SCRIPTA ISLANDICA

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SCRIPTA ISLANDICA

ISLÄNDSKA SÄLLSKAPETS ÅRSBOK 68/2017

REDIGERAD AV

LASSE MÅRTENSSON OCH VETURLIÐI ÓSKARSSON

under medverkan av Pernille Hermann (Århus)

Else Mundal (Bergen) Guðrún Nordal (Reykjavík)

Heimir Pálsson (Uppsala) Henrik Williams (Uppsala)

UPPSALA, SWEDEN

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EISSN 2001-9416

Sättning: Ord och sats Marco Bianchi urn:nbn:se:uu:diva-336099

http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:uu:diva-336099 Publicerad med stöd från Vetenskapsrådet.

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Innehåll

Lârs-E^rik E^dLund, Ingegerd Fries (1921–2016). Minnesord . . . 5 a^ðaLhEiður Guðmundsdóttir, Some Heroic Motifs in Icelandic Art 11 dâniEL s^ävborG, Blot-Sven: En källundersökning . . . 51 dÊcLan tâGGart, All the Mountains Shake: Seismic and Volcanic

Imagery in the Old Norse Literature of Þórr . . . 99 E^Lín b^ára maGnúsdóttir, Forfatterintrusjon i Grettis saga og

paralleller i Sturlas verker . . . 123 hâukur ÞôrGEirsson & tÊrEsa d^röfn n^jarðvík, The Last Eddas on

Vellum . . . 153 h^Eimir P^áLsson, Reflections on the Creation of Snorri Sturluson’s

Prose Edda . . . 189 m^aGnus k^äLLström, Monumenta lapidum aliquot runicorum:

Om runstensbilagan i Verelius’ Gothrici & Rolfi Westrogothiae Regum Historia (1664) . . . 233 m^attEo t^arsi, Creating a Norm for the Vernacular: Some Critical

Notes on Icelandic and Italian in the Middle Ages . . . 253 o^Lof s^undqvist, Blod och blót: Blodets betydelse och funktion vid

fornskandinaviska offerriter . . . 275 s^vEinn Y^nGvi E^GiLsson, Kan man skriva pastoral poesi så nära

Nord polen? Arkadiska skildringar i isländska dikter från arton- hundratalet . . . 309 t^ommY k^uusELa, ”Þá mælti Míms hǫfuð”: Jätten Mimer som

kunskaps förmedlare i fornnordisk tradition . . . 331 Recensioner

L^ars L^önnroth, Rec. av A Handbook to Eddic Poetry: Myths and Legends of Early Scandinavia, red. Carolyne Larrington, Judy Quinn & Brittany Schorn . . . 361 L^ars-E^rik E^dLund, Rec. av Islänningasagorna. Samtliga släktsagor

och fyrtionio tåtar. Red. Kristinn Jóhannesson, Gunnar D.

Hansson & Karl G. Johansson . . . 369

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a^ðaLhEiður Guðmundsdóttir, Rev. of Agneta Ney. Bland ormar och drakar: Hjältemyt och manligt ideal i berättar traditioner om Sigurd Fafnes bane . . . 377 Isländska sällskapet

a^GnEta nÊY & mârco bîanchi, Berättelse om verksamheten under 2016 . . . 387 Författarna i denna årgång . . . 389

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Agneta Ney. Bland ormar och drakar: Hjältemyt och manligt ideal i berättar traditioner om Sigurd Fafnesbane. Lund 2017: Nordic Academic Press. 360 p.

Sigurðr Fáfnisbani is one of the most popular legendary heroes of Medi eval European literature. Along with champions like King Arthur and Dietrich von Bern, he leads the world of heroic legend, where he is represented in different ways, as well as influencing other and lesser- known legendary heroes. Neither Sigurðr nor Arthur or Dietrich – or any of the other prominent heroes of medieval tradition – are, however, arche typal, as they themselves reflect Germanic gods as well as historical figures, in addition to showing some prototypical characteristics of legendary heroes. As a dragon slayer, Sigurðr is, for example, reminiscent of the god Þórr, who can be said to play the ultimate heroic role in Norse mythol ogy. Þórr is fundamentally a hero who sacrifices himself and does his heroic deeds to the benefit of others, and his role is to protect the society of gods/men against threats of invasion or other perils. This is not only evident from his continuing struggle against the jötnar of the North, but also in his fight with the Midgard serpent, who itself is in many ways reminiscent of a dragon.

More heroes of Norse legend fight dragons, thereby performing the ultimate heroic deed. But why do heroes fight dragons, and what manner of phenomenon is the dragon? It is safe to say that the dragon is a symbolic figure, and those who read or listen to earlier legends soon realize that it is some thing much more than just a frightening, fire-breathing beast in the form of pre-historical flying dinosaur. Scholars, however, do not agree on the fundamental nature of the dragon. Some feel it represents the highest prowess of a hero, who faces and conquers fear itself through dragon slaying, because being fearless in a world full of danger is a desirable quality. Others believe the dragon is primarily a symbol of destructive powers such as greed and evil, or simply the enemy, which the hero has to fight for the benefit of the community. The ultimate hero is thus a guardian and protector of human community.

Guðmundsdóttir, Aðalheiður. 2017. Rev. of Agneta Ney. Bland ormar och drakar:

Hjältemyt och manligt ideal i berättartraditioner om Sigurd Fafnesbane.

Scripta Islandica 68: 377–386.

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378 Aðalheiður Guðmundsdóttir

It may well be that these two points of view, despite their differences, can be united in one and the same heroic tale. While Fáfnir, the dragon of the Sigurðr legend, obviously represents greed – lying as he does on the golden hoard keeping it for himself and away from others – Sigurðr’s attack on Fáfnir sheds light not only on his great deed to benefit the community, but also on his superiority over other men. Sigurðr is the one who does not fear. In fact, the importance of Sigurðr’s role as a protector of others can be questioned, as he is not exactly driven by righteous ness or care for other people, although Sigurðr’s slaying of the dragon is cer- tain ly meant to help his fóstri, Reginn, to have his rightful revenge on his brother, Fáf nir. At the end, Sigurðr’s slaying of the dragon seems to be more a matter of his own maturity, and the birth of the ultimate hero.

When Sigurðr rides away on his horse Grani, having slayed the dragon and loaded the hoard on Grani, he has grown from being a brave young adult to a hero; his maturity, however, concerns not only his courage, but also his wisdom. As is generally known, Sigurðr tasted the blood of the dragon’s heart after the slaying, and consequently understood the lan- guage of birds, who told him that Reginn was about to betray him; thus, the young hero came to know the two brothers’ “greed” and “betrayal” – and slayed both of them. He then visits the Valkyrie Sigrdrífa/Brynhildr, where he continues his developmental journey by acquiring wisdom.

When Sigurðr has finally developed by learning courage, coming to under stand the difference between right and wrong and gaining wisdom, he has only one important lesson left: that of love and relationships.

In the Icelandic Völsunga saga, along with earlier Eddic poems relating the same events, Sigurðr is yet to know the different aspects of love. He him self falls in love with the Valkyrie Brynhildr, and the two make vows to each other. Later, after having been deceived by means of magic, he for gets about Brynhildr and marries Guðrún. Brynhildr is not out of the story, however, as Sigurðr subsequently helps his new brother-in-law and sworn brother Gunnarr to woo Brynhildr, playing tricks on her that he never should have. The consequences of the betrayals are not only com- plex, but fateful for the four protagonists, as well as for all those who in one way or another participate in this great story of fates – a story that would fascinate people for ages to come.

Agneta Ney’s book, Bland ormar och drakar: Hjältemyt och manligt ideal i berättartraditioner om Sigurd Fafnesbane, looks at the great destiny of Sigurðr and a considerable amount of related material. The main text, covering 274 pages, is divided into five chapters and several

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379 Rev. of Agneta Ney. Bland ormar och drakar

sub-chapters, as well as an introduction. The chapters are: 1. “Episkt berättande som källa til myt och manlighet”, 2. “Sigurds motiv i vikinga- tida och medel tida litteratur”, 3. “Från mytologisk drak dödare till hövisk riddare”, 4. “Sigurdsmotiv i senvikinga tida och medel tida bild konst”, and 5. “Från kvinno centrerad edda dikt till manscentrerad ikono grafi”. These are fol lowed by notes and a bibliography, but unfortunately no index, which would have been helpful for the reader.

In Chapter 1, the author describes her methodological starting point, a kind of overall theme, which is the representation of masculinity in medieval European literature. The chapter deals with the image of male heroes in general terms, their relation to their family, friendship and alliances.

Accord ing to medieval European literature, being born as a son into a power ful family was anything but simple. There was, for instance, quite a differ ence between the eldest son, and heir, and the younger sons, who had to earn their name and fortune by other means. The heir’s role was not easy either and was likely to be associated with conflicts, both between the heir and his father (the present authority), on the one hand, and the heir and his brothers, on the other. Conflicts between generations and within families were thus in some cases inevitable. Moreover, it was important for men to cultivate their relationships with other men, particularly their mater nal uncles. With this interesting insight into the world of medieval chieftains, as depicted in literature, the author leads us to the next chapter, where the focus is on the protagonist Sigurðr and his representations in different sources across many centuries.

In Chapter 2, written sources concerning the Sigurðr legend are ac- coun ted for, whether in verse or prose. These sources are of four kinds:

Eddic poems, fornaldarsögur, Snorra-Edda and German epic poetry.

Within these four groups, we have different textual representations, all of which include, in their own way, the core of the story about Sigurðr.

With the overview, the author is able to depict the character of Sigurðr in a wider context than that of only one specific source, and in some cases, also the character of other figures connected to his story, such as his father Sigmundr, who features in Völsunga saga. Sigurðr’s connection to other figures is expounded, such as to Reginn and Grípir (regarding his upbringing and maturity), Brynhildr and Guðrún (regarding his learning of wisdom and love), and the brothers Gunnarr and Högni (regarding friend ship and alliances). In this way, the chapter is obviously connected to the previous chapter and the theme of masculinity, at the same time as it is an overview and a history of preservation.

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The chapter also deals with one of the most important sources of the legen dary material, Völsunga saga, which the author divides into two parts: one mythological and one chivalric. This division then plays a significant role in the whole discussion, because according to the author the image of masculinity changes considerably between the two parts. As a reader, I find the division into two parts useful, and it is obvious that several incidents in the latter part of the saga reflect events in the first part.

The interface between the two, where Sigurðr awakes the Valkyrie with his sword on Hindar fjall, is very decisive, and the incident is symbolic of the forthcoming changes of Sigurðr and Brynhildr, and how they move from the sphere of the wild and mythical into a more civilised society, characterised by closer human relations and their attendant difficulties.

While the division may be convenient as a basis for researching the characters, I believe that the structure is in fact more complicated, and scholars have long had varying opinions on this. Most scholars who have studied the structure of Völsunga saga believe that the main parts range in number from three to five. It would have been valuable to mention this, and perhaps to ask whether the different structural units of the saga might have influenced the interpretation presented here, which is based on only two parts. There is a slight tendency towards the same approach else where in the book, where matters of debate are presented as facts without any discussion of different opinions. An example of this can be found later in the same chapter, where Þiðriks saga af Bern is said to have been com- posed in Norway around the middle of the thirteenth century, at the Nor- wegian court in Bergen. An article by Susanne Kramarz-Bein from 1997 is referenced, which can hardly be sufficient, as the debate is long-standing and scholars do not agree on the age of the saga or its place of origin.

Kramarz-Bein published her thorough study of the saga in 2000, which is usually thought to be fundamental research on the time and place of com- position, but it would be too much to say that the matter has been settled.

The Chapter 3 deals with the advancement of the protagonist, Sigurðr:

his birth, his youth and maturity, and finally his progress towards becoming a fully-fledged hero. The chapter then looks further at the development of the hero from the perspective of courtly literature, into the chivalric hero who acts in accordance with moral codes and in fellowship with other men. In the mythical part of the saga, the revenge after Sigurðr’s father is important, both in a sociological sense and as part of the development of the hero. Just as the male heroes of medieval Icelandic literature, Sigurðr has to evolve spiritual as well as physical strength, and the various epi-

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sodes of the saga can be seen as different paths towards achieving such a goal. Here, we find a discussion of the dragon slaying and how Sigurðr is in fact dealing with a villain that is both a man and an animal – a beast that is likely to have frightened the medieval audience, even if the youth Sigurðr seems to be fearless. In all this discussion – about the heroic deed itself and its meaning for the hero, on the one hand, and the community, on the other – it would have been interesting to dig deeper into the notion of greed and the importance of stories about the struggle between good and evil.

In the 22nd chapter of Völsunga saga, which the author believes forms a bridge between the two parts of the story, Sigurðr is described as being a fully developed hero. This chapter, however, has previously been the subject of debate, as it deviates from the overall character of the saga.

For example, scholars have asked whether the chapter might have been a later addition, thus not belonging to the original version of Völsunga saga (e.g., Finch 1965: xxxvii). The whole chapter is under the distinct influence of Þiðriks saga af Bern, and it is obvious that the description of Sigurðr’s appearance and constitution is a combination of proto typical features, similar to those of King Þiðrikr. The chapter appears to play a significant role in Ney’s vision of the saga and its division into two parts, as it is at this point where Sigurðr moves towards the sphere of chivalry. It would thus have been helpful to dwell on and discuss ideas con cerning the characteristics of the chapter, and whether or not the author believes it may have been added at a later stage; if not, then why?

It would, for example, have been valid to ask what meaning it would have had for the depiction of the hero’s development were the chapter considered an addition. Nevertheless, the overall discussion is interesting, and it can be quite compelling to consider how composers/scribes could have affected the characteristics of earlier heroes by moving them into new surroundings. In addition, the chapter discusses the saga’s female heroines and their main characteristics. The discussion here, as in the other chapters, is supported by textual references from verse and prose that both make the presentation stronger and break it up, thus facilitating the readers’ understanding and pleasure.

In a way, the first three chapters function as a thorough introduction to the longest and, to some extent, most interesting chapter of the book:

Chapter 4. In this, we get a full list of images representing Sigurðr and other characters of Völsunga saga, first in Norway and the British Isles, and then in Eastern Scandinavia (including the island of Gotland). The

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enume ration is based closely on, as designated by the author, Martin Blind- heim’s research, specifically his booklet Sigurds saga i middelalderens billed kunst. Blindheim’s research, and the list presented there, is the first analysis of the Sigurðr images, i.e. pictorial representations of the Sigurðr legend, including images of Gunnarr Gjúkason and other characters. Ever since its publication, various scholars have written about this material, either in a narrower or a wider context. Even if Ney does not mention all of the derivative studies, she does refer to some of them, such as those conducted by Sigmund Oehrl. Specifically, however, she builds on analyses done by Sue Margeson and Klaus Düwel. By re-evaluating the images in the light of these and some other recent studies, the author pre- sents a new updated list, which is in many ways more thorough than the ear lier ones, and includes her own stance on numerous matters of opinion, all of which seem to be sensible. The keys to the analysis are nine known and earlier defined fundamental motifs that are briefly discussed with an explanation for the different representations of one and the same motif.

After this, each and every pictorial representation is discussed, with an explan atory image or images.

The discussion about images from Norway includes images from the British Isles, i.e. form the Isle of Man, England and Scotland. In each case, the research history of the image is presented, although there are some cases in which the relevant ideas of other scholars are not presented or referred to. As an example of this, we could mention the stone cross frag ment from Kirk Andreas on the Isle of Man, which depicts a man lying among serpents, most probably representing Gunnarr, Sigurðr’s brother- in-law, in the snake pit. The author mentions neither recent research on the pictorial representations of Gunnarr in the snake pit nor the ideas of those who believe that the carving represents Loki, as described in the Gylfa ginning of Snorri’s Edda. In many cases, the author takes a stand on the images in question, but occasionally, as in the case of the stone from Govan in Scotland, her own opinion is not clear and the descriptions of the artefacts are neutral.

The following discussion, on carved portals from Norwegian stave churches, is – as in the case of the previous examples – informative as well as clear. However, in reading here and later in the text, I sometimes wonder about the target group, the readership, as it can be quite difficult to appeal to different kinds of readers. For those who are approaching the material with fresh eyes, the discussion is no doubt full of novelty and may even be too detailed, while for specialists, the opportunities for an even

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fuller discussion are plenty. Here, we could mention the famous church portal from Hylestad in Setesdal, in East-Agder, for example, where the author tells of an image detail that is assumed to depict Sigurðr assisting Reginn when forging his sword: “Det ser ut som om Sigurd assisterar honom med en blåsbälg” (p. 172). By comparing the figure to the other represen tations of Sigurðr on the same artefact, it must be considered as a possi bility that the image is supposed to depict Reginn’s journeyman, as told of in Þiðriks saga af Bern. Concerning the detail where Sigurðr kills Reginn, it would also have been a good point to mention – and even dis cuss – why he stabs him with his sword, while in preserved textual sources, i.e. Fáfnismál and Völsunga saga, it says that Sigurðr be headed Reginn. But even though such examples might suggest that the book was probably intended for a general Scandinavian readership, rather than for a narrower group of specialists, it is worth remembering that the analy sis touches on different interesting features, in most cases with solid interpretations, and that the overall representation is riveting and likely to arouse the reader’s interest in the topic.

The most famous pictorial representation of the Sigurðr legend is without a doubt the carving at Ramsund in Södermanland, Sweden, which is thoroughly dealt with in this book. Apart from the detailed analysis, a recent interpretation of the surrounding runes, made by Thorgunn Snædal, is presented and discussed. In a similar vein, the discussion about the runes on the Gök-stone, also to be found in Södermanland, is interesting. The same can be said of the rune stones from Upland and Gästrikland, where Ney identifies a pictorial motif that she calls the motif of wisdom (vis hets- motiv), which she believes represents tales about education, as offered by Sigr drífa/Brynhildr to Sigurðr. She believes the motif to be a variant of a certain pair motif, i.e. one showing a man and a woman, but another variant of this motif is what Erla Bergendahl Hohler previously identified as the welcome motif (välkomstmotiv) or the love motif (kärleksmotiv), which is mostly featured on the Gotland picture stones. The motif of wisdom reflects the important role that women played in the upbringing and formation of a male hero.

It is no easy task to interpret the images on the stones from Upland/

Gäst rikland, as for example the one from Ockelbo, which is covered with different kinds of pictorial references. As Ney concludes, it is doubtful that the overall carving was supposed to represent the story of the Völsungs, even if individual details may. Sometimes it is obvious that fragments or details depicted on the same stone belong together, while in other cases

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they do not, and the choice of images or symbols may well have been per sonal. For instance, it is easy to imagine, concerning memorial stones, that the carver or the person who chose the represented images wanted to honour the memory of the dead man, either by showing images that could refer to his life, or fragments that could represent stories he liked.

The same could be said of the Gotland picture stone Ardre VIII, which is loaded with pictorial references to different legends, among others from the story of the Völsungs and the Gjúkungs.

For a long time, scholars did not believe that the Gotland picture stones refer red at all to the Sigurðr legend, except for an image of a horse with a burden on its back, which could refer to the scene of Grani with the gold hoard. In recent times, however, scholars have identified further motifs, some of which are discussed in Ney’s book, where individual images are con sidered, as well as the role of the female figures on the stones. As for the female figures in particular – more often than not depicting a woman offering a man to drink from a horn – Ney believes that they may in many cases reveal women’s role in pre-Christian rituals. In some instances, it would have been desirable to analyse those figures even more closely, for example, the female figures on Ardre VIII and Klinte Hunninge I. In the former case, a woman with a sword may be identified, while in the latter we see two female figures by a snake pit who could be carrying more snakes to the pit; at least, the figure below holds a curved oblong object that does not look at all like a drinking horn, while it looks like the figure above has just finished putting something into an opening of the pit (Aðal heiður Guðmundsdóttir 2012: 1033–1035). None of these three female figures fits neatly into the role of the Valkyrie, or the woman who welcomes a man with a drinking horn. Considering the whole chapter on pictorial representations of the Sigurðr legend, there are many matters of opinion, but in Ney’s research, they are all equally interesting and discussed from various points of view. Where she chooses to interpret the images, or add to previous discussions, her conclusions are usually con- vincing. As shown by some of the above examples, there is still room for further interpretations, as there probably will be for a long time to come.

In the last chapter of the book, Chapter 5, the author deals with the relation ship between the texts and the images in light of the masculine represen tations, for example concerning the test of manhood (the dragon slaying), the duty of revenge, betrayals, the relationships between the hero and the Valkyrie, his father, his uncle and fóstri. The author also dis cusses the thematic connection between the two heroes, Sigmundr Völsungs-

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son and Sigurðr, who are in many ways similar to each other, and some scholars have considered the possibility that they are fundamentally one and the same hero. When Guðrún has lost her husband Sigurðr, she tries to forget her worries by doing needlework, where she depicts the heroic deeds of Sigmundr. But why does she fail to represent the deeds of her late husband, Sigurðr? Can her choice of theme for her needlecraft perhaps be seen as an indication of such a coupling of the two heroes in oral tradition? What a fascinating subject, and there are plenty like it in this and other chapters.

In many respects, Agneta Ney’s new book confirms previous scholar- ship, particularly regarding when and where legends about the hero Sigurðr were known, and how the dissemination changed from time to time. The history of circulation is in fact quite remarkable, and has been studied by other scholars as well, for example Gunnar Nordan skog (Nor wegian images), Marjoline Stern (Swedish images, see in partic ular 2013) and Lilla Kopár (Anglosaxon images, see her thorough study from 2012). These scholars have addressed the question of why images from this particular legend were used in a certain context and whether they may have been used in political interests, for example by creating an image and/or strengthening the power of certain chieftains. While Ney does not contribute to this particular debate in her new book, she chooses to view the images primarily in relation to masculinity and the devel op ment of Sigurðr as a hero in pre-Christian as well as Christian contexts. Con se- quently, her approach offers a fresh and interesting addition to earlier research – one that should be welcomed by both Old Norse scholars and enthusiasts.

Bibliography

Aðalheiður Guðmundsdóttir, 2012: Gunnarr and the Snake Pit in Medieval Art and Legend. Speculum 87/4: 1015–1049.

Finch, R. G., ed., 1965: The Saga of the Volsungs. London and Edinburgh: Nelson.

Kopár, Lilla, 2012: Gods and Settlers: The Iconography of Norse Mythology in Anglo-Scandinavian Sculpture. Studies in the Early Middle Ages, 25. Turn- hout: Brepols.

Kramarz-Bein, Susanne, 2002: Die Þiðreks saga im Kontext der altnorwegischen Literatur. Tübingen og Basel: A. Francke Verlag.

Nordanskog, Gunnar, 2006: Förställd hedendom: Tidigmedeltida skandinaviska

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kyrk portar i forskning och historia. Vägar till Midgård 9. Lund: Nordic Aca- demic Press.

Stern, Marjoline, 2013: Runestone Images and Visual Communication in Viking Age Scandinavia. PhD thesis, University of Nottingham.

Aðalheiður Guðmundsdóttir University of Iceland

Faculty of Icelandic and Comparative Cultural Studies Reykjavík, Iceland

adalh@hi.is