in the novel is arguably Changez’s story about him smiling when the twin towers collapsed. As previously

emphasized, this instance remains the most difficult to contemplate because of several components: the relation between Changez and the person in the restaurant, the temporal setting, and Changez’s complicated relation with America.

4 Significance of positioning theory, contemplation of ethics,

and The Reluctant Fundamentalist in EFL

This section will argue for the benefits of working with the novel in conjunction with positioning theory and contemplation of ethics. The section will also problematize aspects of working with the novel. The first part will argue for the premise of positioning theory and briefly suggest components of language that students could be taught to detect acts of positioning in literature, as well as other mediums. The second part will be dedicated to the contemplation of ethics, but also to discuss the importance of providing literature that is

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ethically and culturally diverse. The final part will focus on the question of why The Reluctant Fundamentalist could be a good choice for the EFL classroom.

4.1 Positioning theory in EFL

This paper argues for an incorporation of positioning theory in the EFL classroom as it could be a fruitful way of analyzing language in situations where racism, prejudice, or bias occurs. Being aware that positioning is a phenomenon that occurs daily in everyday life is important, especially considering the vast amount of information that students are receiving daily from different sources that are almost always biased in some way. Being aware that positioning is a central component for the rhetoric of politicians or other influential figures is without a doubt important. Positioning theory allows one to break down what is being said and why, and therefore it allows for a discussion of misconceptions that may be the result of someone’s bias. Self-awareness of one’s own bias could also be a pedagogical benefit from working with positioning theory and the concept of biasness. Although understanding others’

biases is different from understanding one’s own, with cognitive bias being a common psychological inclination across cultures, there is still a sense of self-awareness that can be gained from discussing other individuals’ biases. This could be another positive effect on the socialization of adolescents.

Positioning theory can be connected to the curriculum and syllabus documents. One of the requirements from the core content of English 7 states, as previously discussed, that the teaching should include strategies to review how stylistic and rhetorical devices are used for different purposes, as well as how language is used to exercise power (“English” 11). The formulation of this aim corresponds well with the purpose of using positioning theory, and the learning outcome would likely have a positive influence on other subjects as well. However, the formulation of this requirement evokes the question of what rhetorical components the students should look for when attempting to detect bias and acts of positioning. An example

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of a rhetorical device that is apparent in The Reluctant Fundamentalist and is often apparent in political circumstances is foil, which is a sort of comparison of individuals and is defined by the Cambridge Dictionary as “something or someone that makes another's good or bad qualities more noticeable” (“Foil”). In the novel, the main character often uses Americans and their behavior to contrast with his own behavior and value system, which this paper suggests that he does to establish a moral high ground. In literature it is often the antagonist who makes the protagonist appear better. In a political circumstance, this is often done with political opponents where they discredit another person or party to make themselves appear superior.

An example of this can be seen in a previously discussed section where Changez comments on his trip to Greece and how his companionship behaved towards others. For instance, Changez comments about their behavior towards service workers, “Or their self-righteousness in dealing with those whom they paid for a service” (23), which he contrasts with how he feels that one should treat others, and finally he concludes with the pondering though of how they could be “devoid of refinement”, and how they could think that they were in a position to conduct themselves like they were superior to others (23-24). Overall, this section makes American’s and their qualities appear bad and Changez good. A clue to look for in these instances is the choices of words that Changez uses to describe himself and others. In the presented example, the noun version of the adjective “self-righteous” is used to describe the group’s behavior. Additionally, the phrase “devoid of refinement” serves as another definition of their behavior, this is something that students could look for as well.

4.2 Contemplation of ethics

While using positioning theory one is forced to attend to situations of what people are saying and doing, which means attending to historical context and other social factors (Harré et al. 6). Therefore, one must look into why people might act and think differently to one another. Awareness of ethical differences is a potential insight that could be gained, as argued

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by Nikolajeva; literature provides a great opportunity for ethical contemplation (177).

Reading fiction can provide ethical experience that younger individuals often lack because of their shorter life experience, and Herman argues that stories offer a possibility to experience what it is like to experience events in a story-world (21). That being said, fiction has without a doubt a lot to offer considering that fiction is written by real people with real experience from different parts of the world.

Reviewing the documents from the National Agency for Education, it can be noted that it is also a requirement from the subject of English that the teaching should include a certain content of communication. It is expressed that societal issues, historical, political, cultural and social conditions, as well as ethical and existential issues in various contexts and part of the world should be part of the content (“English” 11). With this in mind, literature is a great tool to use as there are possibilities to choose literature from a vast assortment of

different cultures from different time periods that provide ethical diversity and deals with these areas. As Phelan argues, one should be open to the great diversity of ethical positions represented in literary works (57). Therefore, instead of opting for the traditional, old canon represented in the EFL classroom, it could be good to attempt and diversify the selection of reading content in order to provide the best potential learning outcome.

Using a variety of literature that represents different cultures is also important in order to accommodate students’ desire of having their cultural identities acknowledged in a school environment. This matter has been expressed as a concern in the USA with students feeling culturally excluded, and teachers often lack the ability to accommodate this desire (Carjuzaa and Ruff 68). This notion is also relevant for Sweden where the classroom is often filled with a variety of individuals from different parts of the world. Therefore, it is not only important from a teacher’s perspective to educate themselves with literature that represents different cultures, but also to make sure that everyone feels included in the classroom. On the topic of

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cultural representation, there is also the issue of ethnic prejudice in classrooms all over the world, which research has shown that ethnic prejudice is not automatically reduced in schools that are ethnically diverse (Dejaeghere et al. 1). An important question then becomes: what does prevent ethnic prejudice in schools? Literature has the ability, as suggested in this paper, to make it possible to step in someone else’s shoes or mind, which then makes it possible to understand one another. This notion likely has the potential to decrease ethnic prejudice, if done successfully. Therefore, a step towards this is to provide literature that is culturally diverse.

4.3 Case for using The Reluctant Fundamentalist

The Reluctant Fundamentalist is a novel written by Hamid, a Pakistani author. The

story, as previously described, revolves around Changez, a Pakistani man, and his experiences with some difficult situations that were caused by the tumultuous international climate of the early 00’s. The novel stands out for many reasons, one being that the main character is not a westerner, which means that the story represents a perspective that Swedish students may not have encountered before. The main character is without a doubt an interesting individual that makes no attempt to portray himself as a hero, but rather as a conflicted individual, filled with flaws, that is experiencing difficult circumstances and subsequently experiences an identity crisis. The novel also showcases the mindset of someone that is experiencing racism and a difficult time, and as a result develops a bias against Americans. Furthermore, the novel is filled with misconceptions, stereotypes, ethical situations, and differences for adolescents to contemplate. For this reason, The Reluctant Fundamentalist is well suited for achieving the aim of providing teaching that deals with the content of communication that is expressed in the curriculum.

As suggested before, the novel might not be suitable to use for the younger classes at the upper secondary level. The main argument for this would be that younger students may

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simply be too young to deal with the ethical content in the novel. However, with the right approach, this might not be the case. Although as Nikolajeva states, children’s fiction often utilizes a mouthpiece in the form of a narrator that guides the reader towards ethically acceptable positions (181). In the case of The Reluctant Fundamentalist, it is a novel that is filled with situations that are complex and difficult to contemplate regarding ethical positions, and the mouthpiece is the main character who is no role model and does not make any attempt to be one. Therefore, without the proper guidance, novice readers could be influenced in a negative manner because of the inability to objectively evaluate what is being said and why.

The novel also has an interesting narration style that novice readers might not have encountered before, as it is written in first person and uses the technique of a frame story, which evokes questions about reliability. For this reason, the novel could be used for this purpose as well, to demonstrate how the way a narrative is structured can affect the reliability of the narrator. This in turn can lead to discussions about the author and potential

communicative purposes intended, however, this paper will not delve into that further.

4.4 Activity in the EFL classroom

A discussion of students’ interpretation regarding the roles of the characters could be a potentially good activity in the classroom. If a teacher decides to work with positioning theory and introduces the concept beforehand to the students, it is likely that students might become more self-aware in the reading process. This might alter their conception of the story and the characters, but it is also likely that students’ interpretation of the novel would be of a various nature. An interesting question to ask students would be the obvious choice of who they think Changez and the unnamed individual are and what they think happens between the two. If the students believe that the main character is a villain of sorts, what evidence can they provide that supports that claim? If they believe that the other individual is a CIA agent, what

evidence can they provide for that? The latter interpretation could lead to a discussion of the

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novel’s narration and reliability, which students may not have considered. Furthermore, the inclination of believing Changez to be the obvious villain that is involved in sketchy political groups, and the unnamed individual a CIA spy that is investigating Changez, could be

something positive to discuss. These roles are the typical stereotypes that one would find in movies, perhaps even in the film adaptation of The Reluctant Fundamentalist, which is not surprising since the novel itself plays with that conception a bit, therefore it would not be strange if students are inclined to interpret the roles in that manner. However, this could lead to discussions about stereotypes and generalizations, which in turn can result in a positive pedagogical outcome. By highlighting these stereotypes, the students can become more aware of how they are often unfair and inaccurate, which can hopefully lead to students recognizing them in other situations and them becoming less common.

While the activity above could be positive and performed without concerns in many cases, there are always aspects to contemplate that may be considered a problem with any novel that one chooses to work with in the classroom. Whenever the narrative is one that deals with heavy topics that involve conflicts between different cultures, there is of course the aspect of sensitivity that must be considered. Hypothetically, a situation could arise where there are students that have a close connection to these conflicts that are still ongoing to some degree to this day. These students could potentially have opposing views to one another regarding some of the real-life situations that the novel deals with. Additionally, students could find themselves over-empathizing or identifying with the narrator to an extent that may be harmful. The problem of immersive identification that Nikolajeva (85) expresses, is something to consider as well. This could be another reason of opting for upper secondary students when working with this novel. The goal is not for students to immerse themselves with the main character, but rather to contemplate his actions and attempt to understand factors that may influence the way in which he thinks and behaves.