Sustainable Waste Management: Identifying and Analysing the Present and Future Waste Situation in Linga Linga

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IN

DEGREE PROJECT TECHNOLOGY, FIRST CYCLE, 15 CREDITS

STOCKHOLM SWEDEN 2020,

Sustainable Waste Management

Identifying and Analysing the Present and Future Waste Situation in Linga Linga

JULIA GUNNARSSON EMMA FÄLT

KTH ROYAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

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Abstract

Inadequate waste management has become a global concern during the last decades due to an increasing population and economic growth. When a larger amount of people get access to new types of waste the potentially harmful waste streams are increasing in both cities and rural communities. The setting of this study has been a rural community called Linga Linga in southern Mozambique and has been conducted through a literature study, questionnaires, and interviews.

Linga Linga is a village that has poor infrastructure, a lack of financial resources, and an overall low education level. The presence of the government is scarce, but the organization Project Vita has its base in the community and has started a few development projects in the village. The waste management in Linga Linga today is non-existent and the most common methods for waste disposal are burning or burying in the natural environment.

In this study, the most important factors today and in the future waste management

development of Linga Linga has been identified and analyzed. This has been done by using another village as a potential future situation and with the help of previous studies done in similar rural villages. To improve the situation and prevent future problems regarding waste it will be important for Linga Linga to focus on education, institutional change, and

implementation of a waste system that meets local needs.

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Sammanfattning

Bristfällig avfallshantering har blivit ett globalt problem under de senaste årtiondena på grund av populationsökning och ekonomisk tillväxt. När en större mängd människor får tillgång till nya typer av avfall så ökar de potentiella farliga flödet av avfall i både städer och på

landsbygden. Denna studie har utförts i Sverige med utgångspunkt på landsbygden i södra Mozambique, i ett samhälle som heter Linga Linga. Studien har gjorts med hjälp av en litteraturstudie, frågeformulär och intervjuer.

Linga Linga är en by med dålig infrastruktur, brist på finansiella tillgångar och en överlag låg utbildningsnivå. Närvaron av staten är sällsynt men organisationen Project Vita har sin bas i samhället och har startat flera utvecklingsprojekt i byn. Avfallshanteringen i Linga Linga idag är praktiskt taget obefintlig och de vanligaste sätten att göra sig av med avfall på är genom att bränna eller gräva ner det i naturen.

I den här studien har de viktigaste faktorerna idag och i framtida utveckling av

avfallshanteringen i Linga Linga identifierats och analyserats. Detta har gjorts genom att använda en annan by som ett potentiellt framtida scenario samt att inspiration hämtats från tidigare studier gjorda i liknande områden. För att förbättra situationen och förebygga framtida problem gällande avfall så kommer det att vara viktigt för Linga Linga att fokusera på utbildning, institutionell förändring och implementering av ett avfallssystem som möter lokala behov.

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Acknowledgments

We would like to thank the people that made this project possible to fulfill despite the current situation regarding the spread of covid-19.

Per Lundqvist for still making it possible to conduct our study on distance and for the help along the way.

Michel Olofsson, founder of Project Vita, without his support over the great distance to Linga Linga we would not have been able to receive any data and information about the village.

Thank you for helping us under these circumstances even though we were not able to visit you and help develop Linga Linga.

Sara Flygar, project coordinator for Project Vita, for believing in our project and helping us develop our ideas. We appreciate all the time you spent preparing us for our travel and for supporting us when the field study was canceled.

We would also like to thank Natalie Andersson who has provided us with a lot of information regarding waste management in Tofo, a larger village located near Linga Linga. This

information has made an important impact on the report and was really inspiring to take part in.

Last, we would like to thank the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (Sida) for initially believing in our project and by funding, allowing us to conduct a field study even though it was not possible to fulfill.

Stockholm, May 2020 Emma Fält and Julia Gunnarsson

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Abbreviations

ALMA Associação de Limpeza e Meio-Ambiente AMOR The Mozambican Association of Recycling CBOs Community Based Organizations

EEC European Economic Community GDP Gross Domestic Product

GHG Greenhouse Gas MFS Minor Field Study MSW Municipal Solid Waste

NGOs Non-Governmental Organizations NTDs Neglected Tropical Diseases

PE Polyethylene

PET Polyethylene terephthalate

PP Polypropylene

PVCs Premature Ventricular Contractions SDGs Sustainable Development Goals

STEEP Social, Technological, Economic, Environmental, Political SWM Sustainable Waste Management

VOCs Volatile Organic Compounds WHO World Health Organization

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1. Introduction

1.1. Mozambique

The Republic of Mozambique is located on the south-eastern coast of Africa. The country is divided in 10 provinces that is then subdivided into 129 districts and into 53 municipalities.

The population is estimated to 29,593,000 inhabitants in 2019 with a rural population over 60%. Even though Mozambique is rich in natural resources and has had significant growth in its Gross Domestic Product (GDP) during the last two decades it's still considered to be one of the poorest countries in the world (CIA, 2020). The average GDP per capita is 37 times less than in Sweden (The World Bank, 2019). Mozambique was previously a Portuguese colony and since its independence in 1975 have had to face many of the same challenges as similar developing countries. In addition to this, there was also a civil war fought in

Mozambique between 1977 and 1992 which has left the country with financial difficulties and industries that are not yet fully recovered (Sallway, Hettiarachchi, and Hülsmann, 2017).

This study was supposed to be conducted in Linga Linga and Tofo, both located in the Inhambane province of Mozambique. Linga Linga, located on a peninsula of the southern coast of the country, is a small village of 1,200 inhabitants. The population in Linga Linga is young and has somewhat equal fractions of men and women. Because of the previous projects carried out in the village the locals have become engaged in finding sustainable solutions to problems, both environmental, economic, and social (Tor Linga Linga, 2020).

Tofo is part of the district in the Inhambane province as well, an hour away with car from Linga Linga. Tofo has approximately over 3000 local residents and 50 expats. Tofo is famous for its diving experience and attracts a lot of tourists. Today there is one hotel, six lodges, and many houses offering Airbnb there (Andersson, 2020).

1.1.1. Project Vita

Project Vita is a non-profit organization located in Linga Linga and was founded by Michel Olofsson. The organization aims to find sustainable solutions with local resources to

everyday problems by connecting people, local and foreign volunteers, to generate exchange and circulation of knowledge (Project Vita, 2020).

1.2. Climate Change and Waste

Since the year 1800, the population of the world increased from approximately 1 billion to 7,75 billion in 2020. And even though the population growth rate has decreased during the last 50 years the population is estimated to keep on growing, somewhat slower, at least until the year 2100 when the world population is estimated to be over 10 billion (The World Bank, 2020). One large driver for Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions in the past have been

population growth and the increased production and consumption that follows (IPCC, 2011).

When more or less the entire population is striving for economic growth, the pressure on production and consumption also increases. The industry emission of GHG is therefore

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increasing and is currently the highest emitter of GHG, currently representing 30% of the global GHG emission in 2010. From 1990 to 2005 the global industry and waste/wastewater GHG emissions grew from 10.4 gigatonnes CO2 equivalents to 13.0 gigatonnes CO2

equivalents, where the waste- and wastewater-sector are now accounted for 1.4 of these (IPCC, 2011).

1.3. Waste Generation

Municipal solid waste (MSW) includes all everyday waste that is generated from organic disposal to plastic bottles, cans, cardboard, and residual waste. It does not include industrial, construction, or hazardous waste (EPA, 2018). Of the total of 1.5 gigatonnes generated MSW per year in the world, over 50% are discarded in landfills and dumps. Of the remaining waste, approximately 20% is recycled and 14% are treated with energy recovery (IPCC, 2011).

The volume of MSW depends on several factors such of living-standard, commercial activities, and consumption patterns. Today MSW generation in low-income countries and rural areas are relatively low but are facing a rapid growth (Eawag, 2008).

The composition of waste is also clearly linked to income level and standard of living. Low- income countries and rural areas tend to have a higher amount of organic waste, rather than plastic, metal, glass, and other inorganic materials. Even if the fraction of inorganic waste is smaller in general, see figure 1, old methods such as burying waste in landfills are no longer the most suitable way to handle these types of waste. And also, inorganic waste increases all over the world (Eawag, 2008).

In Mozambique, waste generation is approximately 1 kg/person/day in urban areas, and 0.5 kg/person/day in suburban areas and probably a little lower in rural communities. The

fraction of waste in urban areas have been estimated to; 65% organic material, 25% dry waste (potentially recyclable) and 15% of other waste (Tas and Belon, 2014).

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Fig 1, Waste composition in Sub-Saharan Africa (World Bank Group, 2018)

1.3.1. Inorganic Waste

The definition of inorganic waste is waste composed of a material that is not plant or animal matter. For example, sand, dust, glass, and synthetics (European Environment Agency Glossary, 2020). As mentioned, both the amount and type of waste depends on the income level and lifestyle. On average low-income countries, like Mozambique, generate a smaller amount of inorganic, dry, waste that could be recycled, about only 16% of the waste stream.

These recyclables are cardboard, paper, plastic, metal, and glass. (Kaza et al. 2018)

It is important that these inorganic items are not left in the environment, mostly because of their long dilapidation time. Cardboard and paper will vanish in about 6 weeks while plastic bags and PET bottles take 100-1000 years before totally distinguished, the same applies to metals. Glass items are estimated to take over 1 million years before totally vanished in a natural environment (Håll Sverige Rent, 2020).

1.4. Disposal of Waste

How waste is disposed and collected varies a lot around the world. In sub-Saharan Africa, the waste collection rate is about 44% and in low income and rural areas even lower, in

comparison to high income countries, such as North America that has a waste collection rate close to 100% (Kaza et al. 2018, 33). Crude disposal methods, listed below, are still dominant in many parts of the world, particularly in rural areas (IPCC, 2011).

Dumping: The places that are used for dumping waste are often without any construction, uncontrolled, and uncovered to the climate. This leads to a high amount of GHG,

especially methane, as well as pollution of water and the surrounding environment, and increases the risk of spreading diseases to humans living nearby.

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Sanitary Landfills: Unlike the uncontrolled landfills, sanitary landfills are engineered to minimize air and water pollution by cover the waste in different layers of soil. If designed well they can minimize leachate, which is the contaminated water leaving dumps particularly after rainfalls.

Burning: At first, unlike dumping, burning at least decreases things like odor and volume, but at the same time it creates a lot of toxic gas emission and carbon dioxide when not being executed in a proper incinerator. But by using an incinerator it is also possible to use the excess heat to power production and heating.

Composting: Creates fertilizer and decreases the volume of organic waste in an anaerobic controlled environment.

Recycling: By separating secondary materials they can be reused. This process significantly reduces uncontrolled waste disposal and creates job opportunities. Although, the process demands a lot of infrastructures, governance, and financial aid (Eawag, 2008).

In sub-Saharan Africa, an open dump is still the most commonly used disposal method, see figure 2. In rural Mozambique, people usually bury their waste in their backyard (The World Bank, 2018).

Fig 2. Waste disposal and treatment in Sub-Saharan Africa (The World Bank, 2018).

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1.5. Sustainable Development Goals

The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) is the overall mission of The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development presented by the UN and adopted by all member states in 2015 (UN, 2015). Every sustainable project in the world today is somehow linked to one or a few of the 17 stated goals. The improvements of the goals are measured with different indicators related to specific targets from a global framework developed by the Inter-Agency and the Expert Group on SDG Indicators (UN, 2015). Due to today's interconnected world, waste affects many aspects of life and can therefore easily be related to many of the SDGs. Waste management and projects related to it are directly affecting goals 3, 11, and 12. To reassure that this project contributes to Agenda 2030, these three specific goals will, therefore, be in focus.

Fig 3. Sustainable Development Goals (UN, 2015).

Goal 3 is to ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages and is measured by indicators that in different ways measure the overall health of a certain group, for example, maternal mortality rate and health worker density and distribution. Certain indicators for goal 3 that could be affected by improved waste management are; “mortality rate attributed to unsafe water, unsafe sanitation and lack of hygiene”, “mortality rate attributed to

unintentional poisoning” as well as “the number of people requiring interventions against neglected tropical diseases” (UN, 2016).

Goal 11 is to make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient, and sustainable.

Certain indicators for goal 11 that are directly affected by improved waste management are;

“the proportion of urban solid waste regularly collected and with adequate final discharge out of total urban solid waste generated” as well as “indicators that measure the usage of reused and locally distributed materials in buildings” (UN, 2016).

Goal 12 is to ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns. Indicators for goal 12 related to waste management are, for example, the material footprint, the domestic material consumption, the hazardous waste generated, and of course the national recycling rate (UN, 2016).

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2. Objective

2.1. Purpose

The purpose of the study is to get an overview of the collection and reuse of inorganic waste in different levels of the community. The rural village Linga Linga and the tourist village Tofo will be used as settings for the study. By using well-known models and a systematic scenario analysis the aim is to identify important stakeholders and what the main focus of future projects should be to change the current waste management in Linga Linga. Tofo will be studied as inspiration when creating a future scenario for Linga Linga To fulfill this purpose, two objectives have been stated as follows:

1. To identify and analyze the current waste situation for inorganic waste in Linga Linga.

2. To identify current and future challenges, from a STEEP-perspective¹, for sustainable waste management in Linga Linga.

2.2. Delimitation

Delimitations have been made, to somewhat limit the scope and because literature regarding the following has been scarce. In this report, three limitations have been set:

● Organic material and its possible solutions for sustainable waste management, such as composting and bio-energy facilities, have not been studied.

● Wastewater and its problems and potentials are also an important factor to consider for a holistic view but have been left out in this report.

● Hazardous waste and its effects are not mentioned in particular, neither is secure methods that should be used for this type of waste.

1 STEEP (Social, Technological, Economical, Environmental, Political) is a model used to determine different external factors that could affect a particular system.

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3. Methodology

The methodology aims to describe the different ways information was collected and analyzed to bring substance to the results. The initial purpose of using these particular methods was to gain knowledge and start a process of creative thinking. From the beginning, this project was supposed to be conducted as a Minor Field Study (MFS). However, due to the spread of covid-19 and travel restrictions, the field study had to be canceled. The purpose of the project remained similar although the methods changed to make it feasible in a distance setting.

Instead of a field study, with multiple tests and experiments being carried out and evaluated, a literature study was conducted to get an overview of the current situation. Further,

interviews and questionnaires were made to get a view of the situation today in Linga Linga and Tofo and to receive important insights from influential people.

3.1. Preparatory work

The preparatory work started with understanding the current problem with waste and the overall global issue. To gain knowledge about intercultural meetings and reflect over the study's impact on global development, a three-day course was conducted in Härnösand.

Intercultural competences are important to understand cultural differences and prevent misunderstandings and possibilities for critical incidents. The course was an obligatory part of receiving the MFS scholarship from Sida (Sida, 2020).

3.2. Literature Study

The literature study consisted of gathering information about waste management, in

particular, the generation and disposal of waste in Mozambique and similar countries. This to gain knowledge about waste generation and collection and major previously identified issues regarding the managing of waste. The research done on waste management in Mozambique includes multiple parts that are intertwined and describe how they together contribute to the system. The literature was mainly found on the internet at KTH bibliotek. The keywords used mostly during the search were; "waste management", "rural areas" and "Africa". No literature regarding Linga Linga or Tofo was found. Primary sources were used as much as possible, some laws and regulations regarding Mozambique were only found in Portuguese and therefore secondary sources are used in a few cases.

3.3. Questionnaires

A part of the methodology are questionnaires that were handed out to the inhabitants of Linga Linga. The questionnaires were handed out by Michel Olofsson in Linga Linga in paper form.

The people that participated were people Olofsson met while out walking. These people had not been previously selected for the study and were chosen only because they happened to be there that particular day. Olofsson translated the questions originally written in English. The focus of this was to gain some knowledge about the people's perception of the waste

situation, how they are taking care of their waste today, and how willing they are to

contribute to better waste management in the future. To get more reliable data the questions mainly focused on having a yes or no answer. The questionnaire is attached in appendix 1.

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3.4. Interviews

Interviews were made with Michel Olofsson, founder of Project Vita. These interviews focused on the incentives for developing waste management and important people to involve in the process. The interviews were conducted via skype and were recorded for the best result. One person asked the questions and the other person took notes in order to

complement the recordings. This was done because it is often, according to Larsson (2011), difficult to interpret the respondent’s answers only from the recording. The questions for these interviews is attached in appendix 2. Another interview by email was conducted with Natalie Andersson, a resident of Tofo. She has been very involved with waste management practices and has developed a smaller waste system there by herself. The questions asked to Andersson are attached in appendix 3.

3.5. The STEEP model

STEEP (Social, Technological, Economical, Environmental, Political) is a model used to determine different external factors that could affect a particular system. The STEEP model is a tool to predict the future of the different factors of the system. This prediction is often referred to as scenario analysis. The scenario analysis is a structured way to think about the future that will take into consideration both what will happen, what could happen and what should happen to reach a particular goal (Jonsson and Sonnsjö, 2012).

The different categories of the STEEP model are used to identify and categorize the different factors that could have an impact on the project. Within the five STEEP categories, the factors identified could then, for a particular analysis, either be variables or constants. A factor that is constant in one scenario might be a variable in another, therefore all projects have to be analyzed from its specific point of view (Ibid).

STEEP has been a popular tool within strategic management to understand the surrounding environment of a particular project during recent years (Ibid). However, the model is also used to identify the issues that a sustainability project may face, one example of this is a study on microgrid development in remote communities in Nigeria where the STEEP model was used to identify the challenges of the project. The model helped to identify the critical factors and common failures by addressing the different stakeholders that have to be part of the process for it to be successful (Akinyele, Belikov, and Levron, 2018). The STEEP model was used in this thesis to create a formal framework to identify constants and variables of waste management in rural Mozambique and to study possible future scenarios.

3.6. Reliability and Validity

Both the reliability and validity should be evaluated when discussing the overall quality of the thesis, as presented by Blomkvist and Hallin (2014). In short, reliability is to study the right thing and validity is to study it the right way.

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The reliability of the study was affected by how the study was carried out and how that influenced the focus of it. The choice of methodology affected the validity, because of the canceled field study no prototype was made and tested in the appropriate setting and the study has been conducted entirely from Sweden. The different sources of errors identified are mentioned in the discussion in chapter 7.

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4. Sustainable Waste Management - Literature Findings

The focus of this chapter is to present the waste management in Mozambique and describe the important actors to include in the waste system. Further on, waste disposal and collection are problematized and the importance of health and environment awareness is presented.

4.1. Previous work

It has previously been research conducted by students from KTH in collaboration with Project Vita, both specifically in Linga Linga and in Mozambique in general with some focusing on waste. In 2015 a bachelor thesis was conducted in the municipality Quelimane, located in the north of Mozambique. This project focused on waste management systems which, at that point, were practically non-existing. Not only did the project investigate the possibilities on how to improve the waste collection but also on how to, in a successful way, implement waste to energy solution for Quelimane (Gustafsson and Ahlgren, 2015).

In the spring of 2019, a bachelor thesis was conducted in Linga Linga with the aim to find different sources for bioenergy. The report concluded that there is a large amount of bio- waste in Linga Linga, although most of it can be reused in some way. The biomass from kitchen waste is generally used as food for livestock. Other solid biomass can be used for producing charcoal or used as fuel in the cooking process, and later on used as fertilizer (Ebrahim and Lilja, 2019). Therefore, this project will focus on inorganic waste.

4.2. Current Waste Management in Mozambique

Today, waste management is a challenge for many of the cities and villages in Mozambique but the issue is hardly not addressed at all. With a growing urban population, the problems will increase during the following years and it is estimated that GHG emission will be doubled until 2030 from landfills. The 53 municipalities in Mozambique are in charge of the waste management of the area and during recent years many of these have chosen to privatize the waste collection and treatment, but both financial and human resources are scarce (Tas and Belon, 2014). In the larger cities of Mozambique, Maputo and Beira, waste management has had to develop more than in smaller, rural communities. Therefore, it is also in these cities that some recycling of MSW occurs, but the amount is small. It is estimated that only 1% of urban waste is recycled by formal recycling companies (Ibid).

The formal recycling mainly consists of collecting waste for export, hence the very low demand for recycled material. Since 2006 the industry for recycled materials is slowly increasing but only centered around Maputo and Beira. Some plastics (PE—polyethylene, PP—polypropylene), paper, and ferrous scrap are reused and recycled within Mozambique today, while everything else, including the commonly used PET, is exported to international markets. By recycling plastics, there is a chance to decrease the dependency on imported raw plastic and hence improve the national economy. The initiatives being taken today mainly comes from private enterprising and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) (Sallwey et al, 2017).

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The informal waste management consists of people picking waste, generally at larger

dumpsites. They either sell their waste to recycling firms or use it by themselves. Since there is a low level of formal recycling, there is a lot of value left at the dumpsites, making waste picking profitable. On any given day, there are about 100 waste pickers at Maputos largest dumpsite. The waste pickers make a large contribution to the overall waste management today and already possesses a large network. Therefore, they should be taken into consideration for future waste management strategies (Sallwey et al, 2017).

There are no resources to implement the regulations that are constituted for scavenging activities today. Some NGOs have installed "Eco-points" were they buy waste from waste pickers and sell to the formal recycling sector. The NGOs provide waste pickers with education and skills regarding micro-businesses, management, and recycling (Ibid).

Fig 4. Waste disposal in Quelimane, Mozambique (Project Vita, 2015).

Waste generation in Maputo is approximately 1 kg/day/person in urban areas and 0.5

kg/day/person in suburban areas. The amount of different types of waste differs due to certain lifestyles and therefore vary across the country. In suburban areas, there is generally a larger amount of organic waste than in urban areas. In Maputo, waste is composed of organic waste, dry waste that is potentially recyclable, and other waste (Tas and Belon, 2014).

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Fig 5. Waste composition in Maputo (Tas and Belon, 2014).

4.2.1. Laws and Regulations

Several policies, regulations, and laws are controlling and defining waste management in Mozambique on three different levels: international, national, and local. The international framework is the Agenda 2030 and the 17 Sustainable Development Goals that targets the issues regarding waste (Kaza et al, 2018). On the national level some different parts together govern the waste management:

Constitution of Mozambique (Article 90)

States that all citizens have the right to live in a safe and healthy environment and mention that the state is the one to ensure that this is the case (Constitute Project, 2012).

National Environment Policy

The policy covers the management of the urban environment and encourages cooperation between stakeholders while implementing some solid waste management with the

involvement of reuse and recycling (Tas and Belon, 2014).

The Environment Act

The law sets the framework for the work towards sustainable management of the environment. Says that waste management is handled by the municipalities but is not independent of the MICOA (Ministry for Coordination of Environmental Action) (Ibid).

Solid Waste Management Regulations (Decree 13)

The decree gives municipalities the right to implement rules and establish fees regarding services of collecting and disposing of waste as well as the power to control the removal of toxic and hazardous waste. Decree 13 requires all local authorities that operate some

activities linked to waste management to submit a 5-year plan regarding waste management which shall then be approved by MICOA (Ibid).

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Even if the 5-year plan is required only 11 out of 53 municipalities had submitted and then adopted a waste management plan in 2016 (Ferrari, Gamberini, and Rimini, 2016).

On the third level, there is one important law that affects the local authorities directly. This is the Law of Local Government which refers to all waste management activities as

environmental issues, collecting and safe disposal. It also defines the responsibilities and skills that each local authority should possess to operate the waste management properly (Tas and Belon, 2014).

In addition to these Mozambique has, on the national level, introduced a strategy to recognize the seriousness of the waste management situation in the country, this is called the Strategy for Integrated Municipal Solid Waste Management in Mozambique (Ibid). This strategy is meant to support technical development and involves important stakeholders to encourage interaction and cooperation on the design, implementation, and maintenance of the waste management system (Sallway, Hettiarachchi, and Hülsmann, 2017).

4.2.2. Infrastructure

Today, most of the waste generated in Mozambique is disposed in uncontrolled landfills. This leads to a higher amount of GHG emissions, increased risks for public health by the

spreading of diseases and hazardous waste, and depreciates real estate value (Tas and Belon, 2014). The landfills and containers are usually full and do not have adequate infrastructure for the separation of waste, which contributes to the poor working conditions for waste pickers.

There is no regulation on the packages used to dump waste, and therefore they vary a lot.

Most people use the cheapest alternative, which is everything from plastic bags to cardboard boxes, in which they dispose their waste. This result in a variety of shape and sizes of packed waste and makes the waste collection even harder. In the cities of Mozambique, the waste is dumped into silos or containers in different sizes. These are only placed in large urban cities and do not stretch to the peri-urban areas where most people live. In these areas, waste is generally buried or burnt (Ibid.).

The vehicles collecting waste at specific dumpsites are tractors, trucks, and hydraulic

compactors. Some of these vehicles have trouble reaching peri-urban areas due to poor access roads. In peri-urban areas, there is also limited technical knowledge and support in case the vehicles are in need of service. There is also a lack of investment and funding for the maintenance, which means that in these cases, donations of vehicles will not serve their purpose (Sallwey et al, 2017).

4.2.3. Institutions

There are a few institutions involved in the waste management system today. The

privatization of the waste sector slowly begun in 2006 and to address the problems occurring

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in Mozambique, this started some international coordination with, in particular, South Africa and Portugal.

There is generally a low environmental awareness in Mozambique today. To further address these problems public schools and NGOs are trying to raise awareness by campaigns and different programs, but these are relatively new and not widely spread. To successfully address the waste challenges and implement a waste separation at source it is important that these kinds of projects spreads to more rural communities to engage a larger amount of people. (Tas and Belon, 2014).

Two non-profit organizations in Mozambique only focuses on waste management and sustainability:

- AMOR, The Mozambican Association of Recycling with the main focus to organize and promote recycling by installing infrastructure and raising awareness and

sustainability by value-added activities.

- ALMA, Associação de Limpeza e Meio-Ambiente is an institution based in Tofo and Inhambane. Their main goal is to raise awareness of keeping society clean and

sustainably utilizing resources through different projects. They do regular beach clean-ups, involve the residents of Tofo, and have some authority over the dumpsite in Tofo. (Ibid.)

In addition to these two, there are some other institutions as well that still focuses to some extent on waste management, but only in Maputo (Ibid).

4.2.4. Economic

One main issue with waste management development is the lack of financial resources and limited access to capital. Lack of funding often leads to problems with availability and maintenance. Mozambique has a high dependency on international funding with almost 50%

of its official spending coming from international aid, which often creates problems regarding coordination and cooperation on many levels (Sallway, Hettiarachchi, and Hülsmann, 2017).

Since the year 2000, there have been some failed attempts at introducing a waste tax in some parts of Mozambique. These have been unsuccessful due to a lack of information and an overall non-working waste system. When later re-introducing the tax it followed some public campaigns meant to explain the importance of funding for a successful waste system. Since then the tax has increased and is now collected by all municipalities, it is often linked to the energy use and income level of the household. Industries, restaurants, and other non-

household users are also included in the tax system (Ibid). Of the citizens of Maputo, almost 80% do not think the waste system is functioning well but only half are willing to pay a higher fee to improve the system (Sarmento dos Muchangos, Liu and Li, 2014).

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4.3. Important Actors

The development of a well-functioning waste system requires collaboration between

important actors. These actors have different characteristics and some of them are regulated by laws and regulations and are formal institutions as mentioned above. In Mozambique, and elsewhere, it is also common that private companies participate in many waste management activities. In addition to these, informal actors also participate in waste treatment as well (van de Klundert and Lardinois, 1995). This could be the community itself, with individuals that may get together and form so-called Community-Based Organizations (CBOs). The CBOs are created so that they in some way can organize the improvement of the system and raise the living standards for the citizens (Ibid). Another informal, but important, actor is NGOs, which are often involved in raising public awareness, getting attention from decision-makers, and starting up new projects (Ibid).

In addition, when having many different actors involved in the waste management system, it is important that they collaborate to succeed. In developing countries, it is common that many people do not have access to formal waste treatment and it is, therefore, possible for private and informal actors to participate and contribute to the system. If these actors can make the system more efficient, responsive, more economical, or more environmentally responsible, their participation should be made possible by the government and others (Ibid). One example of this has been conducted in Maputo, wherein inaccessible areas NGOs have initiated projects where they hire locals to collect waste directly from people's homes and then dump this at a designated spot. These projects improved the waste collection rate of these areas and as the NGOs got recognition from the authorities, similar project has been initiated in other areas as well (Tas and Belon, 2014).

The institutional problem that occurs in many developing countries is the lack of a legislative framework for MSW, under-funding of MSW services, and inadequate education. Direct regulations must be enforced to sustain. Economic incentives can play a significant role but do often fail during implementation in developing countries. This due to the lack of

institutions ability to monitor and enforce regulations (Couth and Trois, 2010).

To sustain proper waste management, it is important to engage and involve local people but most significant for success are still; governance bodies, local bodies, and NGOs. These actors must be involved and support each other to contribute to a sustainable waste management (Ivy, Uddin, and Hossain, 2013).

4.4. Waste Disposal Behavior

4.4.1. Overall Attitude

The behavior of waste disposal in a certain community or in a group of individuals varies a lot and how prone people are to dispose their waste rightfully depends on many different factors. In a study conducted in Bangladesh of 20,400 participants, a total of 60 households that have been randomly selected, were asked questions about their attitude towards reducing,

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reusing, and recycling, the "3R's". The survey showed a range of negative attitudes towards the 3 R's, depending mostly on the geographical location of the respondent. 55-35% were not interested in reducing any waste, and 40-25% were negative towards reusing. The most negative ones were found in the same area. When it came to recycling, only 30-15% had a negative approach. The attitudes towards waste management were in direct relation to the amount of waste collected in the waste bins (Ivy, Uddin, and Hossain, 2013).

The study of the 3 R’s concluded that it is important to motivate residents with colored waste bins to encourage them to separate their waste and build up an overall awareness in the community. The encouragement of individuals, communities, and local organizations to separate, collect, and dispose of waste properly should be a priority when developing a village or town (Ibid).

4.4.2. Socioeconomic Factors

The waste disposal behavior of developing countries and rural communities have previously been studied and some correlation with socioeconomic factors have been found. Both the household income level and the education level, which often increases environmental awareness, have a positive correlation with better waste disposal behavior (Refsgaard and Magnussen, 2009). The education could be non-formal and still make a significant difference in how people will act in the long term. Elders are more often dumping waste randomly than young people, which also could have some explanation in that environmental awareness might be higher amongst young people (Wang et al, 2018). In general, women are more likely than men to participate in waste collection activities according to Refsgaard and Magnussen (2009).

Seven characteristics for waste management in developing countries have been declared as the following: Priority standing, political will, lack of resources, local factors and culture, systems and information, unacceptable practices, and donor funding. To sustain the waste management in these countries it is important to meet local needs and set achievable goals as well as implementing strategies and problem-solving methods. In order to obtain this,

education and environmental awareness are key factors to improve waste management (Couth and Trois, 2010).

4.5. Waste Collection

Many projects have been conducted on how to collect waste efficiently and economically in developing areas where resources are often limited. The main reason for inadequacy in these developing areas is poor access to roads and the lack of local authorities and their presence in especially rural communities. According to the United Nations of Human Settlement (1990), five recent changes in attitudes amongst professionals involved in waste management

projects in urban areas have been identified:

1. Local solutions are needed to meet the needs of every local situation;

2. Different vehicles are appropriate for different locations;

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3. Collaboration with residents are often the cheapest solution;

4. Scavengers can be an important component of waste management, although it is important to have a supportive framework, to address their health risks;

5. Correlations between improvements in infrastructure and services and garbage collection have been identified.

This highlights the importance of cooperation and the adjustment to local needs. Although, an overall incentive and direction must be provided from authorities to sustain (Korfmacher, 1996).

4.5.1. Separation at Source

To separate waste at source is a commonly used method that can enhance waste management.

This will alleviate the municipal burden since the remaining amount of waste is reduced. It will increase the amount of waste being recycled and reused as well (Eawag, 2008). The segregation of waste must be well adjusted to the specific locations' diversification, it should be easy to handle and compatible with the waste layouts. If being too demanding, it will rather decrease the rate of separation and waste being handled properly (Tas and Belon, 2014).

In the study of the 3 R’s in Bangladesh that were previously mentioned, the households were distributed three waste bins each. Green waste bins for organic waste, yellow for recyclable waste, and red for hazardous waste. The study showed that residents with a more positive attitude (65 %) towards separation at source had a higher frequency of implementing the method relatively the ones with a negative attitude (40 %) (Ivy, Uddin, and Hossain, 2013).

In an overview study of different pilot projects conducted in South Africa's developing areas, known collective systems where different prizes are offered when disposing different types of waste are much more efficient to encourage separation at source for recycling than the

communal house-to-house collection (Korfmacher, 1996).

4.5.2. Primary Collection Projects

The primary collection or the household collection is responsible for transporting the residential waste to communal collecting points, also called secondary collection. Several projects with this method have been conducted in Africa, especially in Burkina Faso and at the Ivory Coast (Meyer, 1993).

In some areas in the capital of Burkina Faso, the collection fee is very high, thus only wealthy families use the primary collection. In other areas, the waste is generally dumped on

uncontrolled public land. To increase the secondary collection, the World Bank has financed a new fleet of collecting trucks and skips to increase the primary collection and influence community participation (Ibid).

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In a nearby commune, a door-to-door collection system has been implemented by a local waste management committee, supported by other institutions. The primary collection is operated by local collectors with donkey carts against a monthly fee. They are responsible for transferring the waste to several collecting points, usually big containers. The problem in this area is the insufficient secondary collection, waste is accumulated at the different collecting points. If more people would use the primary collection system, this could finance private companies to help to transfer the waste to a nearby landfill (Ibid).

In the capital of the Ivory Coast, all communes must contribute financially to the municipal waste collection and ensure a cleanliness area. In Abobo, a small local enterprise was responsible for the primary collection with technical support from The Commission of the European Economic Community (EEC). They collect waste with two-axles wooden hand carts from subscribing families and transport it to collecting points where the "Scoiété H", who is in charge of the municipal service, collects it. The project was successful and has encouraged other small-scale private companies to cover other parts of the country (Ibid).

Port Bouët, bordering the capital of the Ivory Coast, introduced another primary collection.

Several hundred refuse barrels where located at a maximum of 30 m from every household, residents were then told to put their waste there. These barrels were collected with two- wheeled barrows and transferred to the nearest collection point. This was operated by a local commité of the commune and the EEC. The coverage was 100%, even without residents paying any fees. Despite all information campaigns to increase people's willingness to pay, the payments declined rapidly, and the project ended within two years. At this point, "Scoiété H" had changed their secondary collection. They now had a direct collection with compact trucks, announcing their presence by tooting and stopping every 50m. People rather walked 250 m to dispose their waste than paid for primary collection (Ibid).

Another system was introduced in Port Bouët between the commune and a local NGO, Association pour’l Améliration el’l Améngement de la Commun Port Bouët, AMACV. They formed a commité of all local ethnic groups. They collected the waste from every household in locally produced two-wheeled light hand carts holding four barrels, announcing their daily presence by whistling. They transported the waste to the collecting point and collected fees every week. Their salary consisted of 80% from the fee collection, making it a strong

incentive to a high recovery rate. AMCAVs main concern was health education and sanitary development. To overcome political constraints, they supported the primary collection financially. When "Scoiété H" changed to compact trucks, this project also failed (Ibid).

Meyer found that the involvement of the community had a direct relation with the collection coverage rate. There is also a large impact from the secondary collection systems, and there were never any agreements between the partners. Financially, motivating collectors by their salary was very successful. Although, letting households decide for themselves was not financially sustainable since the household's willingness declined when they realized there was no obligation to pay (Ibid).

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4.6. Waste Disposal Methods

The "hierarchy of waste management" shows a general guideline for waste disposal methods, the top representing the best way. Crude disposal methods, shown in the bottom red fields of figure 6, are still dominant in many parts of the world, particularly in developing countries (IPCC, 2011). In Mozambique, these are commonly used. It has been identified that the sanitary landfills and mechanical and biological treatment facilities are the most suitable for Mozambique, the last one being more advanced (Tas and Belon, 2015)

Fig 6. The hierarchy of waste management (European Commission, 2008b).

To ensure proper waste disposal it is important for the government to support and develop adequate infrastructure. Garbage pools and garbage bins create important structural factors (Wang et al, 2018).

4.6.1. A Common Dumping Site

To have a designated site to dump waste is the largest impacting factor for proper disposal of waste. In a study of 100 Chinese villages, 36 of them had a designated dumping site and 81%

of residents used the location for proper dumping (Wang et al, 2018).

It has been shown that disposing waste at designated areas is negatively correlated to the distance. This means that having a close-by dumpster will increase the chance of waste being dumped properly. The distance to the disposal site should not be over 2 km to encourage the residents to dump at the designated spot. In that case, there should be several collection points (Ibid).

In some suburban areas of Mozambique, a two-step collection system has been successfully implemented. The first step is that every household’s waste is collected by a local enterprise that is paid by NGOs. They transport all household waste to large containers by collecting the waste of every household with a so-called thcova (a hand-cart). The containers are placed in locations closer to the main road where the municipality can easily reach them (Tas and

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Belon, 2014). A total of 300 families were provided income with this project and about 7% of the Mozambican population were addressed with these services. Today, a small-scale

enterprise that collects waste is financed by the municipality (Sallwey et al, 2017).

By having collecting points, or transfer stations, more pickups can be made by collecting vehicles since it will decrease the driving distance. This also motivates the dumping site to be located further away from people's homes. Even if this is preferred, it is not common in Africa (Ibid).

4.6.2. Open Dumping and Landfills

Open dumping is the most commonly used method in Africa. This is also the method that causes the most negative impact on human health and the environment. People living close by are the ones that are affected the most. Mainly by smell and diseases. Therefore, an open dumpsite should not be located too close to residences. Landfills are the backbone for many types of waste management such as incineration and sanitary landfills. It is the method closest related to open dumping and thereby the next step when to further develop the SWM (Abul, 2010).

A semi-sanitary landfill from an open dump was constructed for the first time in Bangladesh in 2007. This landfill was constructed with underlying pipes, to collect leachate and provide oxygen to the waste. In this way, leachate was collected to a controlled pond, and oxygen made the process of decomposing waste semi-aerobic. The semi-aerobic process is much faster than an anaerobic process since it promotes bacterial activity. This has several positive effects such as fewer odors and fire hazards as well as a reduction of methane transmitted, being replaced by carbon dioxide. The landfill was embanked with cement walls to prevent flooding and a good rainwater draining system during the rainy season. Since this was implemented in the capital of Bangladesh there was excessive finance. Factors that were found critical for the project was: access roads, rainwater drainage, administrative buildings, car wash facilities, floodlighting, leachate collection, and gas ventilation system (Yousuf and Rahman, 2008).

The gas ventilation system was constructed with perforated pipes in an arrangement under the soil. The pipes had a diameter of 200mm and a total of 70 were placed below the waste with brick cushioning and protective casings. The operation then proceeded of waste being compacted, and then covered with a 30-50 cm layer of mature waste at the end of the day.

This process decreases the risks of fire, scattering of waste, odors, and origination of diseases.

Mature waste can also minimize leachate. The project also included tree plantation to reduce the amount of carbon dioxide that was transmitted from the landfill (Ibid).

It is important to remember that landfills are at the bottom of the "hierarchy of waste management". Landfills with an energy-to-waste solution combined heat and power

extraction, or mechanical biological waste treatment still generates high emission. Although these options are generally not suitable for many African countries since they will often be

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unable to finance them. In that case, a landfill without these treatments is still a better way to gain SWM. If organic material is removed from dry waste, the emissions will decrease from landfills as there will be very little decomposition. This will also increase the possible value for scavengers that play a big role in informal waste management in many developing countries (Couth and Trois, 2010).

4.6.3. Re-use Options for Inorganic Waste

To reuse material enters the top of the "hierarchy of waste management". This leads directly to the reduction of materials, the absolute top of the pyramid. Hence, to reuse materials already produced is important for a sustainable consumption pattern and minimizes the negative effects on the environment and ecosystems (Mokhtar et al. 2015).

To use plastic bottles as a building material has been examined in several projects with positive outcomes. In one study conducted in Malaysia 250ml and 1.5 L bottles were filled with three layers of wet sand, each layer compacted with 20 blows. This to give them a higher density and a compact filling. The bottles were then stacked in bonds and placed in a wall-structure, being held together with mortar. The wall is then covered in plastering and painting. The compressive strength of the bottle bricks was higher than the minimum, thus making them sustainable as a replacement for regular bricks. In aspects of thermal comfort, the indoor air met the quality standards for relative humidity. The temperature varied between 30 ∘C and 34 ∘C, as the outdoor temperature varied between 24 ∘C and 36 ∘C. This is not to prefer, but the same temperature variations were measured in a normal brick house. Which gives the bottle bricks enough incitement to replace the regular bricks. The study also highlighted the possible solution to substitute the mortar with clay (Ibid).

There has also been studied that the bottles do not necessarily need to be filled with saturated sand. In a similar project, the bottles were just filled with air and then put together in a similar way with mortar. The studies have shown that air-filled bottles have the same structural stability and provide an even better indoor climate than regular bricks (Ibid).

In the northern Nigerian village Yelwa, plastic bottles are being used as construction material and glass bottles are used as windows to let in light. In more exact numbers, it takes 7,800 bottles for one house consisting of four rooms; bedroom, bathroom, living room, and kitchen.

In 2011 they started to build 25 houses of sand-filled bottles bound together with mud, next up is constructing a school (BBC, 2011).

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Fig 7, Plastic bottles in construction, Andreas Froese ECOTEC, 2011

A similar project has been conducted in San Juan Compala, Guatemala, a village of 41,000 inhabitants. Here, waste management, especially regarding inorganic waste, is non-existent.

The streets, the vergers of the roads and rivers are almost flooded with plastic. In 2008 a non- profit organization began to construct a whole-system approach school. The structure was made of old car tires filled with dirt and plastic bottles, packed with other plastic waste to make bricks. The roof and upper bits of the walls were filled with glass bottles in patterns to let in light. They collected and packaged bottles together with the children of the school and managed to engage them in the project. They also put a monetary value on filled bottles that worked as an entrance fee to the parking lot and admission to the school park. There were several benefits of this approach, the most obvious one being the cost reduction. Further, it enhanced community engagement and showed the value in re-use also, it showed that vocational education leads to employment and positive health effects (Temple and Rose, 2011).

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4.7. Environment and Health

The open-air dump sites generally used in Mozambique come with many negative effects on the environment and public health. These effects also apply to disposal methods used by single households such as burning or burying the waste, commonly in the near surroundings of their home (Sallway, Hettiarachchi and Hülsmann, 2017).

First of all, burning waste leads to air pollution leaving toxins and particulate matter which can cause multiple diseases (Kaza et. al, 2018). Generally, the open burning of plastic such as Polystyrene will create dioxins or toxic substances that will affect human health and the surrounding environment. Dioxins can enter our food by settling on corps and water. Health risks for humans contain respiratory diseases such as asthma and emphysema, heart diseases and can also cause nausea, rashes, or headaches. Also, burning PVC pollutes the air with halogens that affects the stratosphere and ozone (Verma et al, 2016).

The residues from plastic waste are soot, directly transmitted in the air, and ash left on the soil. These have been shown in many studies to be potential risks for human health and create environmental concerns, such as volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and smoke. These substances can travel a long distance and are very mutagenic, and also cancerogenic (Ibid).

With non-working waste management in undeveloped countries, there is an increasing risk of rising cases of so-called Neglected Tropical Diseases (NTDs). These diseases are specified by the WHO and are caused by viruses, parasites, and bacteria. These diseases are active in tropical and subtropical zones and affect the poorest people, much because of their living- conditions (WHO, 2020). It is important that affected countries, like Mozambique, can offer their citizens fresh water, sanitation, and a healthy environment to control and eliminate these diseases, and therefore safe waste management is important as well (WHO, 2020). In 2016 there were over 23 million people in Mozambique who needed preventive treatment for NTDs, the ones that are possible to prevent with some treatment, which is more than ⅔ of the entire population (ESPEN, 2016).

The dumpsites are also often uncovered, which makes them exposed to rain. The rain directly increases the volume of leachate. The soil in Mozambique, like other sub-Saharan countries, is often sandy and therefore highly permeable. Thus, dumpsites can easily contribute to the pollution of groundwater and nearby rivers (Sallway, Hettiarachchi, and Hülsmann, 2017).

They can also harm the ecosystems and often serve as a feeding place for several pets, such as cats and dogs. These animals can easily carry diseases and transmit them to humans.

Unattended waste, such as open dumplings attracts flies, rats, and other wild animals, that of course also, spread diseases (Abul, 2010).

When waste is left at dumpsites it can also induce marine pollution caused by nearby, poorly managed dump sites. When plastic usage increases, the nonbiodegradable waste that is left in natural environments, the sea and ocean for example, also increases (Kaza et al, 2018).

Plastic waste is the main reason for the contamination of water bodies when dumped in

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oceans and cause floods when it gets clogged in canals. Also, when plastic is exposed to ultraviolet light it degrades into microplastic. Which are small particles of plastic that are almost impossible to recover that disrupts food chains and reduce natural habitats (Ibid).

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5. Sustainable Waste Management - Collected Information

5.1. Questionnaires

19 persons, each one representing their household, had the ability to answer the

questionnaires. The average family consisted of 3.7 people over the age of five. This is consistent with the general average Mozambican family (Olofsson, 2020). The average number of bottles, both glass, and plastic included, these families disposed every week was 3.6 bottles. The families were given intervals of how many bottles they disposed and 53%

dumped 3-5 bottles per week. Of the remaining 47%, 37% dumped fewer than three bottles per week and the rest dumped over six bottles per week. Of the families that were asked to answer the surveys, 74% admitted that they threw inorganic waste directly into nature (Ibid).

Of the families disposing 3-5 bottles per week, 50% reused more than half of the number of bottles they bought. In the families buying a lower number of bottles, only 30% reused more than 50% of all bottles bought and for the two families that consumed over six bottles a week, they both reused more than half of them. On average 43% of the families reused more than half of all their bottles bought.

Assumed that the families that do not reuse more than half of their bottles, do not reuse any bottles at all and that the other families at minimum reuse 50% of the bottles bought, the minimum number of bottles in circulation is estimated to 110 bottles per week in these 19 households. This means that the average family consumes 5.8 bottles per week.

Only one household out of 19, which is approximately 5% of the total amount, found the waste situation that is occurring today problematic. Aligned with the low education level in Linga Linga, only 37% know what happens to inorganic products, made of glass, plastic, metal, or cardboard, when dumped directly into nature and thereby starts the very slow process of decomposing.

In Linga Linga the residents showed a relatively high willingness to use waste bins in the area of their residence. 58%, which is eleven households have a positive attitude towards waste bins. When it comes to payment for waste services, 37% would consider paying for this.

To summarize the respondent’s answers to the questionnaires, the results are shown in Tables 1 and 2 below.

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Household: I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X

Number in household 3 3 3 4 1 8 2 2 3 4

Dumps inorganic

waste in nature Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No No

Common dumping site No No No No Yes No No No No No

Number of bottles

dumped 3-5 0-2 3-5 3-5 6-8 3-5 0-2 3-5 0-2 0-2

Reuse more than 50%

of all bottles Yes Yes No No Yes Yes Yes Yes No No

See a problem with

waste handling today No No No No No No No No No No

Knowledge about inorganic waste and

decomposing

No No No No No No No No Yes Yes

Willingness to use

waste bin No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No No

Willingness to pay for

waste services No No Yes Yes Yes Yes No No No No

Table 1. Answers from family 1 to 10

Household: XI XII XIII XIV XV XVI XVII XVIII XIX

Number in household 4 5 6 2 4 5 3 2 7

Dumps inorganic waste

in nature Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No No Yes

Common dumping site No No No No No No No No No

Number of bottles dumped

3-5 3-5 3-5 12-15 3-5 3-5 0-2 0-2 0-2

Reuse more than 50% of

all bottles Yes Yes No Yes No No No No No

See a problem with waste

handling today No No No No No No No No Yes

Knowledge about inorganic waste and

decomposing

No No No Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes

Willingness to use waste

bin Yes Yes No Yes No No No No Yes

Willingness to pay for

waste services Yes Yes No No No No No No Yes

Table 2. Answers from family 11 to 19

5.2. Interview with Michel Olofsson

The waste management in Linga Linga is practically non-existing today according to Michel Olofsson (2020). The villagers either burn their waste or bury it, not depending on the type of waste there is. Both the burying and burning takes place rather close to people's homes. He believes that there is little to none collaboration between people regarding waste handling.

Olofsson himself sometimes collects plastic and glass bottles and has collected some at a nearby hotel. The hotel had then sorted some plastic waste out so it was accessible for him.

He describes that he trades some of his used 5-liter cans to women in the neighborhood that in return helps him out another time. According to Olofsson, these women use the cans to collect rainwater that they can drink. His perception is that this is common, that many reuse their plastic waste to collect water or store oil. Olofsson has observed that at least one of the

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kiosks in the village has started to collect some of their waste with some kind of garbage bin.

This garbage bin is used to collect all sorts of waste and the waste collected are, what Olofsson knows of, not separated later either.

Overall Olofsson describes that he does not see a lot of waste on the side of the small roads or lying around in the neighborhood. The waste that he sees is mostly at the beach or near the kiosks. As seen in figure 8, waste is sometimes just dumped, neither covered or burned. Even though the inhabitants of Linga Linga mostly consume what has been produced in the village the small kiosks and the shopping they do in the nearby town Morrumbene generates some of the waste. According to Olofsson the glass bottles used in Linga Linga come from alcohol consumption and plastic and paper are used more for a snack and food packaging. He has seen a difference in the consumption pattern and says that there are more people that buy more products than they did before.

Fig 8, Waste disposal in Linga Linga (Olofsson, 2020).