FACULTY OF EDUCATION AND BUSINESS STUDIES
Department of HumanitiesGender Construction in Wuthering Heights
and Jane Eyre: A Comparison
Julia Uusitalo Kemi
2020
Student thesis, Bachelor degree, 15 HE English
Upper Secondary Teacher Education Programme
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Abstract
This essay analyses and compares gender construction in Wuthering Heights by Emily Brontë and Jane Eyre by Charlotte Brontë. The focus is on the construction of the female and male gender of selected female and male characters. Using the knowledge that gender is highly dependent on the social and cultural environment and that family relations often impact gender, the aim of the essay is to examine if the two authors use similar methods to construct gender. Additionally, the aim is to analyse if the novels are critical towards Victorian gender norms. As feminist criticism specializes in gender analysis, this literary critical approach is used. Furthermore, additional information about the historical context was used to analyse and compare the novels. The
comparison demonstrates that Emily Brontë and Charlotte Brontë mainly use the same methods to construct the female and male gender in their novels. It also illustrates that both novels are critical towards Victorian gender norms.
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Table of Contents
Introduction ... 4
The Victorian era: gender roles and literature ... 6
Feminist literary criticism ... 9
Identity ... 10
Sex and gender ... 11
Additional concepts ... 13
Constructions of female gender identity in Wuthering Heights and Jane Eyre ... 15
Catherine ... 15
Cathy ... 20
A comparison of Catherine, Cathy, and Jane ... 27
Constructions of male gender identity in Wuthering Heights and Jane Eyre ... 29
Mr. Heathcliff ... 29
Mr. Rochester ... 32
A comparison between Mr. Heathcliff and Mr. Rochester... 34
Conclusion ... 36
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Introduction
Gender representation in literature is highly important because it can provide role models. Role models provide a framework for human beings, which signals acceptable versions and goals connected to gender (Barry 117). Literary characters can be considered to be role models because of their ability to impact a reader’s self-image (Bennet and Royle 63). The impact on a reader’s self-image often has to do with how relatable the reader finds the characters. One aspect that many readers find relatable is the characters’ gender identities. Focusing on gender, this essay will analyse gender construction in Jane Eyre by Charlotte Brontë and Wuthering Heights by Emily Brontë, both novels were first published in 1847. The two novels were chosen because the concept of gender is dependent on the social and cultural environment. Since Charlotte and Emily Brontë were sisters, one can assume that they experienced the same, or at least very similar, gender norms. The assumption is based on the fact that family relations generally impact gender construction (Tosh 1). The essay will therefore compare how the sisters construct gender in their novels examining similarities and possible differences. The expected findings are that Charlotte and Emily Brontë use similar methods to construct gender.
5 sounding names. As a result, they might have been believed to be male authors and therefore given a chance to publish their novels.
The representation of gender roles in Jane Eyre has been up for critique since the novel was published. One of the early criticisms expressed by multiple literary critics during the 1840s and 1850s is the aspect that the novel represents a main female character that does not fully conform to Victorian gender roles (Peters 54). The presentation of the character Jane caused concerns about how women were represented as well as how Jane might influence female readers. On the other hand, the aspect of not conforming to the existing gender roles has been praised by second wave feminist critics. Furthermore, Jane did not only defy gender roles, but she can also be considered to be a representation of changes in gender roles (Peters 54-55). Thus, the second wave feminist critic Nina Auerbach considers Charlotte Brontë to be a feminist writer of the Victorian era (Peters 55).
Wuthering Heights has also been analysed with a focus on gender. In 1969, Q. D. Leavis stated that Catherine’s story is “a method of discussing what being a woman means” (Stoneman 147). Similarly, two years later Helen Moglen wrote that the theme in the novel is “the development of the female personality from childhood to maturity” (Stoneman 148). Moglen’s reading can be considered a feminist reading of the novel because previous critics, from the 1850s to the end of 1950s, held the opinion that the novel is about Mr. Heathcliff rather than Catherine (Stoneman 148). This opinion resulted in it taking time for Wuthering Heights to be considered a feminist novel. However, it is now considered a feminist novel and Patsy Stoneman states that she is glad to see that “Emily Brontë has taken her place at last as one of our literary ‘mothers’.” (152).
6 whether the novels are critical towards Victorian gender norms or not. In order to conduct the analysis, the focus will be on a few selected main female and male characters. For that
reason, the selected male characters are Mr. Rochester in Jane Eyre and Mr. Heathcliff in Wuthering Heights. Furthermore, the female characters selected are Jane Eyre in Charlotte Brontë’s novel and Catherine Earnshaw (mother) and Catherine Earnshaw (daughter) in Emily Brontë’s novel. Catherine, the daughter, will henceforth be referred to as Cathy. The reason for this is that her father calls her Cathy because “it formed to him a distinction from the mother, and yet, a connection with her” (E. Brontë 134). As a base for the analysis the historical perspective of the Victorian era, feminist literary criticism and important concepts connected to discussions about gender will be presented. The essay will be conducted using feminist criticism because of the feminist focus on gender. The analysis and comparison of the two novels will follow leading to a conclusion about the main findings.
The Victorian era: gender roles and literature
7 Thus, historically, the roles for men and women were based on the assumptions that women should take care of the home and children while men should contribute economically and work for a good reputation (Tosh 1). However, these divisions of responsibility have never been set in stone. A nineteenth century home was regarded as property of a man, which is why domesticity was a central part of the Victorian masculinity. John Tosh sees domestic authority as one important aspect for the Victorian man (2). The importance of the home is based on two aspects. Firstly, it was a place where a man could achieve a status as a householder and thus as a full adult. Secondly, the disciplining of boys took place at home (Tosh 2). Moreover, there were certain expectations on men during a time when both the economic and social situation reached new levels. The expectations on successful men included their roles as loyal husbands and caring fathers (Tosh 1).
Another key aspect that influenced Victorian masculinity was domestic patriarchy. Tosh begins by defining the term patriarchy when explaining domestic patriarchy:
‘Patriarchy’ has become an unfashionable term in recent years, as indicating a crudely reductionist view of sexual stratification. But, in its precise meaning of ‘father-rule’, patriarchy remains an indispensable concept, not only because men have usually wielded authority within the home, but also because it has been necessary to their masculine self-respect that they do so. (Tosh 3)
This means that authority, as well as self-respect, is part of the norm of domestic patriarchy. The need to control women and female sexuality relates to the aspect of making sure that the right child is provided for as well as inherits the property. Lacking the domestic power resulted in a risk to be less economically successful as well as being subjected to disrespect from other men (Tosh 3).
8 grow a character that could withstand the sinful environment, which the public sphere was considered to be. Furthermore, marriage was viewed as a unit between husband and wife. Consequently, there should not occur any disputes between the couple. Giving property rights to married women was viewed as a threat to the unity in marriage and was thought to create antagonism between the spouses (Tosh 41).
The male gender norm of caring about the public sphere can be understood in relation to the concept of greed. The marketplace was thought to be a place of “exposure to greed”
(Tosh 44), explaining the common desire for men to acquire or uphold a high social status. However, there were negative consequences of the higher classes, for example that abusive behaviour was left uncommented (Griffin 95).
Furthermore, in connection to male gender norms, the concept of gentleman is of importance. The aspect of being a gentleman can be described to involve different
components. Firstly, the description can be viewed as a description of a manly man, which “in the upper classes was to be gentlemanly” (Tosh 170). Secondly, there is a component which involves a displaying “of good manners” (Griffin 193). Furthermore, there was also an unwillingness to “surrender to another’s will”, which was considered tasteless “to
gentlemanly notions of masculinity in the eighteenth century” (Tosh 87).
9 Tosh also presents a number of norms connected to the female gender. Firstly, there was a view on women as being open to emotions (Tosh 44). The ideal Victorian woman was also considered to be a caring person (Tosh 56). In addition to being caring, there was a view of women as ‘angels’ (Tosh 55). The concept was mostly used to describe women who looked after the sick. Furthermore, desired qualities for a Victorian woman were also to acquire qualities such as being calm, comforting, and observant (Tosh 44,56). The responsibilities of a wife included making the home a “place for comforts” (Tosh 56). Additionally, women were considered to be passive (Amigoni 196) and there was a belief that women were ‘the weaker vessel’” (Griffin 53). There was also a common belief that a
woman was subordinate to her husband (Tosh 73), which connects to the male gender norm of male domesticity. Lastly, education for women were often viewed as including learning about “’light’ accomplishments (such as music)” (Amigoni 196).
Lastly, an important norm to mention is the norm of Victorian manners. Acquiring an ‘easy style’ (Griffin 192) was considered to be good manners. The manners “was a quality to which everyone could aspire” (Griffin 192), making it an important norm independent from gender.
Feminist literary criticism
10 movement recognized the impact of how women were represented in literature and found it necessary to not only question but also combat them (Barry 116). Because of the focus on literature, feminist literary criticism should be viewed as a way to practice feminism rather than viewing it as a by-product of feminism (Barry 116-117).
Using feminist criticism when analysing how women are portrayed in literature generates a distinction between three important terms. Firstly, the term ‘feminist’ refers to politics. Secondly, the term ‘female’ refers to biology and lastly, ‘feminine’ refers to cultural constructs. The most important distinction in feminism is the one between ‘female’ and ‘feminine’ (Barry 117), which is important when analysing gender in literature.
Analysing sexual differences can be one aspect to consider when conducting feminist literary criticism. Exploring the sexual differences in any literary text exposes gender
stereotypes and brings into light assumed differences between male and females.
Furthermore, since the 1980s feminist criticism started incorporating “other kinds of criticism – Marxism, structuralism, linguistics” (Barry 117). Analysing language can therefore be one approach that could expose gender norms.
Identity
Identities are constantly created and performed. However, the constant creation of identities does not equal to a completely new formation every time they are constructed. What it does mean is that identities take time to develop. As a result, there is a historical aspect to identity formation. Judith Butler states that a“human being is always about becoming” (Reddy and Butler 116), which clearly illustrates the idea that identities are constantly constructed. Because of the dynamical aspect of identities, human beings
11 aspect of identities come from the fact that identities are endorsed by and communicated in society. Consequently, the societal context has an impact on the opportunities human beings have when constructing their identities (Reddy and Butler 116). Concerning identities in literature, the characters in a literary work are often considered to be more than objects. This means that characters are seen as living persons rather than dead objects. One reason for seeing characters as living persons is because of readers’ relationship to the characters as well as readers identifying with the characters (Bennet and Royle 63). This is why readers
recognize that authors create the identities of their characters. With this perspective, authors create and recreate the characters’ identities throughout the text, which includes construction of gender identities.
Sex and gender
According to Butler, to be able to construct a gender identity it is essential to have knowledge about specific terms connected to the concept of gender. The most vital terms are sex and gender. Butler states that it is important to know the implied meaning of these two terms when examining the significance of the term ‘women’ (Reddy and Butler 116). Consequently, a clear distinction between sex and gender is needed when conducting a literary analysis with a focus on gender. One important proclamation that clearly states that there is a considerable difference between sex and gender is a famous statement made by Simone de Beauvoir that “One is not born but rather becomes a woman” (295).
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typical example of a deterministic view on sex. Geddes and Thompson claim that metabolic states cause “social, psychological and behavioural traits” (Mikkola). Women are then typically viewed as anabolic, which results in traits such as conservative and passive. Men, on the other hand, are viewed as catabolic resulting in traits such as eagerness and passion. The claim is therefore that behavioural dissimilarities between women and men, for example, the belief that women are not interested in politics while men are, are caused by biological differences in metabolism (Mikkola). The view of females as passive individuals developed during the Enlightenment. This was the result of the female orgasm being regarded as unnecessary for reproduction. The reorientation of the female orgasm from necessary to unnecessary to the reproductive act is the base which sexual differences rest upon (Laqueur 3-4).
13 However, the relationship between sex and gender is more complex than simply distinguishing the terms from each other. One aspect that complexifies the distinction
between sex and gender is the connection that biological processes have to cultural processes. The example that Candace West and Don H Zimmerman include in their article “Doing Gender” is the role of mother connected to culture, that is the view on family and work, instead of the role of mother being viewed as solely biological (126). Butler also points out that the terms sex and gender are more complex and could not simply be referred to as biologically and socially constructed (Butler xi). She not only argues that the cause of sexual differences comes from material differences, but she also highlights the normativity of the concept of “sex”. This means that the function of the concept is that of a norm as well as working as a regulatory practice. The regulatory aspect refers to the power of creating, demarcating, and differentiating bodies. Furthermore, because of the regulatory ideal behind the concept of “sex” the materialization of it is obliged. Consequently, “sex” is rather about being forced to follow and reproduce norms than simply about biology. This view on “sex” also means that “gender” cannot be understood to be constructed by culture and imposed on sex. The reason for this is that, because of normativity, it is impossible to distinguish the materialization from the regulatory norm (Butler xii). For the purpose of this essay, the term gender will be used and considered a social construction. Although there is a cultural aspect to sex, the term will not be used when analysing the two novels.
Additional concepts
Apart from sex and gender, there are two additional terms that are relevant to
14 groups and society and standards must be accepted within the members of the community ("Norm"). According to Butler, human beings are born into certain norms, for example gender norms. It is the societal norms that create the circumstances that determine the sort of subject available for us to be. Moreover, in order for norms to have power there is a need for a continual of subjects who integrate the norms into their lives as well as perform them and in doing so keeping them alive (Reddy and Butler 117).
Lastly, the concept performativity in connection to gender is of importance.An essential aspect that Butler mentions about performativity is that it is an ongoing practice of reproducing norms (xii). When defining the term performativity, Butler refers to speech act theory, which defines the term as a discursive practice involving both stating an utterance and performing the act that the utterance names (xii). Butler also states that the regulatory
practices that are connected to the term sex must be taken into consideration when theorizing gender performativity. Because of the regulatory practices, it is not possible to theorize gender performativity and sex apart. Additionally, gender performativity is a part of the heterosexual hegemony, whichaffects the norms connected to the term sex and its materiality (Butler xxiii-xxiv). One aspect of gender performativity involves an act of signalling gender (Butler 181). According to Butler, heterosexual gender norms “operate through the regulated production of hyperbolic versions of “man” and “woman.”” (181). These hyperbolic versions of gender are an aspect of gender performativity that all human beings are required to
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Constructions of female gender identity in Wuthering Heights
and Jane Eyre
Catherine
E. Brontë uses a wide range of Victorian female gender norms in the construction of Catherine Earnshaw’s gender identity. E. Brontë utilizes the description of emotions to illustrate that Catherine conforms to Victorian female gender norms. Women during the Victorian era were often considered open to emotions (Tosh 44). E. Brontë applies the knowledge of this norm to construct Catherine’s gender identity. Catherine is described to be crying and feeling empathy for Mr. Heathcliff (E. Brontë 15). Being able to cry can be considered an act of being open to emotions, which would then be considered a part of the female gender norm. Empathy is also an emotion that is often associated with the Victorian woman considering the norm of being a caring person (Tosh 56). As a result, both crying, and empathy are emotions that demonstrates conformity to Victorian female gender norms. Another example that illustrates that E. Brontë uses the norm of being caring to construct Catherine’s gender is when Catherine is gentle towards her father before his passing (E. Brontë 30). This corresponds to the Victorian view of women who looked after the sick as ‘angels’ (Tosh 55). Subsequently, Catherine’s behaviour during her father’s last moment in life can be connected to taking care of the sick, which E. Brontë presents as a woman’s duty
(E. Brontë 26). As a result, E. Brontë applies emotions as well as the act of caring for the sick to reveal that Catherine conforms to Victorian gender norms assigned to women.
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observant (Tosh 44,56). E. Brontë’s depiction of Catherine’s “mischievous” (E. Brontë 26)
and “wild” (E. Brontë 29) character lacks the commonly aspired ‘easy style’ as well as the quality of being calm. The lack of ease is clear because of the narrator’s view of Catherine as “mischievous”. The quality of being calm is also clearly lacking considering that the word “wild” is used to describe Catherine’s character. As a result, Catherine’s character can be viewed as a challenging of Victorian norms as well as Victorian female gender norms.
However, E. Brontë also includes situations where Catherine adapts her behaviour to the situations, which present her ambiguous relationship to Victorian gender norms. The act of adapting her behaviour can be seen in the difference in her behaviour when she is with her family compared to when she is with the Lintons. When she is at home, she does not care to act politely with good manners. However, when she meets the Lintons she tries her best at performing as a “true” woman (E. Brontë 47), that is a woman with good manners. According to Michael Curtin, Victorian manners can be described as having an ‘easy style’ (Griffin 192). Whilst behaving like a “true” woman can be viewed an act of conforming to Victorian norms, rejecting politeness and being difficult can be viewed as going against the norm.E. Brontë’s choice to display situations where Catherine’s behaviour and manners change can therefore be viewed as a way to illustrate Catherine’s struggle to fully conform to Victorian gender norms.
Additionally, Catherine’s “double character” (E. Brontë 47)can be used to strengthen the argument that Catherine moves between conformity and nonconformity. The double character refers to her tendency to change her behaviour based on the situation she is in. By presenting Catherine’s character as a double character, E. Brontë illustrates the rigid view on gender norms in Victorian society. The presentation that the narrator sees Catherine’s
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character, E. Brontë presents a questioning of Victorian female gender norms as well as
demonstrates that an individual can choose to conform to certain aspects of gender norms while rejecting other aspects.
The term ‘women’s weapons’ has been used by several feminist critics to describe Catherine’s use of emotions (Crouse 180). The ‘weapon’ that Catherine often resorts to is crying. She often cries when something does not go her way, most commonly when someone does not act according to her wishes. An example would be when Linton wishes to leave after he has been hit by Catherine. When Linton continues to state that he is going she “dropped
down on her knees by a chair and set to weeping in serious earnest” (E. Brontë 51). The reaction to cry can be viewed as a ‘weapon’ because she is not only reacting to Linton’s behaviour, but she also utilizes her display of emotions as a ‘weapon’ to try to convince him to stay. Presenting Catherine as a woman who uses her emotions as a ‘weapon’ further illustrate that E. Brontë applies the norm of Victorian women as emotional to construct Catherine’s gender identity.
Another aspect that is used by E. Brontë to create Catherine’s female gender is the portrayal of the state of her mental health. Catherine is described having “seasons of gloom and silence” (E. Brontë 66), which is thought to be connected to her becoming mad as a result of crying and grieving Heathcliff’s disappearance (E. Brontë 63). Such explanation in the text mirrors the view on Victorian “women as ‘the weaker vessel’” (Griffin 53). As a result, E. Brontë applies this prejudice towards women in her creation of Catherine’s gender identity.
Furthermore, Catherine’s well-being is also connected to the aspect of confinement, which is a main theme in the novel that E. Brontë uses in the construction of gender. An example of confinement is when Catherine decides to lock herself up in her room (E. Brontë 86). Furthermore, the act of confining herself also connects to the use of a ‘women’s
18 novel. Confinement is best understood as exerting control. Both Catherine and Mr. Heathcliff use confinement as a method to control people around them. Jamie S. Crouse highlights that their methods of exerting power through confinement can be linked to nineteenth-century gender roles (179). Mr. Heathcliff’s usage of confinement can be linked to masculine
domesticity signalling that he is in charge in his house, while Catherine’s confinement is the result of Mr. Heathcliff and Linton disagreeing, which can be linked to the female norm of caring about people getting along (Crouse 181). Catherine’s use of confinement mostly deals with locking herself up in her room. Nonetheless, as a result, the people around her are confined to the house while waiting for her to contact them again. Mr. Heathcliff, on the other hand, mostly confines other people, for example, by confining Cathy to Wuthering Heights (E. Brontë 200). The man is thus active and uses force, while the woman confines herself. Additionally, the act of confining herself can be considered a challenging of the Victorian female gender norm that a wife should listen to her husband and work to please him. Firstly, regarding listening to her husband there was a common belief that a woman was subordinate to her husband (Tosh 73) and should therefore follow his commands. By placing Catherine in self-confinement as a reaction to her husband’s banishing of Mr. Heathcliff, E. Brontë utilizes the norm of following a husband’s commands to depict a challenging of Victorian female gender norms. Secondly, the reaction also challenges the Victorian norm that it is a wife’s responsibility to make the home a “place for comforts” (Tosh 56). Subsequently, E. Brontë’s presentation of Catherine’s self-confinement results in both a conforming and nonconforming to female Victorian gender norms.
Additionally, E. Brontë utilizes the representation of marriage when creating gender in the novel. E. Brontë’s presentation of Catherine’s choice of marriage partner illustrates
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Catherine does not choose to marry Mr. Heathcliff whom she loves. Instead, she marries Linton whom she believes to be a more suitable man for marriage because of his social position and his expected fortune (E. Brontë 55). Her decision to marry Linton can be related toone of the feminine goals during the Victorian era and a common theme in nineteenth-century novels, which is to find a suitable husband (Barry 117). Additionally, marrying a suitable man was believed to bring happiness in life for women (Barry 117). Yet, Catherine is not fully happy in her marriage. Subsequently, there are two different aspects to consider about E. Brontë’s representation of a married woman. Firstly, E. Brontë demonstrates that Catherine conforms to the female gender norm concerning choice of partner. Secondly, E. Brontë’s decision to present Catherine as unhappy in her marriage can be viewed as a critique towards the societal norms of marriage, and more precisely, the common feminine goal to find a suitable man to marry. Catherine’s unhappiness also works as a critique towards the Victorian belief that a marriage brings happiness in life.
In conclusion, E. Brontë uses different Victorian norms to create Catherine’s complex gender identity. E. Brontë’s construction of a double character as well as presenting
Catherine as a character with a mischievous behaviour works as ways to illustrate nonconformity to Victorian female gender norms. On the other hand, E. Brontë utilizes emotions, such as crying, and marriage to present Victorian female gender norms and to illustrate how Catherine conforms to these norms. E. Brontë’s use of emotions also reveals
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Cathy
In the construction of Cathy’s gender E. Brontë depicts a less complex relationship to Victorian female gender norms. Cathy’s caring personality is one aspect that E. Brontë uses to present conformity to gender norms. The personality trait of being caring corresponds to the female Victorian gender norm of desired qualities (Tosh 56). The norm of taking care of the home present during the Victorian era includes taking care of people as well (Tosh 56). E. Brontë presents the caring personality trait as clearly feminine because of the lack of caring male characters in the text. A clear example of Cathy’s caring personality is that she takes care of the people around her when they are ill. When doing so, she is said to be “the fondest nurse that ever watched” (E. Brontë 117). What E. Brontë does here is presenting two aspects that can be considered acts of creating Cathy’s female identity. Firstly, E. Brontë uses the Victorian female gender norm of being caring. Secondly, the aspect of taking care of the sick is used by E. Brontë to construct Cathy’s gender. Cathy’s act to take care of her sick loved ones also corresponds to the Victorian female norms of the caring female as an ‘angel’ (Tosh 55). Subsequently, E. Brontë’s depiction of the aspect of caring for the sick can be viewed as an act that shows conformity to several different female Victorian gender norms.
E. Brontë also uses emotions to construct Cathy’s gender identity applying the
Victorian gender norms that women are emotional (Tosh 44). Cathy often reacts to situations by crying. One example is when her father and Linton are ill at the same time. The situation brings on a “clouded” (E. Brontë 170) heart, which results in her weeping silently (E. Brontë 171). E. Brontë’s description of Cathy’s emotional reactions can therefore be considered an act of conforming to Victorian female gender norms.
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who Cathy follows Victorian gender norms. Cathy is described to be crying as an initial reaction to being confined to Wuthering Heights (E. Brontë 200). However, she later adapts to the situation, which can be viewed as an act of following the Victorian norm of being a wife considering that her sick husband is at Wuthering Heights with her. As mentioned, the Victorian wife has the responsibility to make the home a safe environment for her husband. As a result, E. Brontë applies the norm of Victorian female domesticity to construct Cathy’s gender by illustrating that Cathy adapts from crying about being confined to putting her feelings aside to care for her sick husband.
Additionally, E. Brontë uses the change of character, triggered by confinement, to highlight the situational aspect of conforming to gender norms. After Cathy’s husband, Linton, dies Cathy’s good character declines (E. Brontë 216). E. Brontë describes the effect of the change in situations as resulting in Cathy becoming more “venomous” (E. Brontë 216). The change of character goes againts the Victorian manners of having an ‘easy-style’ (Griffin
192) as well as the female Victorian gender norms or creating a comforting home
environment (Tosh 56). As a result, the change goes againts Victorian femal domesticity. E. Brontë’s depiction of the change in connection the a change of circumstances also present the situational aspect of norms. What further illustrate the situational aspect of norms is the fact that Cathy’s character changes back to conform to Victorian female gender norms when she realizes that Hareton is on her side (E. Brontë 228). E. Brontë’s depiction of Cathy’s
character shifting depending on the circumstances can therefore be considered as aspects used to demonstrate both conformity and nonconformity to Victorian female gender norms.
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185). Additionally, when Cathy and Linton are married, E. Brontë describes Cathy as
unhappy (E. Brontë 203). On the other hand, E. Brontë’s depiction of Cathy’s motivation for marriage conforms to Victorian female gender norms. Cathy’s motives for marriage is presented to be partly because of her father (E. Brontë 199) and partly because Linton requests to marry her out of his own safety since he is afraid he will be killed if she does not marry him (E. Brontë 193). The motivations can therefore be connected to patriarchy and men’s authority in the home (Tosh 3) and, as a result, conforming to the female gender norm of following the wishes of men as well as the Victorian female quality of caring for others. Contrary to Cathy’s first marriage, the feeling in her second marriage does conform to Victorian norms concerning marriage. Cathy and Hareton are said to “brave satan and all his legions” (E. Brontë 245) together creating the unity between husband and wife that Victorian marriages were supposed to contain (Tosh 41). Moreover, E. Brontë describes Cathy as happy to be with Hareton, which conforms to the belief that a marriage results in happiness (Barry 117). Subsequently, through Cathy’s marriages E. Brontë presents aspect that both conform to and goes against Victorian female gender norms in relation to marriage.
To conclude, E. Brontë’s uses different Victorian female gender norms to create Cathy’s gender identity. E. Brontë utilizes both emotions as well as the Victorian concept of ‘angel’ to demonstrate how Cathy conforms to Victorian female gender norms. Female domesticity and the representation of marriage are also used to reveal both conformity and nonconformity to female Victorian gender norms. Furthermore, through the depiction of Cathy’s change in character, E. Brontë demonstrates that gender norms and the following of them are highly situational.
Jane
23 female quality of being caring towards others. One situation that illustrate Jane’s caring personality is when she learns that Mr. Rochester is married and that his first wife is mentally ill (C. Brontë 271). C. Brontë depicts Jane as feeling “pity” (C. Brontë 271) for Mr.
Rochester instead of depicting Jane as feeling sorry for herself for getting hurt by a man she loves. As a result, the situation clearly illustrates a conforming to the Victorian female gender norm of being caring and comforting. Additionally, the quality of being caring can be seen as one of the motives for Jane to marry Mr. Rochester, which is to make Mr. Rochester feel better (C. Brontë 387). Marrying a disabled man can also be connected to the concept of ‘angel’, which views a woman who cares for the sick as not only displaying her caring personality but also as an angel. Subsequently, C. Brontë uses the Victorian female gender norm of having a caring personality to construct Jane’s genderC. Brontë often describes that
Jane expresses emotions connected to female Victorian gender norms. In multiple situations Jane is described to be crying. However, C. Brontë often describes how Jane conceals her tears resulting in her crying silently (C. Brontë 14) or avoiding sobbing so that other people will not hear her (C. Brontë 221). Since women were considered more open to emotions (Tosh 44) the act of concealing them can be viewed as nonconforming to the Victorian view that women are weaker than men (Griffin 53). The description that Jane tries to conceal her tears can therefore be seen as an act by C. Brontë to present the idea that Jane is a strong woman but that she fails to live up to that image in certain situations. As a result, C. Brontë’s use of emotions depicts both conformity and non-conformity to Victorian female gender norms.
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described to actively seek for different job opportunities, both before arriving at Thornfield (C. Brontë 74-75) and after leaving Thornfield when she inquiries about work opportunities for women (C. Brontë 288), which is not a common norm presented in ninetheenth-century literature (Barry 117). The acts of applying for work adds to the image of Jane being an independent woman. Another aspect that can be viewed as C. Brontë demonstrating Jane’s independency is when she decides to leave Mr. Rochester after their failed attempt of getting married. Mr. Rochester states that they can continue with an unlawful relationship because she would not be impacted socially. However, Jane rejects this proposal (C. Brontë 280). C. Brontë’s inclusion of Jane’s rejecting demonstrates a noncomformity to the Victorian gender norm of listening to men. Furthermore, one of the reason for the rejection that C. Brontë presents is Jane’s strong conviction that one should follow “the law given by God” (C. Brontë 280). The religious motives for the rejection would then demonstrates a conformity to the Victorian gender norm concerning women’s responsibility in the creation of a suitable
religious environment in the home. Creating such an environment would not be possible since Jane and Mr. Rochester cannot marry at the time. However, in the end of the novel C. Brontë reunites Jane and Mr. Rochester representing a marriage that conforms to several Victorian norms. The lawful marriage conforms to both the religious aspect of Victorian norms connected to marriage as well as the Victorian female gender norm that a wife should take care of her husband (Tosh 56).
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make the home a comfortable environment (Tosh 56). Yet, through C. Brontë depiction of Jane’s thoughts the novel does complicate the aspect of obeying and pleasing men. Jane is critical about her feelings of wanting to please St John. The critique is visible through her thoughts stating that she felt it necessary to disown part of her nature as well as stifle herself in his company (C. Brontë 353). Furthermore, Jane’s statement that St John is killing her, referring to her mental wellbeing, is met with a comment that such a statement is
“unfeminine” (C. Brontë 365). C. Brontë’s uses a male character to demonstrate how Jane goes against Victorian female gender norms. St. John’s statement can be considered as a man stating the expectation that women should adhere to patriarchal society without questioning how men handles affairs. C. Brontë’s inclusion of Jane’s statement can therefore be viewed as nonconformity and a questioning of Victorian female gender norms. Furthermore, the fact that Jane states her unhappiness can be considered as a challenging of the Victorian female gender norm that women should be passive (Amigoni 196). As a result, C. Brontë uses St. John’s comment to demonstrate the effect that can occur when a woman does not follow female gender norms.
26 environments (C. Brontë 74), which leads her to apply for a new job. As a result, C. Brontë uses the focus on dreams connected to independency and work to demonstrate nonconformity to Victorian female gender norms.
Another aspect that demonstrates that C. Brontë presents Jane as questioning towards Victorian gender norms is her thoughts about what is necessary for women and men to learn. What is necessary to learn includes both qualities and practical skills. C. Brontë gives
questioning through Jane’s thoughts about why women, for example, should learn manners such as being generally calm as well as practical skills such as cooking and knitting (C. Brontë 95). Being calm is connected to the Victorian female gender norm about desirble quialities where calmness is one quality to strive to achieve (Tosh 56). Concerning the practical skills mentioned they can be connected to the education of “’light’
accomplishments” (Amigoni 196). What C. Brontë does here is therefore to use Jane’s thoughts about education to display Victorian female gender norms and a questioning of them. The questionging of the norms become even more clear when C. Brontë includes Jane’s opinion that women “suffer from too rigid a restraint, too absolute a stagnation, precisely as men would suffer” (C. Brontë 95). The statement is clearly a critique of the rigid Victorian gender norms and a questioning why individuals should follow them.
All things considered, C. Brontë’s creation of Jane includes aspects that both
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work rather than on marriage as well as the view on education is used by C. Brontë to display a questioning and a critiquing of Victorian gender norms.
A comparison of Catherine, Cathy, and Jane
The analysis of Catherine and Cathy from Wuthering Heights and Jane from Jane Eyre demonstrates that E. Brontë and C. Brontë created the main female characters’ gender using both similar and different approaches. Starting with the similarities, one major similarity is the approach of applying the Victorian female gender norm that women are emotional. Both E. Brontë and C. Brontë use crying to create their character’s gender. However, there are differences concerning the descriptions of how the characters cry. While Catherine and Cathy cry openly Jane often tries to hide her tears. Another difference is the situations in which the characters cry. C. Brontë puts Jane in situations where her feelings get hurt, for example, when she and Mr. Rochester have a conversation about her leaving
Thornfield and him (C. Brontë 221). E. Brontë, on the other hand, applies crying as a
‘weapon’ in situations where Catherine uses it as a way to exert power (E. Brontë 51,64). As a result, both E. Brontë and C. Brontë applies the Victorian belief that women are more emotional in the creation of Catherine, Cathy, and Jane’s gender.
Another female Victorian gender norm that both E. Brontë and C. Brontë utilize is the quality of caring for other people. Caring for other people is part of both Cathy and Jane’s character, while Catherine only expresses it rarely. The caring quality is connected to
28 Both E. Brontë and C. Brontë also use confinement to construct the female gender. At some point in the novels, all three characters are in some aspect confined. Cathy’s
confinement at Wuthering Heights (E. Brontë 200) and Jane’s confinement in the red-room (C. Brontë 7) are similar, while Catherine’s confinement (E. Brontë 86) is self-imposed. Confinement can be considered a method to construct gender in two aspects. Firstly, the reaction to confinement aligns with the belief that women are more open to emotions, such as crying, which is used to describe all three characters’ experiences with confinement.
Secondly, confinement portrays the common lack of power that women have and is therefore an illustration of patriarchy. Cathy and Jane are confined by either a male character or a woman who transgresses, while Catherine’s confinement is different. Instead of giving the power to a man to confine her, E. Brontë gives Catherine the power resulting in a challenging of Victorian female gender norms. The fact that both Catherine and Jane’s confinement leads to illness, as a result of crying (C. Brontë 14; E. Brontë 63), can be considered a way to strengthen the Victorian view that women are emotionally weak to construct the character’s female gender.
29 marriage should follow the Victorian norm of creating a religious marriage. The motive C. Brontë presents is therefore similar to E. Brontë’s depiction of Cathy’s second marriage. As a result, C. Brontë also utilizes marriage to represent female domesticity. Even though
Catherine marries for other reasons compared to Cathy and Jane, the message in the two novels is the same. Following the Victorian norm of unity in marriage will lead to happiness and if there is a lack of unity the opposite will happen.
Concerning nonconformity to Victorian female gender norms, the sisters use different approaches. C. Brontë does not only employ future dreams that goes against the typical Victorian female goals (C. Brontë 173), but she also uses other methods to question gender norms. The questioning is done both indirectly, by having Jane prioritizing work before marriage, and directly, by stating Jane’s thoughts about gender norms to the reader (C. Brontë 95,331). E. Brontë, on the other hand, utilizes different methods to convey nonconformity. E. Brontë does not include direct questioning of Victorian gender norms as C. Brontë does, but she does indirectly question female gender norms. One example of an indirect questioning would be creating Catherine’s character as a double character. As a result, the “nice” side of Catherine’s character can be viewed as conforming to Victorian female gender norms, while the “mischievous” side can be considered as a questioning of Victorian gender norms. Subsequently, both E. Brontë and C. Brontë use Victorian female gender norms to express nonconformity. However, they clearly do so differently.
Constructions of male gender identity in Wuthering Heights
and Jane Eyre
Mr. Heathcliff
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structure and the male Victorian gender norm of the man as the authority in the household to create his gender. E. Brontë describes Mr. Heathcliff as “a most diabolical man” (E. Brontë 161). The description can be viewed as Mr. Heathcliff being a man that strongly applies authority in his house, which corresponds to Victorian male gender norms. Additionally, E. Brontë uses descriptions of Mr. Heathcliff’s appearance to construct his gender. When Mr. Heathcliff returns to Wuthering Heights, he is described having grown into “a tall, athletic, well-formed man” (E. Brontë 69). The description can be viewed as a description of a manly man, which “in the upper classes was to be gentlemanly” (Tosh 170). Subsequently, E. Brontë uses the Victorian notion of a gentleman to construct Mr. Heathcliff’s gender identity.
Another aspect used by E. Brontë in the creation of Mr. Heathcliff’s gender is money. E. Brontë presents that money is highly important in Mr. Heathcliff’s life making it clear that he conforms to the aspect of caring about the public sphere, which demonstrates a conformity to Victorian male gender norms. Having money ensures a better social position, which makes it important in consideration to the public sphere. E. Brontë presents Mr. Heathcliff’s
relationship to money both as a source of joy and as an aspect in life that he always strives to increase. He is described as expressing “a flinty of gratification” (E. Brontë 136) when he succeeded in becoming the mortgagee of Wuthering Heights and the land belonging to the Earnshaw’s. The striving to increase his profit can be connected to environment in the public sphere, which is shown to have been a place of “exposure to greed” (Tosh 44). E. Brontë illustrates the conforming to the belief that men were greedy by having Mr. Heathcliff
blackmail his way into becoming the owner of Thrushcross Grange (E. Brontë 200) as well as having a tenant living at the Grange (E. Brontë 208). With these acts E. Brontë clearly depicts Mr. Heathcliff’s eagerness to increase his wealth.
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described to express anger using both body language and words. Expressing anger through body language does not only mean that he is violent towards others, although this is a big part of how his character is presented, but also through, for example, striking “his forehead with rage” (E. Brontë 19). Mr. Heathcliff’s particular expression of anger can be considered a part of constructing his gender because of the clear differences in descriptions of how women in the novel express anger. Even though Mr. Heathcliff often expresses anger aggressively it is not described as a “maniac’s fury” (E. Brontë 94) as Catherine’s fury is described. The difference in language used by E. Brontë to describe anger can therefore be considered a part of her construction of Mr. Heathcliff’s gender. Additionally, E. Brontë uses the description of Mr. Heathcliff abusing Cathy (E. Brontë 21) to convey conformity to Victorian male gender norms. Among the wealthy, abusive behaviour was left uncommented (Griffin 95). As a result, E. Brontë’s descriptions of Mr. Heathcliff as an angry and violent man can be considered a conformity to Victorian male gender norms.
At a first glance, it seems that E. Brontë applies the quality of being self-critical as an effort to complexify Mr. Heathcliff’s gender identity. An example would be that E. Brontë presents that Mr. Heathcliff does recognize his bad character stating that Isabella was delusional to picture him as “a hero of romance” (E. Brontë 109) when he in fact used “brutality” (E. Brontë 110) to disgust her. However, concerning the fact that wealthy men’s bad behaviour was overlooked, Mr. Heathcliff’s moment of self-critisism cannot be
considered a questioning of Victorian male gender norms. However, the lack of an ‘easy style’ in relation to Mr. Heathcliff’s manners can be connected to the common Victorian desire of having good manners and can therefore be viewed as nonconformity.
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questioning the gender norms that allow him to act this way. E. Brontë’s description of Mr. Heathcliff as a man lacking in manners does, however, illustrate a nonconformity to gender norms. As a result, E. Brontë uses Victorian male gender norms as a way for Mr. Heathcliff to demonstrate both conformity and nonconformity.
Mr. Rochester
Descriptions of appearance and character are used by C. Brontë in the creation of Mr. Rochester’s gender identity. Even before the reader meets Mr. Rochester the creation of his gender has started using other characters to describe him. Mrs. Fairfax’s description of Mr. Rochester is that he is “always civil” (C. Brontë 87) and conforms to the idea of a gentleman concerning “a gentleman’s taste and habits” (C. Brontë 90). One aspect of gentlemanship is the displaying “of good manners” (Griffin 193). What C. Brontë does here is using the term gentleman as well as the underlying meaning of the characteristics of a gentleman to create Mr. Rochester’s gender and to demonstrate a conformity to Victorian male gender norms.
Moreover, C. Brontë utilizes emotions that can be connected to Victorian male gender norms to create Mr. Rochester’s gender. Firstly, C. Brontë depicts Mr. Rochester as an
33 As a result, the emotions that C. Brontë applies can be viewed as demonstrating that Mr. Rochester conforms to male Victorian gender norms.
Another aspect that aids in C. Brontë’s creation of Mr. Rochester’s gender is the representation of marriage. Firstly, C. Brontë uses the norm of the ideal marriage during the Victorian era. The lack of religious care that C. Brontë depicts Mr. Rochester with goes against the notion of unity in marriage regarding his first marriage. C. Brontë presents that Mr. Rochester does not consider his marriage to Bertha as unity between husband and wife because of Bertha’s mental health. When he has made sure that there is someone else to take care of Bertha (C. Brontë 273), he no longer feels any obligations to his marriage. However, the fact that C. Brontë presents that Mr. Rochester arranges for a nurse to be with Bertha after he has locked her up does illustrate that he conforms to certain Victorian male gender norms. Arranging and paying for Bertha’s care conforms to male domesticity. As a result, C.
Brontë’s representation of Mr. Rochester’s view on marriage includes both conformity and nonconformity to Victorian male gender norms.
Furthermore, Mr. Rochester’s motive to marry Bertha is also an aspect that C. Brontë uses to demonstrate a conformity to Victorian male gender norms. Mr. Rochester marries Bertha as a way to become a wealthy man and uphold his high social status (C. Brontë 269). Presenting money as a motive can be connected to both the desire to gain in wealth and the importance of social class. Furthermore, C. Brontë’s presentation of Mr. Rochester’s motives for marriage demonstrates that he conforms to the Victorian male gender norm of caring about the public sphere.
34
has mistresses (C. Brontë 275). Consequently, C. Brontë presents Mr. Rochester as a man upholding patriarchal practices to construct his gender. It is also worth mentioning the fact that C. Brontë reunites Mr. Rochester and Jane resulting in Mr. Rochester marrying a
religious woman, which leads him feeling “gratitude to the beneficent God” (C. Brontë 395). In the end, Mr. Rochester conforms to the Victorian norms of providing for his family as well as having a religious marriage.
In conclusion, in the presentation of Mr. Rochester’s relationship with the concept of marriage, C. Brontë utilizes actions that demonstrate Mr. Rochester’s nonconformity and conformity to Victorian male gender norms. Additionally, Mr. Rochester’s gender identity is created using descriptions and emotions connected to masculinity and the male gender.
A comparison between Mr. Heathcliff and Mr. Rochester
The analysis of the main male characters in Wuthering Heights and Jane Eyre
illustrate that E. Brontë and C. Brontë use similar methods to construct the male gender. Both E. Brontë and C. Brontë employ descriptions of character as well as appearance in the
construction of the male characters’ gender. The description connected to being a gentleman, for example being a “well-formed man” (E. Brontë 69) and being “civil” (C. Brontë 87), is used by both sisters to describe the male characters.
35 jealousy can be connected to the Victorian norm of men’s authority over women and is
therefore an aspect used by C. Brontë to demonstrate that Mr. Rochester conforms to Victorian male gender norms.
Another aspect that both E. Brontë and C. Brontë utilize is the patriarchal norm that men are allowed to use women, which in the Victorian era can be connected to the idea of a wife’s submission. C. Brontë applies the norm to present Mr. Rochester as a man that is both married and has mistresses. Although the norm is visible in Mr. Heathcliff’s character as well, it is less clear than C. Brontë’s use of it. E. Brontë uses the norm of men’s power over women when she illustrates how Mr. Heathcliff is pressuring Cathy to marry Linton. An aspect of the norm of men’s power over women that can be seen in both novels, however, is the act of confining women, which both sisters use in the construction of their male
characters.
Additionally, the relationship to money is also an aspect applied by both authors. Mr. Heathcliff’s greed and view on money is an important part of E. Brontë’s creation of his gender. E. Brontë uses money to show Mr. Heathcliff’s conformity to gender norms, more specifically the Victorian gender norm of caring about the public sphere. Likewise, C. Brontë’s presentation of how Mr. Rochester became wealthy also demonstrates that Mr. Rochester conforms to the Victorian male gender norm concerning the public sphere.
Although there are many similarities, some aspects vary. C. Brontë utilizes marriage as an important aspect in creating Mr. Rochester’s gender. Although E. Brontë also uses marriage to illustrate gender, this has a less important role in the construction of Mr. Heathcliff’s gender. Through Mr. Rochester’s views on marriage, C. Brontë demonstrates
36
Concerning nonconformity, C. Brontë does not apply any other aspects than the presentation of Mr. Rochester’s first marriage that demonstrates nonconformity of Victorian male gender norms. E. Brontë, however, makes an effort to complicate Mr. Heathcliff’s gender identity. The effort made is the act to illustrate Mr. Heathcliff as a self-critical individual. However, upon further analysis the conclusion was that being self-critical could not be considered an act of nonconformity. Although, what could be seen as nonconformity is Mr. Heathcliff’s lack of Victorian manners. Lastly, when it comes to a questioning of
Victorian male gender norms neither of the sisters demonstrate acts or situations where the male chatacters express a challenging or questionging of norms.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the comparison between the selected female and male characters demonstratesthat E. Brontë and C. Brontë use similar aspects to construct the female and male gender. The comparison also illustrates that the authors use Victorian gender norms in the construction of the characters’ gender.Both E. Brontë and C. Brontë apply emotions in the creation of gender. For the female gender the authors utilize the norm that women are open emotionally and apply this with the reaction to cry. As for the male character, there is a difference concerning the emotions that are most frequently used to construct the male gender. While E. Brontë uses anger, C. Brontë uses impatience and jealousy. Although the emotions vary, they can all be connected to patriarchal norms.
37 norm of gentlemen to describe the characters. E. Brontë also make use of the Victorian
manners of having an ‘easy style’ in the creation of Mr. Heathcliff’s gender identity. The concept of confinement is also used by both authors to create gender. While Cathy and Jane are subjected to confinement, Mr. Heathcliff and Mr. Rochester are the ones to establish authority over women by confining them to a house. As a result, both E. Brontë and C. Brontë use the aspect of patriarchal structures to construct gender. The patriarchal power demonstrates both the lack of power that women have and the power and control that men have over women. This is not only used to construct gender, but it is also a
representation of Victorian women’s social position in real life outside of literature (Griffin 59). The patriarchal structure is most clearly depicted by C. Brontë through Mr. Rochester’s treatment of women and by E. Brontë through the domestic authority that Mr. Heathcliff has. However, E. Brontë chooses to break the pattern of men’s domestic authority by giving Catherine the power to confine herself rather than being confined. As a result, Catherine’s self-confinement can be considered an act of rebelling against patriarchy and Victorian female gender norms.
Another aspect used by both authors is the representation of marriage. Both E. Brontë and C. Brontë connect marriage to Victorian gender norms to construct both the female and male gender. The authors do have different approaches to the representation of marriage, for example illustrating different motives for marriage, but in the end, the Victorian gender norm of creating a unity between husband and wife is a norm both authors highlight. C. Brontë also applies patriarchal norms in her representation of Mr. Rochester’s view on marriage.
38 The above-mentioned aspects, emotions, qualities and manners, confinement,
marriage and money, are all used by the sisters to demonstrate conformity to Victorian norms, such as the Victorian manners, and specifically to Victorian male and female gender norms, such as male and female domesticity.
The analysis demonstrates that both sisters illustrate aspects of nonconformity in the creation of the male gender. However, the aspects of nonconformity cannot be viewed as a questioning of gender norms. C. Brontë demonstrates nonconformity by presenting Mr. Rochester’s thoughts and actions during his first marriage, while E. Brontë illustrates nonconformity by the lack of manners displayed in Mr. Heathcliff’s character. Concerning the female characters, both E. Brontë and C. Brontë use aspects, although different, to demonstrate clear nonconformity to Victorian female gender norms. The two authors also illustrate a questioning of female gender norms. One approach that E. Brontë utilizes is the act of giving Catherine the power to confine herself. E. Brontë also displays Catherine’s character as a double character, which demonstrates a struggle to follow Victorian female gender norms. The double character can be considered an indirect questioning of Victorian female gender norms. C. Brontë, on the other hand, make use of both indirect and direct questioning of Victorian gender norms. One example of an indirect questioning of Victorian female gender norms is the prioritizing of work over marriage. C. Brontë also applies direct questioning, such as displaying Jane’s questioning in thoughts, to indicate nonconformity.
Lastly, the aspect that societal norms determine peoples’ future can be seen in both novels regarding gender norms. E. Brontë demonstrates the opportunities shaped by societal norms most clearly considering the similar lives that Catherine and Cathy live. Both
39 wives in a patriarchal household. However, Catherine seems to struggle with her role and uses her emotions as ‘weapons’ to rebel against the patriarchal structure in the home. In contrast to E. Brontë, C. Brontë chooses to depict another type of life a Victorian woman could live. A possible explanation could be that C. Brontë chooses to create a character that belongs to a lower class compared to Catherine and Cathy. As a result, the societal norms and opportunities vary. Additionally, the male characters in E. Brontë and C. Brontë’s novel also live similar lives. This demonstrates both the importance of the public sphere and that the socially accepted norms are dependent on a man’s social position. Furthermore, with Mr. Heathcliff’s climb on the social ladder, E. Brontë highlights the difference between what is considered acceptable behaviour for a poor and a rich man during the Victorian era. Abuse conducted by a poor man was not socially accepted, while abuse conducted by a rich man was (Griffin 95). C. Brontë also applies the class difference by showing that it was acceptable for Mr. Rochester to neglect his wife since he is a wealthy man. Subsequently, the two novels illustrate the societal opportunities that men had during the Victorian era.
All things considered, there are more similarities than differences in the construction of both female and male gender in Wuthering Heights and Jane Eyre. The ability to illustrate both conformity and nonconformity demonstrates that E. Brontë and C. Brontë had good knowledge about the different gender norms present during the Victorian era. The
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