Master thesis in Sustainable Development 2018/20
Examensarbete i Hållbar utveckling
Sustainable Urban Mobility:
Transportation Solutions for
Future Urban Environments
‘
Arturo Martin Vidal
DEPARTMENT OF EARTH SCIENCES
Master thesis in Sustainable Development 2018/20
Examensarbete i Hållbar utveckling
Sustainable Urban Mobility:
Transportation Solutions for
Future Urban Environments
Arturo Martin Vidal
Content
1. Introduction ...1
1.1. Aim and research questions ...2
2. Theory ...2
3. Method ...4
3.1. Limitations ...4
4. Background ...5
5. Results ...7
5.1. The current state of the transport system ...7
5.2. Conflicting visions, missions and power structures ...11
5.3. The particular circumstances to the transport system in Lima ...16
Sustainable Urban Mobility: Transportation Solutions for Future
Urban Environments
Case study : Lima, Perú
ARTURO MARTIN VIDAL
Vidal, A. M., 2018: Sustainable Urban Mobility: Transportation Solutions for Future Urban Environments.
Master thesis in Sustainable Development at Uppsala University, No. 2018/20, 59 pp, 30 ECTS/hp
Abstract:
This is a study of urban mobility, where urban areas are defined as diverse and complex locations with a metabolism composed of multiple components and subsystems. Currently, more than 60% of the world’s population live in urban areas, a number expected to grow significantly. Most cities are unsustainable and often in ecological deficit; cities over-consume or pollute their natural resources, while unequal distribution of resources also occur. Thus, leading to serious economic and social imbalances, something that is possible to appreciate in developing nation-states. With population growth and economic concentration in urban areas, transport policies are forcing governments to seek innovative solutions for shaping and re-shaping existing and future transportation systems. Transport infrastructure related to congestion, accidents, local air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) is a challenge for many major cities in the world. This study covers the political and socio-economical processes with regards to the environmental challenges in the Peruvian transport system. It includes an analysis of the strategies and indicators of good governance by the central, metropolitan and local governments, with the aim of identifying the main drivers and barriers to improving the current transport system in Lima. It is important to highlight that urban mobility is an important component of urban planning and is constituted by the urban transport system, land use, traffic management, inter-modality, accessibility and public space management, among other things. The appropriate approach to urban mobility joins the vision of a city with citizenship (Ministerio de Vivienda 2016). From an Urban Political Ecology (UPE) perspective, one can appreciate that the transport system in Lima seems directly derived from complex social, economic and political relations and where environmental challenges are less vocal (Robbins 2012). And seen from the Entrepreneurial or innovative state and as described by Schumpeter, the role that a state or governments hold is crucial in a well-functioning society in the context of a capitalism society. An efficient government is vital in providing goods and services, rules and institutions for ensuring that the market grows, as well as directing citizens to a more prosperous life. Without such a government, sustainable development in social and economical aspects is impossible. However, the results of this study not only presents several challenges to the structure of the national, regional and local governments in Lima, but also the various dimensions to these challenges that exist. These insights are important to highlight and address, as moving towards an urban transformation that is sustainable and durable will require considerable intervention from governments to achieve substantial reductions in GHG emissions.
Keywords: Urban Mobility, Sustainable Development, Local Governance, Transportation, Power Structures
Sustainable Urban Mobility: Transportation Solutions for Future
Urban Environments
Case study : Lima, Perú
ARTURO MARTIN VIDAL
Vidal, A. M., 2018: Sustainable Urban Mobility: Transportation Solutions for Future Urban Environments.
Master thesis in Sustainable Development at Uppsala University, No. 2018/20, 59 pp, 30 ECTS/hp
Summary:
The is a study of the urban transport system in Lima, Peru. It aims to understand the political and socio-economical processes in the context of environmental challenges that face the Peruvian transport system. In order to do this, the study analyses the different strategies and indicators that exemplify good governance by the central, metropolitan and local governments. It also identifies the drivers and barriers that make up the current situation of the transport system in Lima. The results of this study present serious challenges to improving the current urban mobility transport in Lima, where there is a lack of transparency between central and local governments, the lack of a common vision for the future of the urban planning as well as a lack of clear governance structure between the three layers of governments that exist in current day Lima. However, the study also identifies various opportunities for improvements, such as the formulation of a clear vision of the urban mobility in the capital, adjusting current infrastructure to promote alternative modes of transportation, collaboration and sustainable mobility initiatives between the private and public sector including the academic institutions as well as a more transparent and collaborative management and governance of the current transport system. More than anything, the role of governments and proper governance is critical during an urban transformation towards a more sustainable and durable society.
Keywords: Urban Mobility, Sustainable Development, Local Governance, Transportation, Power Structures
1. Introduction
According to United Nations (UN), the global population is projected to reach 9.7 billion by 2050, especially in emerging nation-states that combine the major concentrations of poverty and lack of infrastructure, presenting a set of challenges that amplifies urban fragility. Population growth automatically increases the demand for global and individual mobility (Godfray et al., 2010). Currently, more than 60% of the world’s population live in urban areas, a number expected to grow significantly. This is a study of urban mobility, where urban areas are both diverse and complex with a metabolism composed of multiple components and subsystems; land, transportation, housing, education, health care and environmental services such as water, sanitation and solid waste. Each with their own complex economic, social and ecological systems that may have to be reorganised and sometimes transformed to meet the sustainable development goals (SDG’s) (Robbins 2012). The new SDG’s Agenda was approved by 193 Member States of the UN in 2016. The Agenda 2030 came into force, encouraging and promoting a just and equitable world for the entire population, ensuring ecosystems. By integrating the social, economic and environmental dimensions of sustainable development (Ministerio de Vivienda 2016:9).
Furthermore, all viable urban systems have an internal mechanism of governance and information flow, stocks of people, assets, ecological as well as financial resources. Currently, the metabolism of most cities are unsustainable and often in ecological deficit; cities over-consume or pollute their natural resources, while unequal distribution of resources also occur. Thus, leading to serious economic and social imbalances, something that is possible to appreciate in developing nation-states such as Perú. A valuable source to all is air, something that is at risk in most major cities such as Lima, Johannesburg and Beijing, in which the latter saw its worst air pollution crisis in 2017 (Phillips 2017). Therefore, an under-regulated transport sector contributes to health problems such as airway diseases, chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases and asthma. With population growth and economic concentration in urban areas, transport policies are forcing governments to seek innovative solutions for shaping and re-shaping existing and future transportation systems. Transport infrastructure related to congestion, accidents, local air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) is a challenge for many major cities in the world, being “the source of more than 70% of carbon dioxide emissions” (Neij, et al., 2015). One such major city is the Peruvian capital Lima, which similarly to other nation-states is vulnerable to oil price volatility as the transportation sector is heavily dependent on oil. Yet there are opportunities to transform the transport sector and align the city’s strategies in accordance to Agenda 30, albeit with its own unique challenges. Therefore, improving the transport sector in Lima would meet SDG 7 of ensuring access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all, as well as SDG 11 on making cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable with the aim of combating climate change and its impacts. An urban transformation towards a more sustainable and durable society “will require considerable intervention from governance and planning to achieve substantial reductions in” GHG emissions (Neij, et al., 2015:3). For example, some studies have shown that the average speed of a vehicle in Lima is between 10-12 km per hour, while the average speed of a person on a bicycle is 16 km per hour (DECISIO 2016). This is due to heavy congestion and the growing number of vehicles in Lima. Nevertheless, other studies have shown that “investment in [public] transport would reduce emissions by 15% by 2025, while saving citizens over US$1.1bn per annum” in Lima (C40 Cities, 2016). Indeed, sustainable development is a concept that is being introduced to different sectors and businesses in the Peruvian society. Nonetheless, the lack of commitment and promotion by the government and regional municipalities to establish and align current strategies to environmentally sustainable options, diminishes the overall efforts of improving urban life in Lima. It also limits the efforts of those few municipalities that are developing better and durable solutions in their local areas such as San Isidro, Miraflores and San Borja. In particular within the transport sectors, as these municipalities face a non-improving transport infrastructure connecting them to the rest of the capital. As such, it is important to highlight that “urban sustainability problems are not necessary characteristics of urbanisation but can rather be considered as results of poor governance and planning” (McCormick, et al., 2012:4).
the future visions for sustainable urban transport, a series of semi-structured interviews have been conducted with actors relevant to the topic.
1.1.Aim and research questions
This researchseeks to explore the conditions under which green mobility can provide sustainable alternatives for the case of Lima, Peru; for more durable and sustainable transport systems. By analysing the factors that may contribute to advancements, or place obstacles, for the implementation of a sustainable transport system in Lima. In order to secure the relevance of green mobility in the context of Lima, the research will also analyse the role of the government, municipalities and their governance structure with regards to the transport system of vehicles such as cars, buses and motorcycles. With a growing population in Lima accelerating the overall energy consumption, the need to find alternative supplies to fulfil these energy requirements is fundamental to the energy and environmental security in Lima (DECISIO 2016).Therefore, the first step in the transformation into a more sustainable urban development within the transport sector for future urban societies is to set targets and measurable goals. The second step is to weigh alternative modes of transportation that improves urban mobility without excessive cost measures. This study proposes an approach mainly framed by insights from political ecology, which takes ecological problems as the core of social and political issues, both technical and managerial, demanding a theoretical foundation to analyse the complex social, economic and political relations in which environmental change is embedded (Robbins 2012). Rather than taking for granted the current ways of governing the environment, this study scrutinises the logic, ideas and knowledge of the efforts made by the government and municipalities while identifying gaps and any lack in strategies to adopt more innovative solutions for sustainable transport systems. The findings from this research might serve as a puzzle piece in the construction of robust strategies to reach the sustainability goals set by local municipalities in a developing nation-state.
Several approaches and theories to sustainability governance originate from the global North, which are often based on assumptions of urban contexts relevant to developed nation-states. The limited research on climate change and its effects in South America, as well as the current research in the North, do not provide enough understanding of i.e. power issues between local governments and the state, especially in the case of Lima. This diminishes possible improvements of policies that are implemented in order to mitigate climate change and protect populations (Watson 2009:2274). For this reason, the intention of this research is to provide knowledge and ideas that might be applicable to ongoing sustainability transformation processes in urban initiatives in emerging nation-states. This would be done by the combination of theories and research findings originating from the global South and North, with the aim of complementing current assumptions regarding how city planning addresses these issues. Indeed, the the cities from the Southern hemisphere and their growth dynamics are now the dominant urban reality, where the global demographic transition requires planning to turn its attention to these kinds of societies and their issues.
Several issues rise to the surface when nations in the South try to implement and follow best practices by developed nation-states, “…at which they interface with a highly differentiated and ‘situated’ urban citizenry. Responses to these interventions are always varied” (Watson 2009:2269). This topic touches on a common challenge across developing nation-states regarding the intersecting issues of environmental degradation and development. For this reason, it focuses on three aspects: the power relations, the kind and level of governance as well as the citizens’ participation and choices. The research aims to answer the following research questions:
1. How are municipalities currently trying to implement sustainable transport solutions in Lima? 1.1. Are there any success cases?
2. What are the barriers and limits of achieving sustainable transporting systems throughout Lima?
3. How do the relationships and power structures function between the city council and its local municipalities?
3.1. Is there a common vision and plan to move towards a more sustainable urban infrastructure?
2. Theory
environmental issues and changes such as degradation and marginalisation, environmental conflict, conservation and control as well as environmental identities and social movements (Robbins 2012:19). From a local perspective, this analysis utilises the urban political ecology (UPE) approach, a subfield of PEthat considers urban environments as controlled, manipulated and operated to the benefits of the elite and at the expense of marginalised groups. It suggests the necessity to gain better understanding of the “complex mix of political, economic and social processes that shape and reshape urban landscapes” (Heynen, Kaika, & Swyngedouw 2006:5&6). For example, the urban mobility and transport infrastructure helps determine its spatial form, expansion and the economic and livelihood opportunities that it offers to its citizens. Cities can be seen as particular types of socio-ecological system (SES) that involves three interacting domains; the social, the ecological, and the economical. As a result, there are classical macro-threats to sustainable urban development such as governance collapses linked to social conflict, drought and famine linked to environmental crises as well as overpopulation and collapse connected to economical crisis. Therefore, from an urban socio-environmental perspective, it is important to keep in mind who gains and who pays, where multiple relations and “the networked and scalar geometries of these relations - through which deeply unjust socio-environmental conditions are produced and maintained” (Heynen, Kaika, & Swyngedouw 2006:10). UPE is an approach that provides the tools for researchers to analyse and re-examine urban issues such as the socio-political, environmental as well as the interrelation of humans and non-humans activities. According to Heynen, Kaika and Swyngedouw (2006), UPE is concern with the political process that surrounds the production of cities through socio-ecological process. Even if UPE does not see capitalism as a core assistance in achieving goals, this research intends to use a transdisciplinary approach by combining UPE and Joseph Schumpeter's theory of entrepreneurial or innovative state in order to obtain a deeper understanding of the governmental and municipal functions. This would improve the exploration into sustainable alternatives for a durable transportation system, where Schumpeter’s theory identifies a functioning capitalism with a good capable governance that support the development of societies. Indeed, his theory identifies innovation as the critical dimension of economic change. He argued that economic change revolves around innovation, entrepreneurial activities and market power. Schumpeter suggests that in order to achieve a better economic development or evolution, it is necessary for the private and public sector to collaborate. According to Schumpeter, the agents that drive innovation and the economy are large companies that have the capital to invest in research and development (R&D) of new products and services, thus raising standards of living. Evidently, by achieving economic development, the result would be a more homogeneous society through the notion of the entrepreneurial or innovative state, which would cultivate sustainable innovation capabilities (Epsen 2012:22; Pol & Carroll 2004).
Another concept that will help with the analysis is Ecological Modernisation (EM), which refers to “a restructuring of the capitalist political economy along more environmentally sound lines”. For example, the Dutch transition management demonstrated the necessity to embed new thinking into the redesign of a system, where public support is crucial to “identify with the new technologies such as renewable energy”. Thus contrasting the idea of an invisible hand that operates in the market systems, promoting good environmental results as the Prometheans believed (Dryzek 2013:170). Hence, EM seeks the production of green technology, as well as clean renewable energy, to offer new political possibilities and economic goals both in the public and private sector (Dryzek 2013:146). As a result, the entrepreneurial state and EM require strong state interventions in order to achieve the goals of economic growth and environmental protection based on partnerships between the private and public sectors. Furthermore, EM emphasises the role of technologically oriented innovations to address issues of environmental resource scarcity and degradation, where the role of science and technological innovation is to decrease the negative environmental externalities and risks with new technologies. Nevertheless, one should not take for granted that high-end technologies may absorb and solve any issue with regards to climate change, but that technological advancements and the science behind them may support sustainable living (Rajkobal 2014:309-310).
will be under study, as the main pillar or the urban mobility capabilities of Lima Metropolitana.On the basis of the above mentioned circumstances, this research will analysis the political, economical, social and ecology processes as the main indicators shaping the current transport system in all of Lima and within its local municipalities.
3. Method
The method used is Critical Case Study, which enables a researcher to closely examine the data within a specific context. In most cases, a case study method selects a small geographical area or a limited number of individuals as the subjects of study as has been done in Lima, and particularly in San Isidro. Case studies, in their true essence, explore and investigate contemporary real-life phenomenon through detailed contextual analysis of a limited number of events or conditions as well as their relationships. In doing critical case study research, the `case´ being studied may be an individual, community, organisation, event, or action, existing in a specific time and place. Indeed, case studies are frequent sites for the employment of both quantitative and qualitative research, however, there is a tendency to relate case studies with qualitative research, such as participant observation and unstructured interviewing. “These methods are viewed as particularly helpful in the generation of an intensive, detailed examination of a case” (Bryman, 2012:68). It is valuable to highlight that PE might be applied to different case studies ranging from the local to the global approaches, therefore, PE employs and supports theory-building through the use of immersive techniques to understand the values and practices of individuals within households, communities, localities and regions. Therefore, UPE considers urban environments and suggests the necessity to gain better understanding of the “complex mix of political, economic and social processes that shape and reshape urban landscapes” (Heynen, Kaika, & Swyngedouw 2006). In order to do so, this research has chosen the critical case study method as it is suitable to the analysis of this topic. For example, within the critical case study “the researcher has a well-developed theory, and a case is chosen on the grounds that it will allow a better understanding of the circumstances in which the hypothesis will and will not hold” (Bryman, 2012:70). One of the main criticisms of the case study is that case studies provide very little basis for scientific generalisation since they use a small number of subjects. Therefore, the question commonly raised is ‘How can we generalise from a single case or to populations beyond the case?’. What distinguishes a case study is that the researcher is usually concerned to explain the unique characteristics of the case under study (Bryman, 2012:66-74). It is important to point out that within a qualitative approach the researcher’s experience has an impact on the analysis itself and how the insights in the research is presented (Bryman, 2012:380 & 387). The qualitative aspect to the research conducted in this case, consists in gathering knowledge by conducting semi-structured interviews with a variety of local and national actors and stakeholders in Lima, concerned with the topic of sustainable urban mobility, local authorities, researchers and traditional leaders. All with the aim of covering diverse perspectives to the topic of this study (Bryman, 2012).
3.1.Limitations
4. Background
According to the Global Carbon Atlas, Peru ranks 50th among the 220 nation-states that emit the most particles, with 68 million tons of CO2 produced annually (Macera 2018). An increase in temperature between 0.4 and 1.4 degrees to 2030 is expected, as well as an increase in sea level between 0.6 and 0.8 meters in the next 100 years. This is a direct threat to the region Callao and the lower areas of Lima; although they are politically considered as two different provinces, they both make up the one Metropolis that is Lima. Likewise, 76.9% of the people of Lima reported having felt a significant change in the climate of the city in the last five years. From this group, 7 out of 10 indicated that they and/or their families have greater health problems due to climate change (PLANEFA 2017:23). Unfortunately, climate change affects those who are least responsible for its continued effects, and they are the most likely to suffer its consequences. Hence, it is necessary to avoid a global temperature rise of more than 2 degree and maintaining it below the critical threshold for the sake of all living creatures on the planet. “It is clear that the greater the cuts we make, the lesser the eventual impact will be… the sooner we act, the more effective the cut will be” (Monbiot 2006:17).
According to the seventh report of perception regarding the quality of life in 2016, the main environmental issues in Lima are pollution by vehicles, noise levels, the lack of trees and lack of maintenance of existing green areas. The main source of noise generation that was identified in most of the measurement points was vehicular traffic such as public and private transport as well as the excessive use of car horns (PLANEFA 2017:20). The city of Lima has the need to conserve and protect its different ecosystems because of its value as a biodiversity center in arid zones and for the environmental value it has for a metropolis that does not have enough green areas (PLANEFA 2017:23). The growing urbanisation process has produced a complex mix of political, economic and social issues that have influenced the urban landscapes, leading to poor governance and planning in urban areas (Robbins 2012). The Peruvian State is investing around US $10bn solely for mobility projects such as the Metropolitano (local bus line), line 2 (a new subway line) and the company Lamsac for infrastructure improvements (Facho 2018). According to several researchers and observers, the capital Lima is facing several issues regarding the disorderly and informal growth to the transport sector. In order to correct, re-organise or re-shape the transport system, it is required to fight pollution, congestion, collision, inadequate infrastructure, old or obsolete vehicle fleets as well as outdated traffic systems. This might ensure and guarantee a more sustainable urban development within the local transport sector for future urban societies. The inadequate transport infrastructure and urban planning is exposed to future natural disasters or catastrophes if not corrected or re-organised. Therefore, the construction or reconstruction of some parts of Lima, as well as “other towns and cities on Peru’s coast must be `adaptive or corrective´” (Collyns 2017).
For years, citizens have prioritised a fossil energy system that is very polluting. Only 2.7% of energy in Peru comes from unconventional renewable sources (Macera 2018). In the coming years, Peruvian energy demand will increase considerably; if there is no diversification of resources, Peru will have to use its oil reserves, which is highly polluting as well as being costly (Macera 2018). On the other hand, the new perspectives for the development of cities contrast the old models of the automobile city, which encourages asphalt and residence away from the center. The new paradigms “are related to efficient forms of mobility and low environmental impact, aimed at people walking, using the bicycle and public transport” (Facho 2016). For example, Peru is the fourth most attractive nation-state for investment in renewable energy in South America, as well as being considered a good potential to develop non-conventional renewable energies such as wind, solar and geothermal (Macera 2018). According to a study by Lima Como Vamos published in April 2017, of the 73.3% of citizens in Lima traveling by public transport “64% do it in buses, combis [mini-buses], coasters and collective taxis. Almost 25% have suffered some type of abuse and about 9% have been victims of an accident”. The study also reveals that “at least one person dies daily in Lima as a result of a traffic accident” (Facho 2017). It is the responsibility of the Metropolitan Municipality of Lima and the Provincial Municipality of Callao to eliminate the occurrence of traffic accidents and misfortunes, as they are partially responsible for keeping an unsustainable and obsolete public transport model in the 21st century (Facho 2017). It is unclear why private transport is encouraged and supported through the construction of express roads, bypasses and widening lanes, if Lima is a city where approximately 75% of the trips are made by public transport. In order to enhance the transport system, it is necessary for a systematisation and modernisation of public transport, as well as the implementation of non-motorised mobility systems (Facho 2016). Perhaps, the idea might be to turn “car parks back into city squares, and planting trees and instilling playgrounds and pavement cafes where there was only tarmac before” (Monbiot 2006:154).
5. Results
This section analyses the results from the interviews and overall literature that describes and explains the challenges for the transport system in Lima to become more sustainable. The interviews are based on the comprehension of a variety of local and national actors and stakeholders in Lima concerned with the topic of sustainable urban mobility. These actors include local authorities, ministry representatives, researchers and an activist. This with the aim of covering diverse perspectives to the topic under study. Additionally, there is no such thing as a profession or specialisation in sustainability or sustainable urban planning currently in Peru, however, the concept has been incorporated into a variety of functions in the ministries (Appendix E). For example, there are many professions linked to sustainable mobility, such as transport engineer, civil engineer, architect, urban planner, sociologist and economist, among others. The aim of the analysis was to find the accuracy rate to the strategies and indicators of good governance, by the state and local governments. At the end, based on the research questions and the findings from this research, the analysis will try to identify the main factors and drivers to the current situation with the transport system in Lima.
5.1.The current state of the transport system
Studies have shown that “Lima needs 75 thousand taxis, but has almost 200 thousand, between formal and informal” (Briceño 2018). Of the nearly 200 000 that circulates in Lima (not including the major province Callao), around 85,022 are formal and inscribed in the dependency of the Urban Transport Management (GTU) at the Municipality of Lima (Setame), leaving approximately 100 000 as informal ones. For example, there are taxis of different colours, with caps or without, with stickers, with unequal rates and queuing one after the other for customers in close proximity to traffic lights. All of which illustrates the disorder and the uncontrolled transport system in the streets of Lima (Briceño 2018). The number of taxis in Lima are divided by independent taxis with 56934 units, taxis associated with a company counting to approximately 28088 units and taxis hired as private drivers by specific companies at 4854 units. Furthermore, the average age of these taxi vehicles in Lima is between 11-15 years a shown in figure 1.
Fig.1. Táryet, 2013. The number of formal and informal taxis in Lima as well as their average age.
For the first time in 2012, taxis were registered and it was decided that no more vehicles could be registered as taxis. In 2013, the Municipality of Lima gave the possibility to the Spanish company Táryet, specialised in transport planning, to conduct studies regarding taxi services in order to improve them. These studies revealed that there is a custom in Lima of haggling the service, which leads to congestion in lanes. The recommendation of the study was to install taximeters in order to improve the congestion within the city (Briceño 2018). Hence, decreasing the number of cars on the road is not just a matter of providing alternatives, but also of discouraging driving. Yet since 2012, there is an increased number of informal taxis, not registered as such yet adding to the increased congestion in present-day Lima (Monbiot 2006:154).
Furthermore, a modification in the national traffic regulations established the cyclist’s obligation to wear a helmet in 2009. One year later, in 2010, the Bicycle Law 29593 was approved, which states the use of this vehicle is of national interest and cycling promoted as a means of transportation. It also established that “the state must provide the construction of infrastructure that facilitates the use of this system and decree rights and duties of cyclists”. However, 8 years later and the law is not yet regulated (León 2018). In recent years, it has been noted that the policies generated by the central and metropolitan governments always seem to generate infrastructure to facilitate the passage of cars (Lopez 2018). For example, “…good bike paths are almost non-existent in Lima today...being an illustrative case of the lack of priority in sustainable mobility at the metropolitan level” (Lauries 2018). The deficiency of cycle paths is alarming given the flow of bicycles in some areas, while there are other places intended for parking cars with strips of more than 2.5 meters wide. In other words, the message from the municipality of Lima is that “the bicycle is not considered as an important element in the planning of the city”, demonstrating a lack of interest, understanding and/or a lack of political will (Lauries 2018). Furthermore, the increased use of bicycles is not exclusive for recreational purposes, but could relieve overall traffic congestion and help decrease air pollution. The Actibícimo survey reveals that more individuals use this tool to go to work than those who use it to do sports. It also reveals that in sum, 28% of cyclists use bikes to get to the office or study center. Of these 28%, approximately one third uses bicycles to avoid vehicular traffic and get to their destination faster. Furthermore, 27% use bicycle for sport and health purposes, 21% use it to gain flexibility and autonomy, 13% use it for a commitment to the environment while 6% use it to save money, as shown in figure 2. As figure 2 shows, the increased number of individuals using bicycle for transportation purposes does so to gain more flexibility and save time in the traffic.
Fig.2. Actibícimo/Foro Mundial de la Bicicleta, 2017. The amount of individuals using bicycles, as well as their main reasons.
In an attempt to raise awareness of the socio-political and environmental issue, the 7th World Bicycle Forum was held in Lima in February 2018, which sought to have the bicycle regulation to be considered as part of the nation's transport system (León 2018). The need is for “new legislation, rules of coexistence and urban interventions to make the cyclist visible as a friendly actor” as well as “the modification of the national transit regulations, to clarify the duties and rights of cyclists, and the regulation of the bicycle law”. The forum indeed “helped to establish the basis for generating articulated commitments between civil society and the government, accompanied by academia” (Lopez 2018). This interaction or mutual activity is the essence of social life, in which a social process may result in the modification of the attitudes and behaviour of the participants. In order words, this event sought to raise awareness regarding existing issues with the transport system, aiming to create collaboration and cooperation among citizens, the different regional and local governments as well as academia. Given the current challenges to the transport system in Lima and from an Urban Political Ecology (UPE) perspective, it is possible to appreciate the complex social, economic and political relations embedded, in which environmental change is one often unmentioned aspects (Robbins 2012).
understands the problem and demands it from its authority and the authority listens. Then, there is a very strong and unbreakable alliance where authority supported by its population can do many things”. So, it is a very interesting formula because the citizens understand and are able to claim urban mobility. They can demand from their authorities and the authorities understand with greater reason. At this stage one of the strongest strategies that the Ministry of Transport and Communication (MTC) has is promoting a massive and aggressive campaign on the issue of urban mobility in the main cities of the country. In such a way that their candidates or new mayors at least give it a glance and understand it, albeit nothing assuring that they will agree or adhere to it.
In writing moments, the sitting president stated on live news that the re-construction of Peru is very important; be it education, health, facing corruption and the issue of decentralisation, it should also be possible to address the issue of urban transport (Appendix G). The transport infrastructure and system, along with citizen security, are currently the most important national issues. With Lima being a Megacity of more than 11 million inhabitants, it is of urgent need of major infrastructure projects to relieve its heavily congested roads, yet the state has so far not been the most suitable proponents of such projects. According to Javier Flores Ardiles, Deputy Manager and architect at the Urban Mobility team at the Municipality of San Isidro, the promotion of a network of bikeways in Lima is critical. “Lima has all the favorable conditions to implement a non-motorised transportation system. Lima is a flat city, it is a city that does not have extreme climates, it is a city where there is mostly a young population with a poor public transport system. In a deficient public transportation system, there is an opportunity to use alternatives such as non-motorised transportation” (Appendix A). While Lima has an air Metro, an BRT (Bus rapid transit) called Metropolitano, half-implemented buses and now an underground subway in the construction phase, all these systems are currently disconnected from each other. In many ways, the disconnection aggravates the issue when local mayors contribute with brilliant initiatives, but at the end they just remain within their administrative limits without seeking connections with other local mayors (Facho 2017). For these reasons, the vision of sustainable mobility is a vision that should be a metropolitan vision with national policies, however one of the few districts that have taken on the mission of improving the transport system in its area is the Municipality of San Isidro. San Isidro, which has 7 adjacent districts with which it coordinates with, is not able to collaborate with all 7 on the topic of urban mobility as each of the districts have their own commitments and priorities (Appendix A). From a bottom-up structure, what the consolidated local municipalities are doing and working on are initiatives for mobility, the increased availability and use of bikeways being one such example. But the problem emerges when an individual wants to cross to another district on bike, a ride of only 10-15 minutes, but this individual then has to navigate within this second district which, most often than not, lacks cycle paths and infrastructure. This is the reason why some local municipalities would like to intervene in metropolitan routes, which only the Metropolitan Municipality of Lima has responsibility and governance over, creating a conflict between local and provincial governments. This very example is captured by a current dispute over the Aramburú avenue which stretches between San Isidro and Lima (Appendix G).
Especially since for every four trips that are made within San Isidro, three are generated by enterprise employees (Appendix A). In the case of the Municipality in San Isidro and the drive that the Mayor has for promoting urban mobility, there is a mix of leadership styles and responsibilities at work in order to bring together institutions and the private sector. This is most evident in their recently initiated Pact for Mobility, which will be detailed later on. However unique as a local government in all of Lima, the small municipality seems challenged to engage the national government, less so of the regional municipality of Lima.
5.2.Conflicting visions, missions and power structures
The last five years have seen an increase to the intensity and density of the traffic and vehicular congestion in Lima. Evidently, causing greater noise and environmental pollution. At the same time, the increased population in Lima “lack planning where urbanisations have grown alongside industrial companies. The districts that register this problem are Surquillo, San Isidro, La Molina, Lima Cercado and Callao” (Posada 2018:24). The transport system and its structure is a strictly municipal management, the Ministries do not have jurisdiction, neither at the local nor the regional levels. Nevertheless, within the Ministry of Environment (MINAN) there are several multisectoral commissions, where one of them has to do with improving the quality of fuels. Since the current Ministry manager entered, the Ministry has been able to influence the expansion and doubling the number of vehicles running with diesel motors. In Lima there are vast amounts of natural gas, which provides the cleanest fuel injections of Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) and Natural Gas Vehicular (NGV), which is also used by the Metropolitano system for instance. Now there is the electric modality and all the incentives for taxi drivers to renew their fleets and replace the use of diesel with LPG and NGV. Similarly, the nation’s economic development means that the Peruvian family’s capacity has a different purchasing power and can spend more. At the same time, the Ministry of Energy and Mines (MEM) is designing a bonus for the person who wants to buy an electric vehicle (Appendix E). It is important to highlight that the installation of the NGV has a higher cost than an LPG system, with a savings marginal of 19% compared to gasoline. In addition to being a cleaner fuel source, the engine has a longer duration time. However, the installation of the LPG system is approximately US $500, compared to NGV that costs approximately US $1,500. Another difference is that there are more LPG stations outside of Lima, which allows for greater mobility, compared to that of NGV. Furthermore, the MINAN points out that the difference between these more ecological systems is that gasoline engine emit 2.3 kilos of CO2 per litre burned with gasoline, while the diesel engine emanates 2.6 kilos of CO2 for each litre used (Romo 2017). MINAN has robust policies that are seeking to improve mobility with fewer emissions. For example, the MINAN jointly with the Ministry of Transport and Communication (MTC) and the MEM have initiated a project in which the automotive technology moves towards an EO4 automotive technology from April 1st 2018. “It is not within the responsibilities of the Ministry, but we collaborate with the local planning of the city where there are problems of air quality with a kind of pre-relation of measures to give preference to the pedestrian, the bicycle and the mass transport, which are transport systems that emit less emissions…But this is a function that depends on each mayor, where they could freely ask us for consult or ask to review their projects”, says Architect Arnold Millet, a representative of the Ministry of Environment (Appendix E). In order to enhance the situation, the MINAN is studying some indicators that can help, because recognising the autonomy that a mayor has could imply that the mayor is out of focus, ambition or has a different concept regarding what it means to live in a sustainable city. Hence, the MINAN is bringing forth indicators that can guide the different mayors into action. For example, “a mayor “has the autonomy to invest in the city, you can do all the bypasses, all the works you want, you can regulate the transport lanes, but what I [the Ministry] do, is that over time the mobility system will generate less emissions and that mobility has a higher average speed of circulation” (Appendix E). Indeed, this is due to the speed of circulation that has a direct correlation to emissions; at lower speeds there are more emissions. One example is the Aramburú Avenue in San Isidro; the mayor of Lima wants to lay down existing forestry in favor of extra car lanes, when there are enough studies that show that there are other ways of avoiding the high investment of making an expressway and the increase in pollution. Regrettably, “this will always be a struggle against experts and mayors who are a bit inexperienced and who want to impose their points of view” (Appendix E). From an observer’s point of view, it could indicate that there simply are too many mayors for a single metropolis; Lima hosts nearly 50 mayors, while there should perhaps really be one per grander region. In a sense, simplifying the management structures and shorten lead times, which today seems like a barrier to improving the overall transport system in Lima (Appendix E). Hence, it is possible to appreciate the underlying political issues, where diverse political ideas or priorities made by various mayors could create socio-political conflicts and barriers between municipalities, ultimately affecting their citizens negatively with the lack of change.
example, in Lima, there are about 1,200 traffic intersections, of which only 380 have optical fiber and are controlled from the central hub at the Municipality of Lima. “The rest works at will or in charge of the district communes without any level of coordination” (Posada 2018:25). However, main roads and avenues which cover grander parts of Lima are in the hands of the Municipality of Lima. Meaning that while these main roads and avenues cross into various districts, local mayors have no influence or maintenance obligations. Hence, it can be appreciated that power structures and friction go hand-in-hand when changes, governance decisions or vision statements needs to be formulated and enforced. “Policies will take a long time to be implemented here, because local governments do not have many resources, there is much centrality” in Peru (Appendix E; Posada 2018). A conjuncture that is being seen from the congress of the republic is the creation of a Unique Authority for Urban Transport of Lima and Callao. This Unique Transport Authority intends to take this competence out of the city, thus contradicting the decentralisation process that the current president has confirmed recently. It will be driven by the MTC, which means to continue with the issue of removing functions from Lima and Callao. It is not necessarily new laws and policies that might solve the issues of congestion in Lima. If there is no competent personnel working with improving the transport system, things will remain the same, since “you will be filled with great consultancies from experts who will leave you tomes and tomes and you will not be able to do anything because you will not read them and you are not trained for that. The idea is that if at any moment this is created, it would have to have a much larger and more complete component, and that would be outside the ministry as its own name says, unique authority, authority totally outside and that the authorities that could enter should be qualified people” (Appendix G).
While there have been initiatives to target the urban infrastructure in Lima, the focus and responsibility of it has changed over time, leading to a lack in consistency. For example, the Ministry of Housing had an almost 20 years state-funded project involving Lima and Callao, where there was a multisectoral committee responsible for clean air policies which had a direct impact on transportation in Lima. Nevertheless, one year ago, it passed on to be under the supervision of MINAN, which changed the name and structure of the initiative from being a committee to instead be a new multisectoral commission. When the Ministry of Housing had the committee under its charge, it set more stringent standards and was directly involved in public transportation issues since 1997, as there were already serious challenges in these regards in Peru. For example, it was determined in 2006 from an inventory of emissions and air quality investigation, that the highest concentration of pollution in the city came from the vehicle fleet, which stood for approximately 80% of overall air pollution. When the inventory and investigation was conducted once again in 2015, the percentage of the vehicle fleet had been reduced. However, the issue is that regulation far from moving forward is instead retreating (Appendix G). In 2016, the MTC indicated that the vehicle fleet in Peru has grown by 7% on average since 2012, counting at 2'661.719 vehicles circulating in the country. This makes Lima and Callao ranked as the primary regions with the majority of vehicles circulating, as shown in figure 3 (Posada 2018:25). The public transport fleet consists of rural trucks, minibuses and buses that are distributed at 35%, 42% and 23% respectively. For example, the average age of the public transport vehicle park in Lima is between 15 and 20 years; comparing the automotive park in Chile where the average age is between 6-7 years old, as shown in figure 4. Approximately 50% of the taxi vehicle fleet in Lima makes use of either GNV or GLP exclusively, or dual with gasoline, 25% of vehicles use diesel as shown in figure 5 (Ministerio de Vivienda 2016:35; Appendix E). “Despite the economic growth of this metropolis and the improvement of the human development index, it has not resulted in the increase in emissions” (Ministerio de Vivienda 2016:9). This could be due to the encouragement and promotion of diesel as well as natural gas vehicles transformation; perhaps leading to less GHG emissions but do not impact or contribute to a reduction of traffic and congestion in the city.
Fig.3. National automobile park estimated by vehicle class and department, with Lima and Callao as the primary regions with the
Fig.4. The years of the public transport vehicle park in Lima. Cited in Ministerio de Vivienda, 2016
Fig.5. Distribution of the Taxi Vehicle Fleet in Lima. Cited in Ministerio de Vivienda, 2016
Fig.6. Import of automotive vehicles, according to condition and vehicular class, where import of new vehicles have increased
through the years while used vehicles have decreased since 2009. Cited in Posada, 2018:26
Mobility should “generate orderly urban planning of what citizens want in a city ... where citizens want the city to go” (Appendix F). Especially when 70% of citizens in the capital solve their transport needs through public transport, despite having a poor public transport offering, argues Cristhian Northcote, representative of Urban Mobility and Sustainable Transport at the MTC (Appendix F). The issue of urban transport is a theme of the provincial municipalities, which means that each city, each province manages its own transport system according to its own needs and its own resources. The MTC efforts to setting up an institutional management scheme, by the formation of the Unique Authority for Urban Transport in Lima and Callao, can seem as a possible solution for an integral transport for the two provinces. Mainly as this would include the participation of municipalities from both provinces, where also MTC would be able to influence and manage the integrated transport system within the two provinces. Although they are politically considered as two different provinces, they both make up the one Metropolis that is Lima. Given this two-province division, previous governance efforts have been short of success. For example, the MTC has a normative work to generate the instruments to indicate how the transport system should function, but it does not have management responsibilities of actual implementation of plans. Yet it has a role of accompaniment to the management of local governments through financing and through technical support. In the last 2-3 years, the MTC has developed a strategy for the improvement of the urban transport in Peruvian cities, a plan that breaks down the implementation into three fields of action. Each field of action would be considered the norm, in which the MTC is proposing measurable national urban transport policies and guidelines. The approach for its three fields of actions is to ensure efficient services, safe services to avoid accidents and mortality as well as sustainable services with a consideration towards the environment. An added investment component will ensure the generation of a public investment program, which will provide local governments with resources in order to manage their investment projects into an integrated transport system. The solution for transportation is not to just put a subway or bus systems in the city, rather it should be to think in a integral solution. For example, the needs for a Metro that “communicates with a network of bikeways, or a BRT that communicates with a traditional bus system, or a door-to-door transport system for peripheral areas. Where in areas that are low demand, I cannot put a massive system because it would not be sustainable nor profitable, but I can connect a system that connects these people with the more massive network” (Appendix F).
currently identified needs are particular, and are not captured as of today with a storyline of sustainable transport. A mayor or the state could offer cities in the north of Peru the possibility to commute by train, as a means of sustainable transport. But what needs of sustainable trains do cities have, when these cities in reality both economically and infrastructure-wise do not need trains. It may be argued that the ministries need to support the local governments; an urban mobility plan with a technical assistance technique, which includes elements of urban development plans and transport management that is well planned by a competent and integrated team (Appendix G). For example, the mayor of Curitiba “articulated all his development plan, its densification and all that. This is what he calls mobility...Sustainable transport is transport that has the priority to advance the automobile, not the pedestrian. Sustainability will be for the car, but what we want to benefit in a city is the citizen. So, that is really urban mobility” (Appendix G). Therefore, there should be initiatives for an urban mobility plan for Lima and Callao. For example, when natural disasters occur, as occurred in 2017 in the North of Peru, affected municipalities had to change their budgeting plans to accommodate the needs for repairing destroyed infrastructure. This goes away from being an environmental issue, into becoming an economic issue. More specifically, being a climate vulnerability issue, because the budget that could be use to address or help with critical infrastructure improvements need to be used for other things. Hence “the issue of climate change, climate vulnerability is an economic issue… a social issue, because logically most of the people affected [are those living in] poverty…” (Appendix G). For an effective performance of a plan or strategy, the commitment and active participation of society as a whole is needed, integrated by the governmental and private sectors of Lima and Callao as well as the academic sector and the population in general. It is important to highlight “the importance of cities and their integral treatment; it is understood that the most compact cities are energy efficient because they generate shorter trips and with fewer emissions per capita” (Ministerio de Vivienda 2016:15). Consequently, the good performance of the III Plan for Atmospheric Sanitation 2016-2020 produced by the Ministry of Housing “will require adequate and timely institutional management, the leadership, commitment, experience and inter-institutional presence becoming necessary and with the appropriate correlate of management throughout the organised society” (Ministerio de Vivienda 2016:15). This plan incorporates measures that influence urban planning and sustainable mobility, which observes measures and activities that in the next five years must be completed by the various national, regional and local governments and institutions, with the active participation of the agencies from the private sector and the society involved (Ministerio de Vivienda 2016:13).
Resources exists to advance in the area of sustainable mobility; municipalities are currently spending approximately 85% on average from the budget capacity, meaning that the additional 15% could be allocated to sustainable transport projects. This would be a reorientation, a very interesting concept that is spending efficiency and prioritised need, argue Javier Flores. The Peruvian economy has improved in recent years, however “the state has not been able to implement with the speed of this economic improvement, a massive transportation system that serves the public in general” (Appendix A). For this reason, citizens are solving their own transportation needs by buying a car or a motorcycle. Statistics have shown a strong correlation between the growth curves of the Peruvian economy and the sales of motorcycles and motor vehicles; as the economy grows, the vehicle fleet follows (Appendix A). Sustainable development is therefore a concept that forces local and international governments to devote increased attention to the links between economic and environmental issues. “The idea of environmental security, which suggests the need to redefine the concept of security to include a broader array of concerns, raises profound questions about the functionalist strategy of decoupling issues and dealing with them separately in the formation of international regime” (Young 1991:300). Additionally, there was the technical secretary for Lima and Callao in transport matters, which was created precisely by the committee that regulated the transport issue of the two cities. It was the first Metropolitano, the former urban transport project called PROTUN, which was thought through already before the Trasmilenio in Colombia, which is a kind of Metropolitano. “Then, because of political decisions, it could not be executed into final stages… it gives me the impression that instead of moving forward, sometimes we go backwards”, argued Gladis Macizo (Appendix G). For this reason, a political leader needs to have a different approach, a comprehensive look at the city. The mayor of San Isidro “…is one of the mayors who has faced mayor Castañeda [of Lima] when he wanted to do a bypass in Aramburú Avenue... the idea [the mayor] of San Isidro has is clear, he is one of the mayors …[who] has hired two buses that are circulating internally” (Appendix G). For example, a person can take the bus on the border of Miraflores and San Isidro that goes within the district, and it is free of charge. As a result, the mayor is triggering a behaviour change in the citizens, because they have migrated to the use of bus instead of driving their cars (Appendix G).
Metropolitan Lima wanted to solve by expanding the traffic lanes. Expanding the lanes without any type of policies, order or improved driving culture means to spend several millions of dollars; with less than one-tenth of that cost, it could avoid all by introducing efficiency in the traffic, mentioned Aldo Facho. With road corridors, integral routes and fair employment conditions for professional drivers, one would come a long way. But the situation for e.g. professional drivers today means that the driver “has to work 24 hours just to be able to take home 100 soles [~30USD]”. But if “the driver has a decent job, earns a salary, has hours of rest, the driver can work as everybody else does; the guy works, he drives quietly, he doesn’t have to risk killing someone on the road because he needs to fulfil his schedule and make his stops. That’s a model, it's order” (Appendix B). Aldo Facho suggested that the solution is at a governmental level, but it is complex as there is a need for negotiations, as well as identifying official and unofficial businesses operating in the city. For example, “there are big mafias, very big businesses that have gotten in there ... you have a mafia of spare parts for vehicles, a mafia of vehicular tires. In other words, what is better for an importer or producer of a pneumatic tyre? To have eight hundred combis or have two hundred buses? There are clandestine mechanic workshops, there is a whole clandestine system, a whole second-hand system of used cars and stolen auto parts. Not to mention the network of criminals who also steal. There is a whole system mounted” (Appendix B). It could be argued that Lima not only suffers from political and governance insufficiency, but of overall dysfunctional change management. Lima has all the necessary infrastructure to be a highly manageable city, with public and efficient transport system. Every new government entering into power, comes in with its new booklet, pulling down the previous plans and starting over. The previous government tried to introduce changes to the transport system through unified connections and road corridors, vehicle replacement and more. The current government scrapped everything, including a systematic annulation of contracts (Appendix B). While strategies for changing the transport infrastructure can vary, vehicle replacement is a must. Possible solutions could include a vehicle tax for antique vehicles that are the cause of the greater damage to the environment; this might ignite a voluntary exit of old vehicles from circulation. Another alternative could be the improvement of the “scrapping program, in such a way that owners of all types of vehicles with more than 20 years of seniority can access a bonus to acquire a new vehicle” (Posada 2018:26). In 2014, the Metropolitan Ordinance No. 1595, created the Scrap Program, which allowed a scrapping of 1126 public transport vehicles. This generated a reduction of 157 tons / year of criteria pollutants for the period 2012-2014. The goal is to scrap 2,800 vehicles during two years time, however, only 200 vehicles have been scrapped up until 2016. There are some initiatives that aim to promote the granting of scrap bonds for public transport vehicles (Ministerio de Vivienda 2016:132-133). Unfortunately, “the scrapping effort was paralysed because there was no more money” dedicated to it by political decision of the previous administration. More precisely, “the mayor [of Lima] said no, we are going to start using diesel as it is clean that matters” (Appendix G). This is a great reverse, having had a committee led by the Housing Ministry and “having passed [the responsibility over] to the Ministry of Environment which does not have the desire to take action”, argued Gladis Macizo (Appendix G). In Peru, the MINAN is basically a coordinating entity, which in some way creates limitations. The main responsibility of the MINAN is national policy formulation for the protection of the environment; air quality standards, water, and soil quality, the maximum permissible limits, the issue of waste management which involves all local governments an more related to the issue of climate change (Appendix G).
5.3.The particular circumstances to the transport system in Lima
There are different ways to achieve a green transportation system, such as the use of alternative fuels, car sharing, attempts to reduce vehicle usage and the promotion of green mobility which are based on walking, biking as well as through an adequate public transport. For example, “driverless car might contribute to reduce fatalities and congestion (by coordinating spacing), providing some limited ecological benefits”, in which walking and cycling are the greenest ecological form of transportation (Feldman 2014:642). All these actions could cut emissions by more than 90% across the journey, however, the problem is more political than practical. For this reason, it is necessary for “governments to start deciding how best to run a transport system, rather than how best to accommodate the private car” or private interests (Monbiot 2006:169). An urban transformation towards a more durable society requires considerable government intervention with good governance and planning. In order to achieve substantial reductions in GHG emissions and develop sustainable societies, it is necessary to establish a collaboration between the public and private sectors (Neij, et al., 2015).
The current political climate and crisis has made the advancements of e.g. transport and infrastructure plans difficult to complete without governability agreements (Appendix E). The situation is further complicated by the fact that the scheme of local governments means that mayors have short governance periods. Mayors currently have mandate periods of 4 years, during which it is not possible to have an immediate re-election. Hence, the reasoning tend to be that if a mayor cannot see a project completed during the 4 year mandate period, then the project will not even get started or be taken into consideration. Solely planning an integrated transport systems project may take up to 4 years to finalise. According to Cristhian Northcote, the MTC is managing a national urban transport program for this very sake; by holding the management structure together, the national government can accompany local governments despite managerial changes in the local municipalities. “I help you finance your transportation projects, but as long as the management of these projects is aligned with the objectives that I have as a country... [the] objectives have to be oriented to a quality service, a safe service and a sustainable service with the environment” (Appendix F). A willingness of leadership essentially is about an actor’s attempt to guide or direct the behaviour of others in pursuit of a common goal, encouraging in a social climate in which local governments “…perceive trusting relationships, share a larger professional or personal identity, and view the negotiation as a problem to be solved rather than as a contest to be won” (Druckman & Wagner 2015:406-407). Another identified challenge connected to the political climate and private political interests is the fact that there are many political leaders that have no idea nor interest of the concept of sustainability or environmental protection. Much less do they talk about human cities (Appendix C). For example, the Ministry of Housing is trying to help one of the districts that will have the Olympic village during the Pan-American games held in Lima in 2019. The municipality of Villa El Salvador has obtained a budget for the improvement of the public spaces, including bike lanes. When a representative from the ministry went to visit the area, there had been a circus installed where there green areas had previously been built. When the mayor of this district was sought and questioned, the municipality had given permission for the circus as it belongs to the famous artist Chola Chabuca. This reflects the prioritisation of private interests over anything else (Appendix G).
It is important to recall that when the new Sustainable Development Goals Agenda or Agenda 2030 came into force, they meant for encouraging that “the next 15 years will set the pace to build a just and equitable world for the entire population, in addition to ensuring ecosystems…and integrates the social, economic and environmental dimensions of sustainable development” (Ministerio de Vivienda 2016:9). The provinces of Lima-Callao concentrates more than 50% of the national manufacturing production of large, medium and small industries. For example, the factories located in the central areas of the city have started moving to the periphery such as Lurín, Chilca, Pucusana and Huachipa Este. This is due to a need to expand facilities, the increase in the monetary value of land and the incompatibility with the residential areas of the city. In order to strengthen the role of the metropolis as an engine of the nation’s industrial development, it is important to open new large industrial parks, adequately regulated with scientific and technological innovation as well as efficiently integrated to the mobility of the city, mainly via the ports and the airport. Similarly, this socio-economic process reflects a good entrepreneurial or innovative state which seeks efficient scientific and technological innovation. Furthermore, “there are also the productive conglomerates of small important industry [areas] such as Gamarra, Wilson and the industrial park of Villa El Salvador that need to be strengthened and assisted by centers of technological innovation, to generate formal employment and greater productivity” (Ministerio de Vivienda 2016:50). To this last process of small industries, it is important to add the informality of the diverse activities that accentuates the problem. It is possible to assume that this effect could repeat itself as it did with large and medium industries, mainly due to continued economic growth. Subsequently, this can be considered as an indicator of the consequences of the uncontrolled industrialisation in Peru. To the extent that robust and comprehensive public measures are not established for the densification of the current and new centralities. “An urban mobility plan for Lima and Callao [could be] implemented that includes the intermodal urban transport system and merchandise, the management and use of soil as well as efficient traffic management” (Ministerio de Vivienda 2016:87). Studies providing projections of the average travel speeds for vehicles in Lima in the year 2025, suggest that massive and rapid transport systems will not be implemented correctly. The average speed is expected to fall from 33.4 km/hour to 7.8 km/hour by 2025, as shown in figure 7. Obviously this is an unwanted scenario, since the concentration of vehicle emissions would increase (Ministerio de Vivienda 2016:48). In September there is the Week of Urban Mobility taking place in Lima, and the Ministry of Housing is coordinating initiatives and campaigns for communicating around the issue of urban mobility. The aim with this initiative is to raise awareness about urban mobility and the demands that citizens have a right to place in their current and new local and national authorities. “I think one of the most important things now to work in these months has to be the subject of knowledge about what urban mobility is, that [citizens] understand that it is not a transport issue only …” (Appendix G).
Fig.7. Average travel speed (in kilometres per hour). Cited in Ministerio de Vivienda, 2016
