7. A chronology of the history of the Baltic Sea region

T ^he B ^alTic S ^ea R ^egion

Cultures, Politics, Societies

Editor Witold Maciejewski

T ^he B ^alTic S ^ea R ^egion

Cultures, Politics, Societies

Editor Witold Maciejewski

A Baltic University Publication

800-1250 Vikings; Early state formation and Christianization 800s-1000s Nordic Vikings dominate the Baltic Region 919-1024 The Saxon German Empire

966 Poland becomes Christianized under Mieszko I 988 Kiev Rus adopts Christianity

990s-1000s Denmark Christianized

999 The oldest record on existence of Gdańsk

Cities and towns

During the Middle Ages cities were small but they grew in number between 1200-1400 with increased trade, often in close proximity to feudal lords and bishops. Lübeck had some 20,000 inhabitants in the 14th and 15th centuries. In many cities around the Baltic Sea, German merchants became very influential. In Swedish cities tensions between Germans and Swedes were common.

1000s Sweden Christianized

1000s-1100s Finland Christianized. Swedish domination established 1025 Boleslaw I crowned King of Poland

1103-1104 A Nordic archbishopric founded in Lund 1143 Lübeck founded (rebuilt 1159 after a fire) 1150s-1220s Denmark dominates the Baltic Region

1161 Visby becomes a “free port” and develops into an important trade center 1100s Copenhagen founded (town charter 1254)

1100s-1200s German movement to the East

1200s Livonia under domination of the Teutonic Order 1200s Estonia and Livonia Christianized

1201 Riga founded by German bishop Albert 1219 Reval/Tallinn founded by Danes

ca 1250 Lithuanian tribes united under Mindaugas ca 1250 Stockholm founded

1250-1525 The Hanseatic League; Polish-Lithuanian Empire and Nordic Union 1282 The Hanseatic League founded

1283 Prussia completely conquered by the Teutonic Order

1286 Königsberg becomes a town around a fortress founded by the Teutonic Order 1300s Culmination of Hanseatic influence

1323 The Treaty of Nöteborg between Sweden-Finland and Novgorod 1323 Vilna capital of Lithuania

1340s-1350s The Great Plague

7 A chronology of the history of the Baltic Sea region

The Black Death

the great plague that struck Europe in the late 1340s, was a pandemic. It spread from China and Central Asia into Europe and Northern Africa. It has been estimated that in some areas of Europe one third to half of the population was lost.

1346 Denmark sells its Estonian territory to the Teutonic Order 1360- Danish domination over Scania (Skåne) and Gotland 1361-1370 Denmark at war with the Hansa

1364 University of Kraków founded

Universities

During the late Middle Ages universities began to emerge. In the Baltic region the universities are young compared to those on the continent. Bologna 11th century, Paris 12th century, Prague 1348, Kraków 1364, Heidelberg 1386, Rostock 1419, Greifswald 1456, Uppsala 1477, København 1478 and Vilnius (Wilno) 1579. The Swedish universities around the Baltic (including Dorpat (Tartu) 1632, Åbo/Turku 1640 and Lund 1668) became strongholds of Lutheran faith and culture.

1370 Defeat of the Lithuanians. Systematic German colonization 1386 Polish-Lithuanian personal union

1387 Lithuania adopts Catholicism

1392-1430 Lithuania becomes a great power under Grand Duke Vytautas 1397-1521 Union of Kalmar between Denmark, Norway and Sweden-Finland 1410 The defeat of the Teutonic Order

The Battle of Tannenberg (Grunwald)

in 1410 was one of the greatest in the Middle Ages. Joint Polish and Lithuanian forces defeated the army of the Teutonic Order and broke its military power. As a consequence, the authority and financial position of the Order was broken.

Tannenberg became the site of another battle in August 1914 when the German army defeated the Russian troops that had invaded German East Prussia. Paul von Hindenburg, who later became German President, served as commander during the “second” battle of Tannenberg.

1456 University of Greifswald founded

1471 Sweden defeats Denmark in the battle of Brunkeberg 1477 University of Uppsala founded

1478 University of Copenhagen founded 1400s-1500s Decline of the Hanseatic League

1517-1795 Wars, Feudal Dynasties and Religious split

1517 Martin Luther nails his 95 theses on the church door in Wittenberg: the Reformation begins 1523 Gustav Vasa elected Swedish king

1525 Secularization of the Teutonic Order in Prussia

1535 The earliest (preserved) Estonian literary text (a translation of the catechism) 1550 Helsingfors (Helsinki) founded

1561 Part of Estonia becomes Swedish territory.

1563-1570 The Nordic Seven Years War 1569 Polish-Lithuanian Union 1579 University of Vilna founded

1592-1599 United crowns of Poland-Lithuania and Sweden

1596 Union of Brest. Establishment of the Uniate (Greek-Catholic) Church

1600s Sweden becomes a Baltic Sea Great Power, which is manifested in the idea of a Swedish Dominium Maris Baltici

1603 Gothenburg founded by Swedish King Charles IX

1605-1613 Smutnoe vremya, The Time of Troubles In Muscovy Russia. Wars of succession.

1611-1617 Swedish occupation of Novgorod 1612 Polish troops occupy Moscow

1613 Beginning of the Romanov dynasty in Russia

1617 The Treaty of Stolbova. Russia loses access to the Baltic Sea 1618-1648 The Thirty Years War

The Thirty Years War

1618-1648 began as a religious war and ended as a European power struggle between a large number of states. Many of the officers and soldiers were mercenaries. The civilian population paid a heavy price in terms of looting, destruction and disease. The war started in Bohemia where there was strong tension between Czechs and the Habsburg dynasty. When the Treaty of Westphalia was signed in 1648, Sweden and Holland had advanced to become great powers. The power of the Austrian Habsburg dynasty was broken. A line was drawn between Protestants and Catholics in Germany, which still remains. Germany continues to be divided between Protestantism and Catholicism. Sweden, Brandenburg and France expand their territories.

1621 Sweden conquers Riga

1629 Livonia under Swedish domination. Treaty of Altmark

1632 The Gustavus II Adolphus Academy is founded in Dorpat (Tartu) (becomes university in the early 19th century)

1640 University of Åbo founded (moved to Helsingfors (Helsinki) in 1828) 1648 The Treaty of Westphalia

1655-60 “The Deluge”, Swedish Invasion of Poland

1658 The Treaty of Roskilde. Swedish possession of Scania, Blekinge and Halland secured 1660 The zenith of the Swedish empire

– Peace of Oliwa. Polish king John Casimir Vasa renounces his claim to the Swedish crown and loses suzerainty over Brandenburg-Prussia

– Peace of Copenhagen. Bornholm and Norwegian Trondheim are given back to Denmark 1668 University of Lund founded

1700-1721 The Great Northern War

1703 The construction of St Petersburg begins (the capital of Russia 1712-1918) 1709 Russia defeats Sweden in the battle of Poltava

1719 Absolutism in Sweden abolished. Beginning of modernization

1721 The Treaty of Nystad. Confirmation of Russian possession of Estonia and Livonia. The end of Sweden as a Great Power

The Seven Years War

1756-1763 was the first global war. Conflict between France and Great Britain spread to India and North America. In Europe, where all great powers were involved, the war consolidated the position of Prussia.

1700s Prussia becomes a Great Power

1772-1795 The three partitions of Poland (by Austria, Prussia and Russia). Poland disappears as an independent state

1795-1914 Continued Russian and German expansion, Nationalism 1763-1816 Abolition of serfdom in Germany

1806 Dissolution of the German Holy Roman Empire 1806-1807 Military collapse of Prussia during the Napoleonic Wars 1807 Duchy of Warsaw sanctioned by Napoleon

1808-1809 Russia defeats Sweden and Finland becomes Grand Duchy in Russian empire 1812 Napoleon occupies Moscow after the battle of Borodino, but must soon retreat 1812 Helsingfors (Helsinki) becomes capital of the Grand Duchy of Finland 1814 Treaty of Kiel. Union of Sweden and Norway

1815 Congress Kingdom of Poland established at the Congress of Vienna

The Congress of Vienna

1815 concluded the Napoleonic Wars. The foundation for a long European peace was laid, based on three principles: 1.

Legitimacy, which meant that the banished royal families were reinstated. 2. Safeguard against expected French expansion.

3. Balance among the great powers on the European continent.

1825 Dekabrists’ conspiracy in Russia revealed 1835-1849 Finnish epos Kalevala completed by Elias Lönnrot

1861 The Estonian epos Kalevipoeg (an equivalent to the Finnish Kalevala) completed, written by Friedrich Reinhold Kreutzwald

1861 Abolition of serfdom in Russia

1864 Danish-German War: Schleswig-Holstein becomes German 1871 Unification of Germany. Proclamation of the Second German Reich 1905 First Russian Revolution

1914-1939 The First World War and its aftermath 1914-1918 First World War

1917 February Revolution and October coup in Russia 1917 Finland becomes independent

1917 Swedish Academy of Åbo/Turku re-established

1918 The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk between Germany and Russia 1918 Civil war in Finland

1918-1920 Civil war in Russia

1919-1933 The Weimar Republic in Germany

1919-1920 Polish-Soviet Russian war. Poland defeats Russia in the battle of Warsaw 15-17 August 1920 1920 Recognition of new states

New States

Estonia and Finland are recognized by Soviet Russia as independent states in the Treaty of Tartu (Dorpat) February 2:

Lithuania is recognized in the Treaty of Moscow, July 12: Latvia is recognized in the Treaty of Riga, August 11 by Soviet Russia.

1920 Polish aggression towards Lithuania. The Vilnius region under Polish domination (1922).

Kaunas capital of Lithuania

1921 Åland stays Finnish after decision by the League of Nations 1921 18 March Treaty of Riga between Poland and Soviet Russia 1922 Union of Soviet Socialistic Republics (USSR) established 1926 Coup d’état in Poland (Piłsudski)

1926 Coup d’état in Lithuania (Smetona)

1929 Stalin begins a campaign to collectivize agriculture 1932-1933 Starvation in the Soviet Union

1933 Nazi takeover in Germany.

1934 Coup d’état in Estonia (Päts) 1934 Coup d’état in Latvia (Ulmanis)

1939-1989 World War II and its aftermath, the Cold War 1939-1945 Second World War

1939 Poland is divided between Germany and the Soviet Union. The Soviet Union attacks Finland

1940 The Baltic States occupied by the Soviet Union

1941 Operation Barbarossa: Nazi Germany attacks the Soviet Union. Finland starts a war against the Soviet Union

1941-1944 The Baltic States occupied by Nazi Germany 1942 The extermination of Jews is intensified

The Jewish deathtoll 1939-1945

The Jewish deathtoll 1939-1945by country. Between 1939 and 1945, six million unarmed and innocent Jewish civilian were murdered in Nazi-controlled Europe in a deliberate attempt to destroy all traces of the Jewish People and culture. As many as two millions of these were killed in their own towns and villages, shot at mass murder sites or starved to death in closed areas, ghettos. Another four were killed in concentration camps. (After Martin Gilbert 1978. All figures are approximate).

1944 The Baltic States incorporated into the Soviet Union

1945 End of World War II. Conferences at Yalta and Potsdam. Creation of UN in San Francisco 1947 Treaty in Paris with the former allies of Nazi Germany (Italy, Bulgaria, Hungary, Romania

and Finland)

1948 Communist takeover in Poland

1948 Finnish-Soviet agreement, The Treaty of Friendship, Coordination and Assistance 1949 Occupied Germany divided into Bundesrepublik Deutschland (BRD) and Deutsche

Demokratische Republik (DDR) 1953 Stalin dies

1956 Nikita Khrushchev introduces a destalinization policy 1956 Polish October. Strikes against the Communists 1958 BRD member of the European Community 1961 The Berlin Wall erected

Berlin

attracted much attention during the Cold War. The city became a symbol of East-West relations, especially after John F.

Kennedy’s declaration in 1961: “Ich bin ein Berliner”. According to the Yalta Conference in February 1945, the German capital was divided into four sectors, one for each occupying power. Berlin became an enclave in the Soviet zone. In 1948 the Soviets stopped all surface transport to West Berlin (the Berlin Blockade). The western powers responded with an immense airlift and after eleven months the Soviet blockade ceased. In 1952 West Berlin was integrated with West Germany. The united Germany has voted to move its capital from Bonn back to Berlin.

1964 Khrushchev forced to resign

1964-1982 Leonid Brezhnev leader of the Soviet Union. Stagnation marks his reign

1970 Violent riots in a number of Polish cities because of high rise in food prices leads to a massacre in Gdańsk. Party leader Władysław Gomułka has to resign and is succeeded by Edward Gierek

1973 Denmark becomes member of the European Community 1975 Helsinki Final Act

1978 Cardinal Karol Wojtyła from Kraków elected Pope in Rome

1979 Pope John Paul II’s first visit to Poland. Mass attendance at celebrations Map 11. The Jewish deathtoll. Ill.: Ulf Zander

Figure 25. The Warszawa Ghetto, established by the Nazi occupation forces, was closed in November 1940 and already in the summer of 1941 starvation was appar- ent. Deportations to the Treblinka concentration camp were to start in 1942, and the total destruction of the ghetto and its inhabitants took place in April/May 1943.

Photo: United States Holocaust Memorial Museum

1980 Polish resistance against Soviet communist rule in Poland organized by Solidarnośç (Solidarity) movement by dissident intellectuals and discontented workers

1981 Martial law in Poland in order to eliminate Solidarity from political life (December) 1981 Incident with a Soviet submarine stranded in Swedish territorial waters

1982 Mauno Koivisto elected president of Finland after the ailing Urho Kekkonen’s resignation (president since 1956)

1985 Mikhail Gorbachev chosen General secretary of the CPSU

1986 Introduction of the policies of perestroika, glasnost and new thinking in the Soviet Union.

Attempts to introduce market economy, democracy and affiliation with the capitalist world 1988 Popular fronts for the support of perestroika organized by dissidents and native commu-

nists in the Soviet Baltic republics. By the end of the year, transformation into fronts for independence

1989 Post Cold War. Breakdown of the Soviet Union

1989 ‘The Round Table’ in Poland: Discussions on a democratic order by government officials and representatives of Solidarity. Free elections in June. Establishment of a non-commu- nist, Solidarity government under Tadeusz Mazowiecki in September

1989 Peaceful demolition of the Berlin Wall. Total loss of legitimacy and of self-confidence of the East German regime

1990 Declarations of sovereignty by the Supreme Soviets in Lithuania (11 March), Estonia (31 March) and Latvia (4 May). Electoral victory for democratic parties in East Germany. 3 October the five East German states (Länder) become part of the German Federal Republic (unification of Germany). Solidarity leader Lech Wałęsa elected president of Poland (till 1995)

1991 On 12 June Boris Yeltsin appointed by the Supreme Soviet of Russia president of the RSFSR. Unsuccessful coup d’état by the vice president Yanayev against the Soviet presi- dent Gorbachev on 19 August. All three Baltic republics declare themselves independent (Lithuania already in 1990) and are recognized by the Soviet presidency on 5 September as sovereign states. Comecon and the Warsaw Pact are dissolved. The Soviet state is dissolved on 25 December. The Russian Federation becomes the main successor state. Gorbachev resigns from his presidency as the Soviet Union vanishes

1992 The Council of the Baltic Sea States is formed in Copenhagen (Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Germany, Latvia, Lithuania, Norway, Poland, Russia, Sweden)

1993 Withdrawal of the Soviet army from Estonia and Lithuania 1994 Withdrawal of the Soviet army from Latvia

1994 Finland and Sweden become members of the EU

1999 Poland becomes member of NATO. The transition period is over

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