Solid Waste Management at Inhaca Island

IN

DEGREE PROJECT TECHNOLOGY, FIRST CYCLE, 15 CREDITS

STOCKHOLM SWEDEN 2018,

Solid Waste Management at Inhaca Island

JOHANNA SÖRBOM

ALIA GASIM

A^BSTRACT

S

This report is composed by interviews, observations and literary studies and aims to map the Solid Waste Management system of Inhaca Island in Mozambique, in order to identify challenges and recommend for further actions of improvement.

At Inhaca Island, waste is deposited on an open dumpsite or otherwise buried or burned around the house yards. The lack of financial means contributes to an improper waste manage- ment on the with challenges in areas such as collecting, disposal and treatment of waste. For Inhaca Island it is important to focus on improvements of the Solid Waste Management system that are not as dependent on the financial means of Maputo municipality, such as improvement in public awareness and informal waste-picking. These factors needs to be addressed before estab- lishing a technical system. Inadequate collection and handling of waste exposes the population to hazardous waste and endanger both pubic health and the environment. Therefore it is important to improve the waste management conditions on the island.

SAMMANFATTNING

I

Det är viktigt att förbättra avfallshanteringen på ön då en bristande avfallshantering utsätter både människor och miljön för olika risker.

DEDICATION AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

T

We would also like to thank Tomas Nylund for sharing the WHAT-model with us. Our translator, Queri Hojuane, who made it possible for us to conduct the study at Inhaca Island and informed us with important information about the island. We would also like to thank Sergio Fuca, who helped us arrange meetings with different actors on the island. We also wish to acknowledge the people participating in the interviews for sharing their information and experience with us.

Lastly, we would like to give a special thanks to all the staff at the Estacao de Biologia Maritima da Inhaca for their hospitality and kindness.

T^{ABLE OF} C^ONTENTS

Page

List of Tables vi

List of Figures vii

1 Introduction 1

1.1 Municipal solid waste management . . . . 2

1.1.1 Generation of waste . . . . 2

1.1.2 Collection of waste . . . . 3

1.1.3 Treatment and disposal of waste . . . . 4

1.2 Consequences of inadequate waste management . . . . 5

1.3 Mozambique . . . . 6

1.4 Aim and objective . . . . 7

1.5 Limitations . . . . 7

2 Methodology 8 2.1 Data Collection . . . . 8

2.1.1 Literary studies . . . . 8

2.1.2 Interviews . . . . 9

2.1.3 Observations . . . . 9

2.2 The WHAT-model . . . . 9

2.3 Source of error . . . 10

3 Results 12 3.1 Maputo Municipality: Legal framework, authorities and responsibilities . . . 12

3.2 Inhaca Island and its waste challenges . . . 14

3.3 Waste production . . . 16

3.4 Waste collection . . . 17

3.5 Waste treatment and final disposal . . . 19

3.6 Sorting and recycling - informal recycling . . . 20

3.7 Environment and public health . . . 21

TABLE OF CONTENTS

3.8 Public awareness . . . 22

3.9 Financing . . . 23

3.10 System goals for Waste Management . . . 24

4 Discussion: Waste Treatment Options and Opportunities at Inhaca Island 26 4.1 Relationships and responsibilities . . . 26

4.2 Waste production . . . 27

4.3 Waste collection . . . 28

4.4 Waste treatment and final disposal . . . 29

4.5 Public awareness . . . 30

4.6 Human resources . . . 30

4.7 Financing . . . 30

4.8 System goals for Waste Management . . . 31

5 Conclusion 32

A Appendix A: Questionnaire to residents of Inhaca Island 33 B Appendix B: Questionnaire to the Government of Inhacas waste collectors 35 C Appendix C: Questionnaire to the Government of Inhaca 37

Bibliography 38

Interviews and personal communication 42

L^{IST OF} T^ABLES

TABLE Page

3.1 Composition of MSW from Maputo (weight percent) (Sallwey, Hettiarachchi and Hulsmann, 2017) . . . 14 3.2 Cost of collection and disposal in low income countries in percent. (Hoornweg and

Bhada-Tata, 2012) . . . 14

L^{IST OF} F^IGURES

FIGURE Page

1.1 The waste hierarchy (Klinghoffer and Themelis, 2013). . . . 3

1.2 Map of Mozambique (The British Museum, 2017). . . . 6

2.1 Waste Management Holistic Assessment Tool (Nylund, 2018). . . 10

3.1 Roads on Inhaca Island. . . 13

3.2 Map of Inhaca Island (Macia Afonso, n.d). . . 15

3.3 Population distribution on Inhaca Island 2017 (Maducho Hobzane, 2018). . . 16

3.4 A collecting point in the main village in Ribjêne area with bags and a container. . . . 18

3.5 The percentage of population covered by the government collection services (Maducho Hobzane, 2018). . . 18

3.6 The dumpsite on Inhaca Island. . . 20

3.7 Flowchart of the SWM on Inhaca Island. . . 21

CHAPTER

1

INTRODUCTION

S

The primary purposes of SWM strategies are to address the health, environmental, aesthetic, land-use, resource, and economic concerns associated with the improper disposal of waste (Mar- shall and Farahbakhsh, 2013). Inequality, urbanisation, social awareness, policy, governance and institutional issues have complicated the SWM in developing countries and the health and environment implications associated with SWM are increasing. These problems concern different nations, municipalities, corporations, individuals and the global community. The waste that is produced in developing countries is overwhelming for local authorities and national governments (Marshall and Farahbakhsh, 2013). One to two thirds of the solid waste is not collected and the waste is often dumped in the streets and in drains. This contributes to flooding and the spread of different diseases. The waste that is collected is often disposed of in uncontrolled dumpsites.

When the modernization process started in developing countries during the 1970s, SWM was seen as a technical issue with technical solutions. This changed 10 years later, when it became clear that institutional, social, legal and financial aspects, which are directly related to local conditions, needs to be covered before establishing a technical system (Zurbrugg; United Nations Human Settlements Programme, 2010).

There is now an international consensus for what Integrated Sustainable Solid Waste Man- agement (ISWM) means. It strives to achieve a balance between three dimensions: environmental effectiveness, social acceptability and economic affordability. These dimensions needs to be ad- dressed when developing a SWM system. The framework is meant to be an aid to improve the

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

SWM in developing countries (United Nations Human Settlements Programme, 2010).

1.1 Municipal solid waste management

SWM consist of a range of activities such as reduction, generation, collection, treatment, disposal and recycling of waste (Hoornweg and Bhada-Tata, 2012).

A working definition for Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) is ”wastes generated by households, and wastes of a similar nature generated by commercial and industrial premises, by institutions such as schools, hospitals, care homes and prisons, and from public spaces such as streets, markets, slaughterhouses, public toilets, bus stops, parks, and gardens”. This definition includes most commercial and business wastes and excludes industrial process and hazardous waste. (United Nations Human Settlements Programme, 2010).

1.1.1 Generation of waste

MSW generation rates are highly influenced by economic development, the degree of industri- alization, public habits and local climate and vary considerably between cities and countries (Hoornweg and Bhada-Tata, 2012). There is a strong correlation between gross national income (GNI) and generated MSW and generally places with higher economic development and rate of urbanization produce greater amounts of solid waste per capita (Eawag, 2008; Hoornweg and Bhada-Tata, 2012). Furthermore, there is a clear trend that the average lifespan of many con- sumer products are more and more reduced (Eawag, 2008). At 2012 global MSW generation levels where approximately 1.3 billion tonnes per year, and are expected to increase to approximately 2.2 billion tonnes per year by 2025. This represents a significant increase in waste generation rates per capita per day in the next fifteen years. Waste generation per capita is about double the amount in urban areas in comparison with rural areas of the same region.

Waste generation per capita is generally low in sub-saharan Africa, but spans a wide range.

The countries with the highest rates of waste generation per capita are islands. This is likely due to the waste generated by the tourism industry, and a more complete accounting of all wastes generated. According to the World Bank’s global review of SWM, published in 2012, the total urban population in Mozambique is 7 706 826 people, and these has a MSW generation of 0.14 kg per capita per day. This amounts to 1052 tonnes per day. The MSW generation per capita per day in the year 2025 is estimated to increase to 0.5 kg (Hoornweg and Bhada-Tata, 2012).

The composition of MSW is influenced by a number of factors such as level of economic development, cultural norms, geographical location, energy sources and climate. Generally, low- and middle-income countries produce a high percentage of waste consisting of organic matter, ranging from 40 to 85 percent, of the total produced waste. Low-income countries have an organic waste fraction of 64 percent compared to 28 percent in high-income countries. As a

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

country becomes more urbanized and the populations become wealthier, consumption of inorganic materials such as plastics, paper, and aluminum increases, while the organic fraction decreases.

The waste management sector follows a generally accepted hierarchy where the most pre- ferred option is reduction of waste, see figure 1.1. Waste reduction initiatives aim to start at the source and reduce the quantity of waste generated. This is done by redesigning products and changing patterns of production and consumption. Reduction of waste has direct benefits for the environment when greenhouse gas emissions are avoided both from the product manufacturing and the emissions associated with the waste management activities (Hoornweg and Bhada-Tata, 2012).

Figure 1.1: The waste hierarchy (Klinghoffer and Themelis, 2013).

1.1.2 Collection of waste

Waste collection is the collection of solid waste from the point of production to the point of treatment or disposal (Hoornweg and Bhada-Tata, 2012). Complete waste collection coverage is important for a hygienic and safe environment. Uncollected waste leads to health risks, an unpleasant environment for people in the area and negatively affects the economic development (Eawag, 2008). There are several ways that waste can be collected:

1. House to house: Waste is collected at each house individually by waste collectors.

2. Community bins: Waste is taken to community bins in the neighbourhood where it is picked up by the municipality.

3. Curbside pick-up: Waste is left for pick-up directly outside peoples homes according to a pick-up schedule set by the local authorities.

4. Self delivered: Waste generators deliver the waste directly to the disposal sites or hire third-party operators to transport the waste for them.

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

5. Contracted or delegated service: Businesses or municipalities hire firms who arrange collection schedules and charges with the customers. The collected MSW can be separated or mixed depending on local regulations (Hoornweg and Bhada-Tata, 2012).

In developing countries, collection and transport account for most of the MSW management budget. In low-income countries lacking proper waste collection, waste is often dumped at open plots, in low-lying areas, public spaces, rivers or burned in backyards (Eawag, 2008).

1.1.3 Treatment and disposal of waste

There are several ways to treat and dispose waste. The following section will present different methods for the disposal and treatment of MSW.

Dumping: Dumping can be separated into two different methods, semi-controlled dumps and controlled dumps. Semi-controlled dumps have few controls, some directed placement of waste, informal waste picking and no engineering measures. There is also no leachate management. Controlled dumps have registration and placement of waste, compaction of waste, surface water monitoring, no leachate management and no engineering measures.

Neither dumpsite have any gas management measures.

Landfills: Landfills can be separated into engineered landfills/controlled landfills and sanitary landfills. Engineered landfills/controlled landfills have registration and placement of waste, compaction of waste, uses daily cover material, surface and groundwater monitoring, infras- tructure and liner in place and some level of leachate treatment. Leachate volume is also reduced through waste cover. Furthermore, there is landfill gas management through ven- tilation or flaring. Sanitary landfills have registration and placement of waste, compaction of waste, uses daily cover material, measures for final top cover and closure, proper siting, liner and leachate treatment in place and a post-closure plan. There is also a containment and leachate treatment and landfill gas management tthrough flaring, with or without energy recovery (Hoornweg and Bhada-Tata, 2012).

Burning: Burning is a method commonly used in developing countries to reduce the volume and odour of dumped waste. In many European countries, incinerators are used to prevent the toxic emissions that are emitted by open burning and to make use of excess heat to generate steam for power production or for residential heating. Open burning is the major source of toxic gas emission such as dioxins and furans.

Composting: Composting is a controlled aerobic degradation of organic material that results in a soil-like product that can be used in agriculture. Composting can reduce the volume of waste by about 50 to 80 percent (Eawag, 2008).

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

Recycling: Recycling reduces quantities of disposed waste and return materials back to the economy. In high income countries, collection services and technology sorting and processing facilities are common. The overall recycling rates is higher in high income countries than in low income countries. In low income countries, most of the recycled waste goes through the informal market (Hoornweg and Bhada-Tata, 2012).

Of the total MSW disposed of worldwide, landfills are the most common method (Hoornweg and Bhada-Tata, 2012). Although in many African countries, open and uncontrolled disposal is the most common method of treating MSW (Eawag, 2008).

1.2 Consequences of inadequate waste management

Inadequate collection and handling of waste exposes the population to hazardous waste and endanger both pubic health and the environment. Waste that ends up in the streets or in nature increases contact possibilities for people and offers good conditions for the propagation of germs, insects, rats and other disease vectors. Uncollected waste often clog drains and cause the stagnation of water, the breeding of mosquitoes or the contamination of water bodies from which the population normally takes water for consumption, cooking and cleaning (United Nations Human Settlements Programme, 2010). Malaria is one of the problems caused by the breeding of mosquitoes. Malaria is a life-threatening disease that is caused by parasites and are transmitted thru the bites of mosquitoes. Mosquitoes lay their eggs in stagnant water, a problem made worse by uncollected waste clogging drains (World Health Organisation, 2017). Mozambique is a high-risk country for malaria (World Health Organisation, n.d.).

According to the Naturvårdsverket’s review about environmental toxins, published 2017, the high temperatures in tropical countries increase the amount of leachate that directly affects the surrounding ecosystems by contaminating groundwater. The uncollected waste also draws animals looking for food among the waste and spread the waste further. Contact with these animals can cause bacterial, viral and parasitic diseases. Children are especially vulnerable to the risks associated with waste. In many developing countries, informal waste pickers are part of the collection and recycling chain of waste and are an especially vulnerable group in the society (United Nations Human Settlements Programme, 2010).

Waste that is burned in order to lower critical hygienic problems instead causes the emission of toxic substances to the air, such as dioxins and furans (United Nations Human Settlements Programme, 2010). It takes a long time for the dioxins to decompose and it can for instance affect the development of the human brain and the nervous system (Linderholm, 2017).

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

1.3 Mozambique

According to the Carbon Africa Limited’s review about MSW sector in Mozambique, published in 2014, Mozambique is located in the south-eastern part of Africa by the Indian Ocean and has 23.9 million inhabitants, see figure 1.2. The country has 53 municipalities, with 91 classified urban centres, including 23 towns and 68 villages and the capital city is Maputo. Inhaca Island is an island of 42 km²situated off the coast of Maputo and is one of the highest densely populated places in southern Mozambique (Albano, 2014). The island is home to 6098 inhabitants but also to a large number of tourists that visits the island (Maducho Hobzane, 2018; Emanuelsson and Isaksson, 2016) A poorly executed waste management is a fact in most Mozambican cities. This can be explained by the lack of human and financial resources which contributes to waste ending up in uncontrolled dumpsites with no proper treatment. This improper waste management endangers the public health of the people in Mozambique.

Between 2001-2011, the country had an economic growth of 8 percent per year. Despite the economic growth, Mozambique is one of the poorest countries in the world with 60 percent of the population living on an average income of less than USD 1.25 per day.

After Mozambique got its independence in 1975, a civil war erupted that lasted from 1977 to 1992. This, together with flooding and drought, forced many people from the rural area to relocate to the bigger cities. Together with the rapid growth of the population this has led to an expansion of the suburban areas around the cities. Which in turn led to improper waste management services such as poor waste picker conditions and improper infrastructure for separation of waste.

Approximately 1 percent of urban waste is recycled by formal companies, according to the Mozambican Association for Recycling. Today, recycling is receiving more attention all over the country. Different environmental and public awareness programs are initialized and are often led by private sectors or are established in public schools (Tas and Belon, 2014).

Figure 1.2: Map of Mozambique (The British Museum, 2017).

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

1.4 Aim and objective

The aim of this thesis is to analyse the SWM system on Inhaca Island and identify measures for its improvement. Furthermore, it will advise for adequate and appropriate measures to improve the waste management system on Inhaca Island. The results of this report will work as a basis for developing a SWM on other islands. The objectives are stated as follows:

1. To describe the current SWM situation, identifying solid waste flows and mapping how solid waste is generated, transported and treated.

2. To identify current challenges in the SWM and recommend for further actions.

1.5 Limitations

This report is confined to looking at MSW, including agricultural waste, and excludes other forms of waste. Furthermore, it will only examine SWM on Inhaca Island. This report aims to give an overview of the SWM at Inhaca Island and does therefore study every area briefly. No tests of environmental effects from the dumpsite has been conducted such as measurements of air or groundwater pollution.

CHAPTER

2

M^ETHODOLOGY

D

Collected data has been used to map the solid waste management at Inhaca Island. The collected data has also been used to discuss waste treatment options and opportunities at the island.

2.1 Data Collection

The following methods have been used to collect data for this report.

2.1.1 Literary studies

Literary studies have been conducted to gain general information about SWM and its social, economic and environmental impacts on society. The literary studies has been found on the internet, mainly through KTH Library where the keyword “Solid Waste Management” was used.

Relevant data about SWM were selected. No literature about SWM on Inhaca Island was found.

CHAPTER 2. METHODOLOGY

2.1.2 Interviews

To map the SWM system on Inhaca Island, interviews have been conducted with relevant actors on the island. This to understand the current situation on the island regarding the amount of waste, collecting, treatment, disposal, sorting and recycling of waste, the public awareness and the system goals for waste management. The questionnaire for the residents of the island can be found in Appendix A, the questionnaire for the Government of Inhaca’s waste collectors can be found in Appendix B and the questionnaire for the Government of Inhaca can be found in Appendix C.

A total of 17 interviews was conducted, 1 with the Government of Inhaca, 2 with the Inhaca Marine Biology Research Station workers, 1 with a Government of Inhaca’s waste collector, 2 with 17 years old students at the local school and 11 with residents of the island. 7 of the residents lived in the main village in the Ribjêne area and 4 of the residents lived in the Nhakene area. 5 of the residents interviewed were men and 6 of the residents were women. The interviews gave important information about the SWM on the island and the public opinion and social awareness among the population. The interviews have been conducted with the help of a translator.

2.1.3 Observations

Observations have been conducted continuously throughout the stay on Inhaca Island, to collect information about residents habits regarding waste and its lifecycle. Furthermore, two field trips have been conducted to relevant sites around the island. One visit to the local dumpsite in the Ribjêne area and one visit to one of the three collection points “Ponta Torres”, set up by the Inhaca Marine Biology Research Station. The study at Inhaca Island was conducted from 2018-03-21 to 2018-04-11.

2.2 The WHAT-model

To establish a sustainable waste management system critical success factors need to be defined.

The WHAT-model (Waste Management Holistic Assessment Tool) consists of 10-15 different factors, which covers the area system objectives, source and type of waste, collection, sorting, treatment, legal framework, public awareness, collaboration, planning, financing, knowledge and competence, business opportunities, socio economic aspects, environmental aspects and additional factors adjusted to fit the country, region or municipality, see figure 2.1. These factors need to be covered before establishing a technical system for the SWM.

In each factor, there are different questions. These question from the WHAT-model will be answered by people involved or affected by the waste management system on Inhaca Island as an help to provide an overview on the current situation on the island. The questions will also be covered from observations. The question will also determine in what area improvements of the waste management system is necessary.

CHAPTER 2. METHODOLOGY

The results of the WHAT-model will provide a holistic perspective on the waste management system on the island and target the areas in the systems where the focus needs to be. This contributes to a better overview of the weak points of the system and the solutions that will be needed for a more sustainable waste management system (Nylund, 2018).

Figure 2.1: Waste Management Holistic Assessment Tool (Nylund, 2018).

2.3 Source of error

All interaction with the interviewees were made through the help of a translator, to translate portuguese to English, which may give some uncertainties about the information received.

Questions or information can easily be misunderstood and information lost due to the language barrier. To avoid any mistakes the questionnaires were given to the translator a couple of days before the interviews, so the questions could be read through and discussed beforehand. To avoid confusion and misunderstandings, certain questions where given examples in the questionnaires that may have affected or steered the answer in a certain direction. Some of the answers received were similar to each other, something that may depend on the translator having to explain the questions further for the interviewees to understand properly.

When asking the Government of Inhaca and the Government of Inhaca’s waste collectors the same questions, a big difference in answers occurred. Especially in questions regarding amount of waste. Because the Government of Inhaca’s waste collectors work with the waste directly, their information was deemed more reliable. Another risk with the interviews is that people being interviewed may have tried to give the answer they think was expected rather than a truthful one.

A total of 17 interviews were conducted and approximately 0.3 percent of the 6098 inhabitants of Inhaca Island where included in the study. Conducting more interviews would have given a

CHAPTER 2. METHODOLOGY

interviews obtained in the available amount of time. To make sure the interviews give a correct picture of the situation on the island, interviews were conducted both in the main village in the Ribjêne area and in the rural area of Nhakene. No interviews occurred in Inguane. An even mix of women and men of different education and ages, ranging between the 17 to approximately 65 years of age, as to not give a biased result.

No literature about SWM on Inhaca Island was found and observations and interviews were necessary to gain information to map the SWM on the island. The observations and interviews were an appropriate way to gain information to cover the aim of the study.

The WHAT model was used as a helping tool to construct the questions for the interviews of the people at Inhaca Island. The information gained from the answers was used to map the solid waste management of the island. The content of the report was made with the help of the WHAT model, where the model consists of important factors that need to be covered before establishing and developing a modern sustainable Waste Management System. The model was easy to follow and to use.

CHAPTER

3

R^ESULTS

3.1 Maputo Municipality: Legal framework, authorities and responsibilities

Maputo is the capital of Mozambique and with its 1.1 million inhabitants it is the biggest city in the country (Tas and Belon, 2014). Maputo municipality consists of Maputo with surrounding areas and Inhaca Island (Hojuane, 2018). The SWM in the district is the responsibility of the Municipality of Maputo. Hazardous waste is the responsibility of the MICOA, Environmental Ministry and Biomedical waste of the Ministry of Health (Stretz, 2012). Within the Municipality, waste management is the responsibility of the Directorate of Hygiene, which is responsible for the execution of collection services, contracting, supervision and disposal site management (Tas and Belon, 2014). Because of its isolated location Inhaca Island has its own local government that handles the local waste management. But since the Government of Inhaca acts under the Municipality of Maputo, they follow the same laws and regulations and any decisions need to be cleared by the Municipality of Maputo. To get a say in decisions regarding Inhaca Island, the island have representatives in the municipal assembly in Maputo (Maducho Hobzane, 2018).

The main legal frameworks on SWM is the Municipal By-law on SWM and a set of operational regulations to support its implementation, which was approved and published in 2008.

The main problems for improving the SWM are both the funding and the poor equipment at hand. The Solid Waste sector of Maputo has been receiving periodic support from different donors. This has mainly been in the form of equipment and training and has led to complications due to expensive maintenance costs and a broad variety of equipment (Stretz, 2012). For Inhaca Island the city trucks cannot be used on the islands sandy roads and special equipment such as

CHAPTER 3. RESULTS

the municipality is the household waste fee, which is collected through the invoicing system of the public energy provider.

Figure 3.1: Roads on Inhaca Island.

In 2008 the Municipality of Maputo approved the SWM Master Plan (Plano Director), which is built upon the strategy for improved service provision and long-term financial sustainability.

This has served as a key instrument in developing the SWM sector in Maputo (Stretz, 2012).

The official Municipal Disposal site is Hulene, located by the Maputo airport. The implemen- tation of a new landfill for Maputo together with Matola was planned for 2012 and is necessary because of the expected growth of population in Maputo. This disposal site is not used by the residents of Inhaca Island, who have their own dumpsite on the island. Maputo city’s total waste production is approximately 1000 tons per day. This gives a waste production per person and day of 1 kg in the inner city and 0.5 kg in suburban areas. In 2012 the collection service cover 82 percent of all the households in Maputo. According to the Municipality about 25 500 tons of waste are deposited in the Hulene dumpsite every month and 120 tons of this is recycled. The majority of the collection services in Maputo city are provided by private companies and differs in execution for the inner city and the suburban areas. In Maputo city, the waste mainly consists of organic waste. In the inner-city plastics and paper/cardboard also make out a big part of the waste composition (Tas and Belon, 2014). See table 3.2 for the composition of municipal solid waste from Maputo.

CHAPTER 3. RESULTS

Cost of Collection

and Disposal (USD/tonne)

Collection 20-50

Sanitary Landfill 10-30 Open Dumping 2-8

Composting 5-30

Waste to Energy Incineration NA Anaerobic Diges-

tion NA

Table 3.1: Composition of MSW from Maputo (weight percent) (Sallwey, Hettiarachchi and Hulsmann, 2017)

In the World Bank’s Urban Development Series Knowledge Papers about SWM worldwide, costs for different disposal methods are estimated, see table 3.1. For low income countries, the costs of different methods are listed in table 2. Low income countries are defined as countries that have a Gross National Income (GNI) per capita below USD 876, a waste generation per capita per year of 0.22 tonnes or less and a collection efficiency of 43 percent or lower (Hoornweg and Bhada-Tata, 2012).

City Suburbs

Organics 68 29

Paper 12 4

Plastic 10 4

Metals 4 1

Glass 2 -

Fine Fraction - 57

Other 4 5

Table 3.2: Cost of collection and disposal in low income countries in percent. (Hoornweg and Bhada-Tata, 2012)

3.2 Inhaca Island and its waste challenges

Inhaca Island is an island of 42 km²situated off the coast of Maputo and is one of the highest densely populated places in southern Mozambique, see figure 3.2 (Albano, 2014). It is located in a transition zone from tropical to warm subtropical climate and on the border between Maputo Bay and the Indian Ocean. The eastern coastline faces the ocean and is characterised by waves, strong currents and steep slopes while the western coastline is more protected. The ecosystems on the island represent most coastal Mozambican habitats in microcosm and contains a rich diversity of both terrestrial and marine ecosystems. This has made the island a popular destination for

CHAPTER 3. RESULTS

protected as a nature reserve (Emanuelsson and Isaksson, 2016). Portuguese Island is a part of Inhaca Island, located nearby the island (Hojuane, 2018).

Figure 3.2: Map of Inhaca Island (Macia Afonso, n.d).

The island is home to 6098 inhabitants but also to a large number of tourists that visits the island (Maducho Hobzane, 2018; Emanuelsson and Isaksson, 2016). Most residents live of artisanal fishing or subsistence farming (Emanuelsson and Isaksson, 2016). Inhaca Islands most exported product is fish and the island imports almost everything from Maputo (Dragon and Taflin, 2015). Inhaca Island is divided into three parts: Nhakene, Ribjêne and Inguane.

In 2017 the population distribution in the three districts was 1502 people in Nhakene, 2117 people in Ribjêne and 2479 people in Inguane, see figure 3.3 (Maducho Hobzane, 2018). The total population was 6098. The island has four primary schools and one secondary school. The roads of Inhaca Island are few and made of sand, making transportation complicated. There are cars but the most common mean of transportation is by foot or by boat (Dragon and Taflin, 2015). Inhaca Island is accessible both by plane and by a 3 hour ferry ride from Maputo.

CHAPTER 3. RESULTS

Figure 3.3: Population distribution on Inhaca Island 2017 (Maducho Hobzane, 2018).

If the unique environment at Inhaca Island is to survive then sustainable use of the natural resources is important. But balancing this with the needs for survival of the people living on the island can be a challenge. Although tourist activities help the island fund activities for sustainable development they also put a strain on the island and its nature (Emanuelsson and Isaksson, 2016).

SWM is one of the challenges identified by The United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development and is an emerging challenge in Mozambican municipalities (The United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development, 2011). Today Inhaca Island faces a series of challenges due to inadequate SWM on the island. The waste is deposited on an open dumpsite, buried or burned around the house yards (Emilio Mosse, 2017). The consequences of the defects in the SWM affects both the inhabitants of Inhaca Island and its biodiversity. It poses direct threats to health from pathogens and indirect damage to health from pollution of the air, of groundwater and the ocean. Lack of sustainable waste management is economically unsustainable and cause expensive problems in public health that could be avoided by a sustainable waste management (United Nations Human Settlements Programme, 2010). The inadequacy, outdatedness and lack of systematisation of information on solid waste in Mozambique constitute a serious problem for broader understanding of the situation of waste (The United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development 2011).

3.3 Waste production

The amount of waste that the Government of Inhaca’s collection services collect and transport to the dumpsite varies per week. This depends on whether it is high or low season for tourists. In low season, January to November, the amount of waste is approximately 4 tons per week. In high

CHAPTER 3. RESULTS

the last 2 years, the amount of waste produced on the island has doubled. From collecting 2 tons per week in 2016, the governments collecting services now collect up to 4 tons of waste per week.

The cause of this increase in waste production is the increase in population on the island and the tourism. The waste produced on the island mainly consists of organic waste such as leaves.

The organic waste rarely consists of leftover food. The leaves are usually not collected by the government collection services but buried or burned around house yards. The waste collected and deposited at the dumpsite mainly consists of plastic bottles, cardboard and metals. There is no data available of the composition of the waste at the dumpsite (Maducho Hobzane, 2018).

Interviews conducted with residents of the island show that the amount of waste produced per family rage from 5-10 kg per day to 70-80 kg per day. In common for every person interviewed is that the waste mainly consists agricultural residue such as leaves that are collected in the relatively large lands and gardens belonging to the families. How much of the waste that is not leaves is unclear. Interviews in the main village in the Ribjêne area shows that about 1 kg out of 30-40 kg is plastic and other materials, excluding the leaves. In the Nhakene community the amount of household waste mainly consists of plastics, excluding the leaves. The amount of used plastic depends on how often the family goes to the main village in the Ribjêne area to shop. One person interviewed said that 5L per day out of their 15L waste per day is other material than leaves (Interview 1, 2018).

3.4 Waste collection

The Government of Inhaca Island employs 10 people for working with waste management at the island. Their working hours are from 6 am to 12 pm every day. Among these 2 are drivers, 7 are collectors of waste and 1 is the manager who organise and make plans for the waste management (Maducho Hobzane, 2018). Their job is to collect the waste from the seven collecting points and from the streets on the island and drive it to the dumpsite. They are also responsible for the treatment of the waste at the dumpsite. The collecting points are located by the beach area, the marketplace, east of market place, the airport, the hospital and in high tourist season, at the lighthouse. Except for the lighthouse all of these collecting points are located in the main village in the Ribjêne area (Maducho Hobzane, 2018; Interview 2, 2018). Some of the collecting points are equipped with containers, approximately 0.5x0.5 m², but mostly the waste is put in 50L bags at the collection points, see figure 3.4.

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Figure 3.4: A collecting point in the main village in Ribjêne area with bags and a container.

Since the island is made of sand and the population is spread out over the 42 km² island, the government do not offer collection services everywhere on the island. Only the 800 people living in the main village in the Ribjêne area are serviced by the Government of Inhaca’s waste collectors. The people living outside the main community either treat their own waste or put it in bags along the road closer to the collection points for the government collecting service to pick up (Maducho Hobzane, 2018). The Government of Inhaca collection services collects waste from approximately 13 percent of the population, see figure 3.5.

Figure 3.5: The percentage of population covered by the government collection services (Maducho Hobzane, 2018).

To collect waste the government uses a tractor to drive on the sandy roads. This tractor regularly needs to be sent on the ferry to Maputo for repair services. A big problem are the

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the tractor is broken for a longer period of time a replacement tractor is rented for collection purposes (Hojuane, 2018).

Since 28 percent of Inhaca Island is a nature reserve, the Marine Biology Station belonging to the University of Eduardo Mondlane is active in keeping the area clean (Emanuelsson and Isaksson, 2016). The Biology Station’s mission is to protect the environment of Inhaca Island as well as the people in the community. Therefore the Biology Station runs 3 waste collection points around the island and Portuguese island. The 3 collection points are located at major tourist destinations in the conserved areas. These are the lighthouse, Ponta Torres and Portuguese island. The points are equipped with containers for waste and have two rangers stationed every week to among other duties make sure to keep the areas clean from waste. Every Monday and Thursday the waste is collected into bags and driven by boat or car to the Biology Station, where it is gathered and taken to the dumpsite by the rangers (Hojuane, 2018).

3.5 Waste treatment and final disposal

The waste on the island is either buried or burned around house yards or transported to an semi-controlled dump site, see figure 3.6 (Maducho Hobzane, 2018; Informant 1, 2018). The dump site has been in use for the last 30 years, since the growing tourist business at the island resulted in an increased waste production. The area lacks equipment such as a weigh-bridge, compactor or a fence which results in easy accesses of the area for unauthorised civilians. The waste is disposed of directly onto soil with no protection for the environment. This causes the breeding of mosquitoes and cockroaches, and draws cats and birds to the area. The depth of the waste at the dumpsite is 5 meters and the size of the area is approximately 100 m²(Maducho Hobzane, 2018).

There is personnel at the area on and off every morning between 6 to 12 o’clock but after that the area is left unsupervised. The dumpsite is located close to the main village in the Ribjêne area, 50-100 meters from a school and 200 meters from the ocean (Maducho Hobzane, 2018; Informant 2, 2018).

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Figure 3.6: The dumpsite on Inhaca Island.

At the dumpsite the waste is compressed by driving tractor on top of the waste to flatten it.

As a way of treatment, the waste is burned at the spot with no additional safety measures. This is usually done at least 10 times a year, but because of the rain, burning has not been possible for the last 5 months. Sometimes the bottom layer of the waste at the dumpsite is still wet which prevents part of the waste from being burned with the rest of the waste. The ashes are then compressed by the tractor and left under a new pile of waste (Informant 2, 2018).

A big part of the produced waste is not taken to the dumpsite. The leaves that are collected by the families are usually, burned, buried or used as fertiliser for crops. From the participants of the interviews, 7 people lives in the Ribjêne community with access to the government collecting services. Out of these, only 3 people expressed that they put some or all of their waste out for the government collecting services to collect. The other 4 people dig a hole in their backyard and burn all of their waste there. Since the people living in the Nhakene are do not have access to the government collecting services, they treat all of their waste themselves. While all of the parties interviewed answered that they dig a hole to burn their waste in, one answered that they only burn paper and leaves and bury plastics separately (Informant 1, 2018).

3.6 Sorting and recycling - informal recycling

The waste that the collectors bring to the dumpsite is dumped in the area unsorted. This means that materials such as plastic, metals, cardboards and leaves are mixed together unorganised.

No material is officially recycled (Maducho Hobzane, 2018; Informant 2, 2018).

The lack of containing equipment such as a fence, results in easy accesses of the area for unauthorised civilians. Waste pickers take materials such as plastic bottles, cans and metals from the dumpsite to reuse them in their homes. An informal market has for metals has grown in

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Maputo to sell the there. (Maducho Hobzane, 2018; Informant 2, 2018). Approximately 5 percent of the waste from the dumpsite is reused. A flowchart of the SWM on Inhaca island can be seen in figure 3.7. According to the Government of Inhaca, reuse and selling of materials from the dumpsite is positive because it contributes to the recycling of waste on the island. Although the Government of Inhaca does see a problem with this informal market, as the waste pickers visit the dumpsite without any supervision, knowledge of risks or safety equipment. As the dumpsite is located near a school, students sometimes go to the area to play and take some of the materials (Maducho Hobzane, 2018).

Out of the participants of the interviews, 3 out of 11 answered yes when asked if they sort their waste. These 3 people sort their plastic from other waste, 2 to take it to the dumpsite and 1 to reuse plastic bottles as containers for products sold at the market. 5 out of 11 people answered that they reuse plastic bottles or metal cans. Out of these 5 people, 3 of them lives in the Nhakene area. The main use for these products are as cups at village parties or food containers at the marketplace in the main village in the Ribjêne area (Informant 1, 2018).

Figure 3.7: Flowchart of the SWM on Inhaca Island.

3.7 Environment and public health

Since the dumpsite is located in a residential area near a school and has no fence, concerns about the health of unauthorised waste pickers and kids entering the dumpsite has been expressed by the residents of the Island. Furthermore, the smoke from burning the waste openly at the dumpsite sometimes surrounds the main village, making it unpleasant to live and work in the area. There have been no studies on air pollution by fumes, odours and potentially toxic particles coming from the dumpsite. There is also a high risk of soil and groundwater pollution since the dumpsite is located directly at the soil with no measures taken for its protection (Tas and Belon, 2014). The location being so close to the ocean also makes it possible for runoff water with

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chemicals from the dumpsite to reach the ocean during the rainy season. Even though protective clothing, gloves, masks and boots are used by the waste collectors, heavy lifting and a dangerous environment, places them in the risk zone (Maducho Hobzane, 2018).

Since parts of Inhaca Island is a conservation area the Marine Biology Station have put up a sign about not littering in these areas and dumping oil in the waters around the island. Even though they work on informing people about the importance of keeping the island clean there are still waste to be found along the streets and beaches of the island. One big problem is the waste that floats ashore on the beaches on the side of the island facing the Indian Ocean.

Even though the rangers working on the island work hard to keep the beaches clean the waste is a threat to the biodiversity of the ocean. Turtles and fish get stuck in plastic that is thrown in the sea and algae is negatively affected by the pollution (Hojuane, 2018).

When asked if they find a lot of waste on the streets, forest or in the ocean, all participants in the interviews from the Nhakene and Ribjêne communities answered yes. Most of the participants thought most of the uncollected waste ended up in the streets in the communities. There were several different explanations to why this is. One reason given is that some people do not understand the importance of collecting their waste into bags that can be collected by the government collecting services. Another explanation is that waste sometimes falls off the tractor that is used to collect it in the Ribjêne area. In the Nhakene area the problem is that no one collects the waste since the government collecting service do not operate in the area (Informant 1, 2018). According to Queri Hojuane who lives in the area, the government sometimes hires people to collect waste in the common areas of Nhakene but usually people just clean on their own properties (Hojuane, 2018). A few participants of the interviews answered that they do find a lot if waste in the forest or in the ocean. The reason for this might have to do with the fact that a lot of waste floats ashore at the beaches (Informant 1, 2018). According to Queri Hojuane, some of this waste comes from ships going through the Mozambique channel who dump their waste in the ocean (Hojuane, 2018). The waste found in the forest is, according to one interview, often found in places where no one lives. This is, for the same reason as there is a lot of waste in the common areas of the communities, because of the fact no one is responsible for keeping the area clean (Informant 1, 2018).

3.8 Public awareness

A total of 11 interviews were conducted with the local people on the island to gather information about the public awareness of waste management. Out of the participants, 7 people lived in the main village in the Ribjêne area and 4 lived in the Nhakene area. All the people being interviewed thought it was important to collect waste. The reasons stated was that turtles and fish can be wounded by plastic bags, metals and other materials found in the ocean. Furthermore, it is important to separate plastic from leaves, so that the leaves can be used as a fertiliser for crops.

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Another reason commonly mentioned is that it is not nice to live in a society where garbage is found along the streets. Every participant of the interviews mentioned that waste management can prevent cockroaches, fleas and mosquitos which can be a vector for different diseases such as malaria.

The participants of the interviews also explained that plastic bottles can hurt the biodiversity of the ocean for example because fishes eat the plastic or get stuck in plastic bottles. Waste found at beaches is a danger to people walking there, who can cut their feet on the glass and plastic and pieces laying around. Also mentioned was that it takes up to 50 years for the plastic to decompose, which is not good for the environment. 3 of the 11 people being interviewed answered that they did not know what happens to a plastic bottle when you throw it in the nature.

The answers given where mainly focused on social aspects, such as health and the effects waste might have on animals, and just a bit on the environmental aspects. One of the persons being interviewed mentioned that not everyone understands the importance of the collection of waste, which causes waste to be being found on streets in the communities (Informant 1, 2018).

To get insight in the knowledge and awareness of young people still going to school, 2 interviews were conducted. One with Atanacia Nhaca and one with Pzorio De Brito Louis Nhaca, both 17 years old. They both thought that is important to collect waste and where well informed on why it is important. They also both knew about the health dangers of visiting the dumpsite that is located right across the street from the school. Although they both said that no one informed them about this and that they still visit the dumpsite from time to time, mainly to collect cans to use as glasses for parties. They both knew about recycling but only one of them answered that they reused plastic bottles at home. Furthermore, when asked about what they learn about waste management in school, one answered that they were not taught anything about it and the other that they had had one class on the subject previous year (Nhaca and Pzorio De Brito Nhaca, 2018).

3.9 Financing

Every month the Government of Inhaca puts about USD 2020 into the collection of waste.

USD 1043 of this money goes towards salary for the people working with waste management.

Transport and repair costs the government about USD 1010 per month. Fuel for the tractor costs an additional USD 148 per month (Maducho Hobzane, 2018).

To fund the waste management sector in Maputo the Maputo Municipality collect a household waste fee through the public energy provider EDM (Electricidade de Moçambique) (Stretz, 2012).

All household connected to the new electricity system in Maputo Municipality, including Inhaca Island, pay this fee (Hojuane, 2018). The amount paid depends on the energy consumption, se table 2. The collected fee goes to public cleansing and collecting services of waste. The linking of household waste fee and energy consumption contributes to a payment rate of more than 80

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percent. Though this has proven a successful way of collecting fees, it is not thought of as a long term solution. The latest discussion indicate that this fee will not be a long term source for financing the waste management in the Maputo Municipality and revenues such as taxes to support the waste management is discussed as a replacement. The waste fee for non-household waste works basically along the same lines as the fee for household waste. The fee is collected through the same EDM system (Stretz, 2012).

Large-scale producers have extra obligations for their waste management and production with a system called Proof of Service, which register the non-household waste producers. If a waste producer produces more than 25 kg or 50 liters of waste per day, they are not allowed to use the public waste collection system put in place by CMM (Maputo City Council). These large scaled producers need to make contact with a private operator to remove their waste and pay an additionally fee that fee increases with the amount of waste produced. Large scaled producers take care of their own waste treatment independently with supervision of the Ministry of health.

In 2011 the scale of non-household waste producers was estimated to 10 000 with only 2000 registered in the system. 500 large scaled producers contribute to an average of 14 000 USD per month (Stretz, 2012). There are no large scaled producers on Inhaca Island, which means that the Proof of Service is not in use on the island (Maducho Hobzane, 2018).

The disposal sites are charging private providers or individuals a fee of 3 USD/ton waste. The licensed provider uses the weighbridge on the area to weight the amount of waste from the truck and receive a monthly invoice for their disposed quantities. Individuals pay their fee directly.

Illegal disposal occurs in formal disposal sites or in the containers of the CMM. To minimise these activities the Solid Waste Department have people working with controlling this in different areas. Service providers have at several occurrences had to pay fines or lost their license due to such activities (Stretz, 2012) There is no personnel on the dumpsite area on Inhaca Island that weights the amount of individuals waste, which means that people on the island do not pay this fee. The waste management at Inhaca Island is run by the Government of Inhaca and has no contracts with private companies or service providers (Maducho Hobzane, 2018).

3.10 System goals for Waste Management

The future of waste management on Inhaca Island is uncertain. The Government of Inhaca have a plan for the development of the waste management sector on Inhaca Island but not the funds to implement it. For collecting the waste they would like more containers to put the waste in at the collecting points so that they can sort their waste. Another goal is to introduce a better system for treatment of the waste. Firstly, they wish to move the dumpsite to a more suitable location, away from the school and village area. Secondly, they want to put cement under the dumpsite to protect the soil from pollution and leachate from the dumpsite to reach the open and groundwater.

As of now all of these changes are dream scenarios that cannot be implemented due to lack of

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funding. Furthermore, the Government of Inhaca expressed the unwillingness to upgrade the existing dumpsite since the goal is to move it to another location (Maducho Hobzane, 2018).

CHAPTER

4

D^ISCUSSION: W^ASTE T^REATMENT O^{PTIONS AND} OPPORTUNITIES AT I^NHACA I^SLAND

T

Furthermore the treatment of waste and the location of the dumpsite is a problem. Open burning and no environmental protection on the dumpsite contributes to environmental issues which in turn poorly affects the population health. Especially since the dumpsite is located right by the main village next to a school. But not all improvements need to be technical solutions. Getting information out to the people concerned by the islands waste management and especially to the people making a living out of informal waste picking is also important. The main concern for improving the SWM on Inhaca Island is the financial aspect. Until this problem can be solved the main improvements need to be cost free or of a low financial cost to the people and the government.

4.1 Relationships and responsibilities

A closer relationship and communication between the Government of Inhaca and the Government of Inhaca’s waste collectors is an important factor for a successful SWM. During the collection of information to this report there was a big difference in the information that was received regarding the amount of waste. Because the Government of Inhaca’s waste collectors work with