The implementation of development technologies and the future of drones: The way forward with sustainable technological solutions through a focus on drones and the SDGs

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The implementation of

development technologies and the future of drones

The way forward with sustainable technological solutions through a focus on drones and the SDGs

Bachelor thesis in Peace and Development

Author: Jonathan Cotte Supervisor: Christopher High Examiner: Heiko Fritz Term: HT20

Subject: Peace and Development Level: Undergraduate

Course code: 2FU33E

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Abstract

The chase for technological advancements is a train which the whole world wants to catch in order to streamline and expand on the current systems found within each respective society. New technological solutions are constantly being invented and re- invented for the purpose of accommodating to new development strategies. But much of the systems being introduced in the development sector are not well known by the general public, and examples of practical solutions and the importance of local

adaptation are often left behind promises of prosperity and revenue. To understand how to implement localized technological solutions is through this paper realized to be one of the first steppingstones that will lay the foundation for development. Drones have become a worldwide sensation, known for its versatile and adaptable nature and now being introduced in even more areas never thought of before. By being involved with healthcare, security, agriculture, transport, military, observation and humanitarian assistance have made drones a lucrative solution that many seek to incorporate.

This thesis explores some of the applications listed above through a structured focus comparison of case studies in order to expand the knowledge about drones as a sustainable development solution, while also exploring the importance and challenges in the implementation of similar solutions. By using the Technology Justice framework, we will be able to understand how the solutions can be sustainable and acquire

longevity in development projects when used as a solution to reach development. We can see the importance of the local context and how the lack of it can cause the projects to collapse even before they begin.

Let us embark on a journey taking us through the present day of technological solutions and the implementation of them to understand how to make them right.

Keywords: Sustainable Development Goals, Drones, Technology, Implementation, Local inclusion

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List of figures

Figure 1 Project team sharing printed maps p. 30

Figure 2 The delivery experience p. 34

List of tables

Table 1 Technology Justice framework p. 15

Table 2 Technology Justice framework comparison p. 44

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Acknowledgements

I want to start off by thanking my supervisor and my classmates for being an invaluable help in times of need. I know that you are burden with your own work and affairs, but I appreciate the time you still gave into my constant chatter. You made this process not only possible, but also more enjoyable.

I want to show my gratitude towards my family for giving me insight and discussion, oftentimes without being asked to.

And lastly I would like to extend a special appreciation to my partner for your infinite love and significant wisdom. You are my one in a million.

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1 Introduction

“We want to build a body of evidence and knowledge, highlighting the barriers and opportunities to achieving Technology Justice. With this evidence, we can build a groundswell of understanding, rage and urgency to create change. […]

Let’s highlight and share stories of success. Where is technology being adapted, adopted and innovated by and for local communities to meet their basic needs?”

Practical Action: A Call to Action. p. 29

We live in a time and space where knowledge can be seen as power, and by sharing it and educate each other we can all relish it. In a global environment, intertwined with digital and technological innovation, it is important that we all move towards the same goal for sustainable development. The need to dedicated resource and research to find solutions for both developed and developing countries in order to support the

development process is a constant commitment, and something that the academic world must continue to contribute to. It is not always easy to help others develop, and it is not always without a cost, but it is and has always been the right way forward.

With a strive to constantly adopt new and more effective solutions, technology takes an even bigger part in today’s development. New solutions such as drones are a great example of how you can incorporate technology in many different sectors in society with positive outcomes. As climate change and pandemics such as Tuberculosis and Covid-19 are a pressing threat, the need and demand for new effective technological solutions are in constant demand. Right now, drones can be found in disaster

management and screening, humanitarian relief, environmental impact assessment and medical logistics only to name a few. To understand and map the benefits of drones are

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2 what this thesis can lay the groundwork for, and to explore the potential is a necessary

first step before many projects even can take place (Sylvester, G, 2018, pp. 1-2).

There are other examples of research that have accomplished remarkable difference in the way we live and see things. For example, the work that Kabir and Chowdhury did with their research of arsenic removal methods for drinking water in the developing countries (2017). Arsenic-contaminated drinking water has caused different kinds of skin lesions and could in Bangladesh alone lead to over 200,000 deaths of cancer as a result of arsenic poisoning, making it a severe problem that needs more attention (p.

24102). Kabir and Chowdhury did not only press on the need for more research in the field, but also on the need for more involvement of technological developments that are cheaper and easier to use for the local population. With their research, they helped create the current methods in use and contribute to how we can move forward to face similar problems (Kabir and Chowdhury, 2017). This is an example of research that focused on development, mapping out strategies and the wellbeing of people, whose primary focus was not on profit. This is the type of research that this thesis attempts to fit in with.

1.1 Relevance and purpose of the study

In an ever-evolving world with a constantly developing nature, we as humans are constantly looking to develop and further improve ourselves while also moving forward. The Sustainable Development Goals have been created in order to guide sectors like healthcare, education, security and economic growth to advance

themselves; in rural as well as urban areas. The goal to decrease the gap between the global north and global south is in constant motion where advancements and

streamlining of developing methods are produced and tested. This is important so we can unlock every societies potential to grow and sustain itself in the future. Will it

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3 possible to reach sustainable development through the use of technological innovations, and if so, what could they look like?

With technological innovations such as the World Wide Web, artificial intelligence and fiber optics, methods of reaching development are getting smarter and easier to achieve when in the right hands. Innovations involving unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) have increased during the last decade and been proven useful in the many developing

scenarios mentioned earlier (Sylvester, 2018, p. v). With the right knowledge, and with the right engagement of the local actors, the chances for sustainable development is shining.

The purpose of this thesis is therefor to expand the current knowledge bank on

technological sustainable development solutions. Since the topic is studied and interpret by many researchers, the thesis will go more in detail on a specific practical

development solution, drones, and how they can amplify growth and provide assistance in different sectors of society. It is the purpose of this thesis to uncover the potential for this relatively new technological innovation and show with practical examples how it can be incorporated and adapted in a local context. By doing this we not only show a new alternative method to sustainable development in sectors not thought of before, but also prove that local projects with new technical solutions can stand as a proud example for not only developing countries, but the whole world, of how to implement local sustainable solutions to improve the quality of earth and life itself.

1.2 Research Problem

The year 2015 stands as the creation of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), and now in 2020 we, the global community connected through the UN, have about two thirds of the time left to try and achieve what we in 2015 set out to do. Although we have made progress, we are still lacking behind in many sectors and reports show that

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4 some areas have even experienced reversed progress (UN DESA, 2019). Paired with

the ongoing Covid-19 pandemic that broke out in 2019, the need for resources and help is greater than ever. The need for new emerging development societies to be self- sufficient should be a priority, and local solutions need local incorporation in order to be prosperous in the long run (Cummings et al., 2018, pp. 729-730). Much of the current literature surrounding the technological development strategies seems to lack this perspective about inclusion and practical solutions, while focusing more on what could be seen as abstract solutions with a one-fit-all approach. Profit and returns can hinder the focus of local knowledge transfers in many projects and funds can

sometimes be hard to acquire if not profit is a top priority. This can cripple the development of local solutions and especially self-sustained solutions which is desperately needed in order for these societies to take over after the project managers are leaving (Practical Action, 2016, p. 11).

One of the biggest problems with much of today’s literature is that the actual solutions does not reach local levels and are not adapted for local operation. There is a gap in the connection from the Sustainable Development Goals to practical solutions that have been proven useful in local contexts, or at the very least show potential. The usage for drones has been covered to some extent in attempts to contribute to this topic by mapping their usefulness in some sectors, but research on how they actually can help a country or society in the larger context while also fulfilling the SDGs are still in need for more investigation. Imaz and Sheinbaum (2017) expressed the need for extended research in the journal “Science and technology in the framework of the sustainable development goals” with the following explanation:

“Further research on the different approaches, methodologies for specific countries and regions on the need to develop new science for sustainability in an integrate vision to achieve SDGs needs to be developed”

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5 Imaz and Sheinbaum, 2017, p. 13.

It is no secret that most of the literature surrounding technological development strategies lack the propositions for practical and probable solutions with examples that can help countries to advance their progress towards the SDGs. Much of the literature can point to what is wrong, what should be done but rarely how it could be done. This thesis aims to underline the latter with practical examples.

1.3 Objective and research questions

The objective of this thesis is to map out the use and methods of technological

development innovations in developing countries. The objective is also to give example of a technical innovation, drones, and how they can be used for sustainable

development. This will be done by connecting them to the SDGs. Lastly, to check whether or not the solution provided is sustainable, I will apply the Technology Justice framework which focuses on sustainable development solutions with attention to local inclusion. The questions are:

(1) What are the benefits of locally adjusted solutions for sustainable technology development, and what might the challenges be?

(2) What are the capacity for drones in meeting the sustainable development goals?

(3) Can drones be a sustainable solution for development when analysed through a Technology justice framework?

1.4 Structure of the thesis

The first chapter of the thesis outlines the scope and why it is an important topic to expand the knowledge on. The second chapter focuses on previous research within the area meant to expand the readers knowledge while the third chapter includes the

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6 analytical framework describing the different tools that will be used. Chapter four

includes the methods used while doing this thesis, including discussion about ethical considerations and how we selected the SDGs that we have used. This chapter will also include an explanation of the limitations and delimitations and the different targets we looked at when deciding what SDGs to use.

In the following chapter five the thesis starts to explore the first half of the findings, explaining what the field looks like and what kind of challenges there might be.

Afterwards in chapter six I will show the second half of the findings with case studies regarding how drones can contribute in developing projects and with some examples of where in the world they are being used. The analysis will take place in chapter seven with the help of the chosen theories and framework. In chapter eight there is a conclusion of the thesis with some finishing words and lastly chapter nine contains references.

2 Review of related literature

While researching for this thesis I have divided the literature in three subjects;

technological sustainable development; UAV (drones) technology connected with the SDGs and lastly; different perspectives within the field, such as Technology Justice. It was my intention to try and vary the literature and opinions being discussed to both include different takes on the areas as to broaden the understanding and viewpoint.

I decided to divide the literature review into three sections as to simplify the relevance and navigation between the subjects for the reader.

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2.1 A Critique

The SDGs were created in 2015 as a mean to “end poverty and set the world on a path of peace, prosperity and opportunity for all on a healthy plane” (UN, 2020, p. 2.

However, this does not come easy and there are several critiques of the SDGs, one of them are coming from Cummings et al. (2018) which argues that the vision created by the SDGs and the suggested implementations is a “mix match”. The authors imply that the implementation of the SDG excludes incorporation with local actors and

knowledge, and instead foster the ideas of “learning societies” and “lifelong education for all” (Cummings et al., 2018, pp. 729-730). The authors include the following citation in their discussion:

“If one accepts that development needs to be based on local development, almost completely ignoring local knowledge and local development in the SDGs undermines the transformative agenda.”

Cummings et al., 2018, p. 738

This citation points out the authors worry about SDG implementation and the lack of local involvement that the SDGs can imply, and that the new technological solutions needs to be inclusive to the local community if they are to be successful.

Practical Action (2016) also points out that in many cases, new technological local innovations exists; examples including technologies to manage pest and disease control and improve productivity, but the information and technologies are not available for those in actual need. Government extensions and financial support from international donors often focus on projects showing most promise in revenue and not the project in actual need for the local community. This results in lacking technical knowledge that drastically could improve the livelihoods for rural societies (Practical Action, 2016, p.

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8 11). Practical Action argues that progress should not be enticed by profit or progress

solely by itself, but rather with an approach to transformative knowledge and technologies implemented on a local level (Ibid, p. 26).

In conclusion, the general discussion is often focused on new technological solutions that can be adapted to help speed up the progress towards the SDGs. The responding critique to this is mainly surrounding the implementation and inclusion of the local community of said solutions where they want to assure that new technological solutions can work in local environments.

2.2 Technological Sustainable development

The field of technology within sustainable development is broad and well-studied, with many different opinions and perspectives on how to view it. I have in this part of the literature review devoted a focus on reviewed literature that include or follow the same principles as the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) to try and find a common theme among the sea of information out there.

The road to sustainable development can be shaped in very different ways all

depending on the circumstances including geographical location, economic wellbeing and international involvement. The UN describe that the incorporation of digital and technological solutions is more important now than ever. The SDG 2019 report highlights that in order to reach the 17 SDGs, there will need to be a larger focus on

“harnessing science, technology and innovation with a greater focus on digital transformation” (UN, 2019, p. 2). More effective and environmentally friendly

solutions on a global level is needed and cooperation between countries are essential to the success of achieving sustainable development (Ibid, p. 3). Practical Action

underlines the need for technological intervention in the global development approaches in their report Technology Justice: A Call to Action (2016). Common practices such as food production, water collection and energy usage can be made more

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9 efficient with the use and access to relatively simple technology, yet many societies are

failing to acquire it (Practical Action, 2016, p. 5).

There are more examples of literature highlighting the importance and advantages of exploring how technology can advance sustainable development. Midilli et al. (2006) points out that the most essential to technological sustainable development is green energy, and in order to acquire and use low priced green energy resources and technologies there needs to be policies and strategies that prioritize this. The use of low-cost green energy sources is according to the authors important for three major reasons: it causes less environmental impact, cannot be depleted and favour local solutions (Midilli et al., 2006, p. 3624). Another literature is from Hanson et al. (2017) that focuses on sustainable development goals progress in Africa in the book From Millennium Development Goals to Sustainable Development Goals: Rethinking African Development. They stress the importance of connecting modern technology and

sustainable solutions in order for many African countries to make progress on the goals and to combat climate change (Hanson et al., 2017, pp. 3, 7).

2.3 The potential of drones in achieving SDG

The phenomenon regarding drones (UAVs) have been growing in research during the recent decade and research have been done in both developed countries (for example Frankelius et al., 2017; Freeman and Freeland, 2015; Tripicchio et al., 2015) and developing countries (for example Betschart. S. 2019; S.J. Kim et al., 2017). This literature is mostly not a direct link to the SDGs but rather describes drones more as a general development strategy in some instances. The literature that do connect

technology, drones and SDGs are more dedicated to technology as a whole and does not talk about drones in greater detail but rather use them as a brief example of a

potential technical solution. Some of that literature brings up different fields that drones can be used in, and the application ranges from sectors such as healthcare (Kim et al.,

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10 2017), agriculture (Frankelius et al., 2017) as well as security and surveillance (Chang

et al., 2017), but the general SDG focus is missing from these authors.

One research that creates an overviewing link between the SDG and drones is the short (five pages) economic paper written by Haula Kitonsa and Sergey V. Kruglikov (2018).

In the paper, they summarize the significance that drones bring, some of which can help the SDGs. The papers bring up a few selected goals and underline with a few real time applications for drones that possible could help, for example as delivery service provider, but the paper mainly focuses on the significance of drones themselves without connecting them to the goals (Kitonsa and Kruglikov, 2018, p. 117). The paper also fails to consider development on local level, and only advice on solutions done on a larger scale (Ibid, pp. 116-117). Although the paper includes some risk analysis about the usage of drones, it is not focused on local communities but rather on larger legal problems which includes infringe on airspace and more the general misuse of drones that could occur. The authors conclude the paper underlining the potential for drones while stating that the efficient use of drones is being impeded by legal regulations (Ibid, p. 118).

The implementation of drones has through this research provided a foundation in how it can help and provide assistance in reaching certain levels of developments. What is absent in the majority of the literature is how these solutions can give societies, and in turn countries, direct help in reaching the developing goals appointed but the UN. As explained earlier, most literature use drones as an example of solution and does not included dimension such as local and government involvement, funding and access to the solutions.

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3 Analytical Framework

In the analytic part of the thesis some theories will be used in order to explain and go into more detail about the general consensus about new technology applications. In order to do this, I will use two different theories: Technology Transfer Theory and Adoption Curve. At first glance the two concepts might sound alike, but I believe that they both can contribute to demonstrate different layers of the process of technology application. I will combine the use of these two theories with a Technology Justice framework to illustrate the findings and discuss the results.

3.1 Technology Transfer Theory

The overarching theory of Technology Transfer can briefly be described as a model to describe as well as to understand the Western world’s knowledge and technology transfers activities that unfortunately many times lead to disintegration and damages on the local communities. Wideman et al. described the basis of the theory and how it works in their 1988 article called Technology transfer: Theory and outline of a research model for managing cultural change (Wideman et al., 1988, p. 88).

According to them, it is important to not only define Technology Transfer as the allocation of technology from one place to another, often from western nations to developing countries. They are suggesting that in order to understand the process of the transfer of technology in greater detail it is important to understand that the process also include the introduction of new ideas, structures, social hierarchies, cultural transformation and new ways of thinking to the new subjected area. This is a

multidimensional change that Widman et al describes as a “form of social action” (Ibid.

pp. 92-93). The authors also point out that the technological solutions by themselves often can make little sense, and it is first in the context of the specific environment that they are starting to take form. This social and cultural fit of the technological solutions and knowledge transfer methods are what is missing when planning and executing

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12 these projects, with a large focus on Western projects performed in developing

countries (Ibid. p. 94).

With the use of this theory I believe we can open up the perspective for

multidisciplinary thinking about technology transfer. I believe it is important to understand why some solutions are successful and others not by going beyond the shallow look on only the technology itself and instead going deeper in understanding the local context and consensus.

3.2 Technology Adoption Life Cycle Model

The Technology Adoption Life Cycle Model (TALCM) will be a complementary model which can help to understand why technology transfer is the way it is and how drones are becoming a more widespread use of technology. The concept of TALCM was introduced by Moore in Crossing the Chasm (1991) and Inside the tornado (1995) where he writes that it is to be a model for “understanding the acceptances of new products” (Moore, 1991, pp. 11-12), but it is important to note that different

interpretations of the concept of technology adaptation and adaption curves have been used earlier than this. Through the TALCM you can divide groups into different categories ranging from innovators, early adaptors, early majority, late majority and laggards. These are described by Moore in Crossing the Chasm (1991) as the following:

Innovators – People (or communities) that pursues technology more actively often before said technology has become widespread and accepted in a bigger context.

Technology for the Innovators is often a central aspect of everyday life.

Early adaptors – Similar to the Innovators in that they often times invest and acquire products relatively early but separate themselves by not being technology enthusiasts.

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13 The interest often arises when they understand the value or can see the potential in said

technology.

Early majority – The groups that fall into this category often wait and see how new technology is used and received before investing and bases their choices on well- established references so they can be sure that the technology is useful.

Late majority – Similar to the early majority group except the late majority want to wait even further so the “new” technology becomes a standard, so other professionals can help them with understanding and applying the new technology.

Laggards – These people as a general rule do not want to invest in the technology other than times where the tech is deeply rooted in something that they actually need to use.

Throughout the thesis, we will notice communities, governments, and people who we can identify through the different definitions of “adaptors”. We will understand how these groups think and maybe even why their attitude towards drones, and maybe technology in general, is the way it is. The two theories complement each other where as the TALCM helps with categories the different types of innovators and the

technology transfer can gives us an explanation to why they are that way. As a addition, the Technology Justice framework, which we will describe next, can make a visual picture of how the progress actually are turning out to be, and help us understand if the chosen strategy are working.

3.3 Technology Justice framework

The concept of fair and equal technology in development is not something new, and has been advocated for significantly more during the 21th century since the technological advancements are constantly growing (see examples of A Elnaggar, 2008: Towards gender equal access to ICT and N Browne 1991: Science and technology in the early

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14 years: An equal opportunities approach). First to use the term Technology Justice in

the current context was the former CEO of Practical Action, Simon Trace, in an article talking about the subject (Mashable.com, 2012).

However, as a framework, Technology Justice was put forward by Practical Action in their 2015 report Introducing Technology Justice: A new paradigm for the SDGs where they address the current approach to modern development strategies, how to improve them and what to do next. The guiding principles of Technology Justice is a set of key considerations when preparing and conducting rural development in the areas of access, innovation and use of technology. The goal of the framework is to be a guide in

achieving sustainable development where technological innovation can be accessible and used by everyone (Meikle and Sugden, 2015, p. 2). The paradigm is especially focused on the SDGs and the implementation methods, since there are urgent injustices that needs to be addressed, with examples being innovation ignoring the poor,

unsustainable use of technology and inequitable access to existing technology (Ibid. p.

4-6). The framework is used in the book Technology for Climate Justice (2019) by Homberg and McQuistan when discussing different frameworks to map climate justice.

In addition to the three previously mentioned areas, Homberg and McQuistan adds two more; governance and finance. The framework thus looks as follows:

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15 Table 1

Technology Justice Framework

Technology justice component

Description

Access Equitable access to services

Equitable access to technology and knowledge Use Technology use can have a negative impact on future

generations and a negative impact on certain groups in society, while beneficial to others. Sustainable, intergenerational use should be promoted and enabled

Technological innovation and implementation

Considerable untapped potential in implementing and developing technology to push the limits of what can be managed and absorbed by the poor and vulnerable.

Unfortunately, technological development and innovation are focused on creating new markets or exploiting existing markets for those who can afford to pay. Investments therefore focus on high tech technologies. Ideally, innovation and implementation of technologies is driven by the most pressing social and environmental challenges and with the equitable involvement of the poor and vulnerable

Governance Governance should enable access to the technology and knowledge that is required, promote the use of inclusive technologies and curb those that adversely affect the environment

Finance Adequate and well targeted finance from different sources funds technology access, use, innovation and governance prioritised to respond to the critical loss and damage challenges Note: Framework used from Technology for Climate Justice (2019, p. 518) by Homberg and McQuistan.

The thesis will be using the framework as described by Homberg and McQuistan, meaning that governance and finance will be taken account for. The use of the

framework will be used on the implementation of drones, both practical examples and proposed solutions, to see if they can accomplish the criteria put forward in the

framework but also in relation to the SDGs.

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4 Methodology

The following chapter will explain what approach and reasoning that has been done towards the research and a section concerning ethical considerations. A larger party of the chapter will be dedicated towards the SDGs, how they were selected and what targets I based the selection on SDGs on. The reasoning is important in order to understand the outline of the thesis and why just a few of the SDGs were chosen.

4.1 Research approach and reasoning

The thesis is conducted as a desk study, which means that the primary source of information is gathered and conducted by other researchers through qualitative and quantitative method. Since the field of sustainable technological solutions is broad and the information regarding drones and their specific uses can vary in quality and

quantity, the information used in the thesis will consist of peer-reviewed literature, field reports and YouTube clips. This is to gain a variety of information from different perspectives on the subject.

The first part of the thesis will follow a more traditional desk study approach, whereas the second part describing more in depths about examples of drone usage will be using a multiple-case studies with a structured, focused comparison design. The reason for the approach is because it will bring both “structure” and “focus” when examining the same question on multiple dimensions of society (drone impact on SDG progress).

Structured in the sense of the same questions will be investigated at each individual case and sector, to determine the impact made from drones and hence explore the research objective, and focused because it will look at the different cases only trying to investigate this particular area, dealing only with the relevant aspect of the case in relation to the research objective (George and Bennett, 2005, pp. 97, 99-100).

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17 Looking at a multiple case study is preferred when trying to understand a phenomenon

because it (a) improves theory building & understanding and (b) have a larger set of cases to draw conclusion from which improves the understanding (Bryman, 2016, p.

67). This will yield better results with the research objective in order to see the nature of the relationship between the SDGs. Qualitative method often has theoretical

interpretations which emerge from the collected results and information, which will be the case in this thesis where the theory is something that will help “translate” the information rather than trying to prove the theory. Since the thesis will have an

analytical framework with an abductive approach using mostly using qualitative data, a qualitative desk study method combined with the structured, focused comparison approach is the most appropriated method and will therefore be used (Ibid, 2016, p.

381). To a lesser extent, incorporation of quantitative literature has also occurred since information referring to quantitative collected datasets have been used to some extent.

Since the thesis will take a departure from abductive reasoning and an analytical framework, a critical realism view will be present throughout the research. By

conducting this research, we are investigating the “observable” world where we can see actions and what result they have. It is only by doing this that we can try and explain the “real” world, often ridden by invisible structures and rules, and understand why actions and results coming from the “observable” world might and can occur (Danermark, 2002, pp. 88-91).

4.2 The selection of the SDGs

In order to keep the section regarding the use of drones and SDGs consistent and relevant, only a handful of SDGs (and the specific targets within those SDGs) where selected. The selection process of the SDGs was based on three main points: relevance

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18 to the subject of drones (in regard to use and potential use), information available and

lastly contribution to the thesis structure.

The relevance was the most vital factor since the chosen SDGs had to make sense and be able to show concrete examples of how drones can help meet the targets set out by the goals. To give the reader a perception of how drone application in those goals could help bring an effective solution demanded goals where drones as a solution made sense.

The selection process consisted of looking in depths on each goal and their attached targets while also researching literature related to those targets. If determined sufficient while also being relevant to the other two factors (information available and thesis structure) the goal and targets were chosen. This led to the other factor, which were the amount of information available on the SDG in relation to drones. This part was the second most important since the goal for each example of drone application preferable would come from a case study in order to get more in-depth information about

surrounding sectors such as government involvement, implementation and funding.

Case studies were taken from single projects that involved drones, except for the case of Japan where I decided to form the whole country as a instance of drone use and thus not only a single project.

The last factor included in the selection of SDGs is how the goal helped build the overall thesis structure. Here I wanted goals who more or less could be parallel to each other, meaning that the application for drones where not completely foreign from solution to solution. This is a question of design and preference in order to give the thesis a sounder structure.

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4.3 Ethical considerations

Since the thesis will be conducted using desk study where secondary data is used, no larger ethical considerations need to be considered. However, there is still a worry to portray a certain bias since most of the research conducted and analysed is from western researchers and actors, and the exclusion of the local voice can occur in that literature. This stresses the importance of trying to include local case studies where local actors have had an active part in the operations to try and get a more nuanced picture.

4.4 Limitations and delimitations

The topic on sustainability, technology and development in general is very broad topics, and even combined there is a sea of information that can be interpret and used.

Overall, I tried to limit (but not exclusively choose) sources to new technological development being used in developing countries since I felt the thesis gravitated towards those projects. They were often described well with informative planning, and since there often times were two parties collaborating (project team and local

population) the point of inclusion was often a section of their report which I found helpful.

The larger focus on limitations came in choosing the SDGs for drone application, and where I more specifically looked at the different targets and which one were a good fit for the paper. There were certain factors that determined what goals and targets that were chosen as described earlier, but I also wanted my choice of SDGs to cover a lot of the areas (for example as pesticide tool, sensitive medical transporter or as surveillance with infrared cameras) that drones have, so that the other practices of drones in other goals are mainly variations of these. By doing this I can cover a lot of drone application with only three SDGs. What follows are the goals and their specific targets:

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20 Goal 2 – Zero Hunger

Target 2.3

By 2030, double the agricultural productivity and incomes of small-scale food producers, in particular women, indigenous peoples, family farmers, pastoralists and fishers, including through secure and equal access to land, other productive resources and inputs, knowledge, financial services, markets and opportunities for value addition and non-farm employment.

Target 2.4

By 2030, ensure sustainable food production systems and implement resilient agricultural practices that increase productivity and production, that help maintain ecosystems, that strengthen capacity for adaptation to climate change, extreme weather, drought, flooding and other disasters and that progressively improve land and soil quality.

Target 2.a

Increase investment, including through enhanced international cooperation, in rural infrastructure, agricultural research and extension services, technology development and plant and livestock gene banks in order to enhance agricultural productive capacity in developing countries, in particular least developed countries.

Goal 3 – Good Health and Well-being

Target 3.3

By 2030, end the epidemics of AIDS, tuberculosis, malaria and neglected tropical diseases and combat hepatitis, water-borne diseases and other communicable diseases.

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21 Target 3.8

Achieve universal health coverage, including financial risk protection, access to quality essential health-care services and access to safe, effective, quality and affordable essential medicines and vaccines.

Target 3.b

Support the research and development of vaccines and medicines for the communicable and non-communicable diseases that primarily affect developing countries, provide access to affordable essential medicines and vaccines [...]

Target 3.d

Strengthen the capacity of all countries, in particular developing countries, for early warning, risk reduction and management of national and global health risks.

Goal 15 – Life on Land

Target 15.2

By 2020, promote the implementation of sustainable management of all types of forests, halt deforestation, restore degraded forests and substantially increase afforestation and reforestation globally

Target 15.5

Take urgent and significant action to reduce the degradation of natural habitats, halt the loss of biodiversity and, by 2020, protect and prevent the extinction of threatened species

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22 Target 15.7

Take urgent action to end poaching and trafficking of protected species of flora and fauna and address both demand and supply of illegal wildlife products

Note: All targets and descriptions are taken from the official UN Sustainable Development website https://sdgs.un.org/goals.

There are several more targets that are suited towards the chosen approach of looking at drones but has been reduced to the ones you can read above since these were decided to be the most relevant ones. There are also other targets that are similar in context to the ones chosen and are therefore not added since it is determined that they would, in this context, yield the same result.

5 Findings – Implementation of Sustainable Technology

The rapid pace that technology have been keeping in the field of development has not gone unnoticed, and while many people can embrace and enjoy the everyday life supported by technological innovations, many people are left behind. Technology can do wonders, but the lack of it can also be a single factor to poverty and lack of

development. Our use and appliances of technology differs greatly depending on where in the world it is used, and how we help others take part of it is a crucial step in the implementation (Practical Action, 2016, pp. 3, 5). Through this field, it is also important that we take note from different perspectives and have as a result of also included critique and challenges to the topic.

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5.1 New technology and appliances

The hunger for economic growth can be found in almost every society and long have leaders and their respective countries and societies searched for ways to find the most effective route to achieve it. The by-product of economic growth can often be observed in our surrounding and especially our environment, and questions regarding our impact on it have been a discussion throughout history. The publishing of the book The Limits to Growth (Meadows et al., 1972) gave light to the depletion of our non-renewable natural resources and also the dangers of a complete collapse as a result. This has all been given rise to the concern and care for sustainable development, and methods on how to try and achieve both economic progress and conserve the world around. In order to understand this better, it is important that we lay the groundwork for what we

assume to be sustainable development (Paul, 2008, pp. 576-577).

The term sustainable development has been defined and interpreted in many different ways and by many different actors, but the most sound and well-cited definition comes from the Brundtland Report, or officially called Our Common Future, published in 1987 and written by World Commission on Environment and Development, a

department that the UN General Assembly created in 1983. The report was an attempt to unite the nations of the world and rally them behind sustainable development. The report defines the term as “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (WCED, 1987, p. 41). The concept is still being used in different contexts, and there are some

contrasting opinions on how to interpret it regarding the different situations; but the core of the concept are still in the sense that the World Commission defined it (Paul, 2008, p. 578).

Our technology roots the prevalence of economic growth and has always played the largest part, since it has enabled and advanced the methods of how we accomplish

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24 things. It is also the use of technology that we, in order to reach sustainable

development, in many cases have to alter to more environmentally friendly.

Technological solutions that release large amounts of carbon dioxide and pollute the environment are prioritized candidates to try and find better eco-friendly solutions for (WCED, 1987, p. 12). Another aspect is the lack of local inclusion during the transfer of knowledge when implementing technological solution in the purpose of

development. This is in many cases what can be the difference in a successful or unsuccessful practice and is therefore a crucial part of using sustainable technologies in the purpose to evolve as a society and will therefor need more attention (Practical Action, 2016, p. 3).

5.2 The challenges of technological development applications

Our world is filled with astonishing and, what many sees as necessary, technology in our everyday life. Technologies assisting with electricity, food, health, education and transport are many times not thought of because they are so integrated in our way of living. The truth is that many of these solutions that people in the developed world take for granted, are badly translated into communities that desperately need them, and the transfer of knowledge are a contributing factor to the lack of development (Practical Action, 2016, pp. 3-4). The solutions used does not only need to be attentive to the ecological environment but also to the local population. To address this issue is the core of the framework Technology Justice put forward by Practical Action, that we will be using more of later in the analysis part (Ibid. p. 7).

Terrapon-Pfaff et al. (2018) states that solutions by themselves rarely solves the issues at hand, and that a more integrated approach is needed to include local voices and needs (p. 411). Further discussing the WEF (water, energy and food) nexus, they argue

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25 that solutions that involves local participation and change of habits have their results

varying depending on how the local voices has been used in the planning stage, where large inclusion and incorporation of local needs and opinions yielded better results (Ibid. p. 413). This exemplifies the benefits and often times the absolute need for local inclusion while planning and executing appliances of new technological solutions.

Practical Action pinpoints the same importance of local inclusion in their 2016 reports A Call to Action, where they discuss the key to deploy new solutions is to include the local population and have localized solutions, meaning that they are adapted to the local conditions and population. According to Practical Actions, this is often ignored because of reasons such as investments are not targeted towards poor people, the solutions are too expensive or the local populations right to access this technology is neglected (Practical Action, 2016, p. 9). The right way to adapts and implement technological solutions are a delicate matter that requires time and effort to get right.

Even the UN have discussed the challenges in applying new technologies in their Challenges and Opportunities in the Implementation of the Sustainable Development Goals (2017) report. They highlight issues that are of importance if technological development shall prevail, such as good governance and increased investment, more focus on adoption, knowledge and context-adequate technologies (p. 83). They also want to address potential drawbacks with new technology projects, mentioning that their goal is to focus on closing the digital divide between people while also protecting people’s livelihoods. The new solutions are not supposed to replace people’s job, but rather help them do it (p. 82). So, with these in mind, how would we use this new technology in a sustainable and prosperous way? How can we adapt this without jeopardizing local wellbeing?

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5.3 New sustainable technological applications

The incorporation of technology in everyday chores to streamline and improve them is becoming the “common good” and something that most societies strive for to include.

The field of new sustainable technologies can according to Adamczyk et al. (2019) be divided into two sectors: Supporting technologies (for example social networks, mobile access and Big Data) and Application of new technologies (remote control,

autonomous vehicles, drones and technology assessment). This question will approach the latter where we will be discussing some of their uses (Adamczyk et al., 2019, pp.

2006-2007).

Artificial intelligence can be described as a system intelligence, and it is a well-used technological resource that has been deployed and enhanced in many modern systems, a few being car software, recognition programs, health analysis robotics and search engines (European Parliament, 2020). The application of AI in a developing setting has been common in developed countries but are now getting more traction in developing countries as well. Examples of an area of use for AI is the incorporation in healthcare systems, where solutions such as mHealth is driven by an AI solution. The application uses the mobile phone, whose popularity is getting more widespread, to communicate and perform health related services by front line health workers in for example

Tanzania (Cossy-Gantner and Germann et al., 2018, p. 3).

The impact that AI can achieve is generally decided on how it is implemented since the process should take into account the local markets and conditions, as well as being integrated in already running systems rather than built from scratch (Ibid. p. 3). The implementation, and the projects as a whole, therefore benefit from a human-centred design where the local population can be included since it has shown that local participation is required to fully understand the local need and therefor implement the convenient solution (Ibid. p. 6).

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27 A more in depths study about digital inclusion has been examined, and the conclusions

presented from Iivari et al. (2018) who conducted research about social youth inclusion

& exclusion in digital technology development can give us insight in how and why participation can differ. The so called “social inclusion” which the authors defines as the participation of individuals, families, and communities in society (p. 1021) are the main area of study, and in their conclusion, they pinpoint certain topics that are of importance in order to raise participation levels. First and foremost, they address the research and background information that needs to lay the foundation for the projects, including researching what kind of social hierarchy that might already exist in the community and how they are able to cooperate. Also understanding the research gap that might exist in regard to the potential implemented technology is of importance, since a understanding of the project is important for agreeing with it. Lastly, while the implementation takes place it is important to carefully study how the social structures are setting in. Making sure people get along, cooperate and strive towards the same goal or achievement is crucial for the longevity of developing projects (Iivari et al., 2018, p. 1044).

Also observed by Wu (2014), who studied Pediatric eHealth Interventions, they concluded that the connection between project leaders and members with the targeted area is of utmost importance for the success and adaptation. The research team that typically plan and study if eHealth is needed often keep an open dialogue with the targeted health institution to determine concerns like “preferred instructional session length, preferred means (or process) of communication (e.g., videos, slide shows, text), and preferred methods of learning assessment” (Wu et al., 2014, p. 613). Then the team takes this information and tailor the project after the preferences of the health institutes.

This does not only improve the project by itself, but also the participation from the targeted audience who takes part in deciding the structure (Ibid).

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28 In summary, we have reviewed the importance in avoiding the common challenges

where lack of government and local participation damages the longevity of the

development projects. To communicate with the affected audience is the key to making the implementation process of new technological development feel like it is not only to the people, but more important for the people.

6 Findings - Case studies about drones and SDGs

Since the research on drones and their applications on other sectors than military are in its infant stages, the literature and information surrounding them can sometimes be limiting. As described in the methodology, the choosing of the relevant SDG were based both on appropriate field for drone use but also based on available literature documenting it. Below are the chosen SDGs paired with case studies. There are more applications for drones in the areas that I have brought up below, but the point is to show the potential and the use and hence only a relatively small aspect of their whole appliances is brought up.

I will structure the explanation and illustration of the case studies through the focus points of the Technology Justice framework, which will give the reader better understanding in the different dimensions of the framework when later discussed.

6.1 SDG 2 Zero Hunger

The agricultural sector has seen constant involvement of new technological innovations during the last couple of decades, ranging from remote controlled vehicles, new

improved production systems and different digital analytical tools. One of the more

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29 recent devices to be introduce in the agricultural sector is the use of drones, which

shows potential in data analysis technology of crop and soil, pesticide management and also transport and surveillance. The market for drones is quite new on the commercial market but it is predicted to grow larger and branch out in sectors including agriculture, humanitarian relief and disaster management (Sylvester, 2018, pp. 1-2). These two case studies are examples of how drones can be used in agriculture, but it is important to point out that drones are versatile and the only thing that limits its different uses are imagination and investments.

6.1.1

Tanzania and analysing crop health with WeRobotics

WeRobotics is a not-for-profit organization that were established 2015 and they work across three continents with locally adapted drone solutions. They have invented

“Flying Labs” that they describe as locally led knowledge hubs, meaning that they provide local expertise and leadership hubs that educate people in adapting new technological solutions over a large range of areas, one of them being agriculture (WeRobotics, 2020). One of their projects is in Tanzania where they have introduced drone solutions in agriculture.

WeRobotics, and their program EcoRobotics, partnered with International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) when launching their first project in Tanzania. The goal was to introduce the use of drone data to analyse and improve crop health and in turn crop yield, since that directly can contribute to better food security in the area. The project was directly aimed at assisting the local community to develop this localized drone solution (Betschart, 2019, p. 149).

The process started with a ground team assembled with people from WeRobotics, IFPRI, drone pilots and local villagers. They started with surveying the fields and deciding the scope of the project and gathering already existing data, as well as talking and engaging the local community that became involved in the project. Common issues

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30 reported from the local farmers included not knowing their own farm size and more in

depths about the crop condition and how much pesticides to use. By acquiring data gather from drones during this first visit, the ground team could after they had processed the information come back to the villages with printed out digital images over the farms which also showed the crop health, demonstrated with green and red colours (as seen in figure 1 below). This were made possible by using drone data paired with Normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) which “scans” the crops for live vegetation. If they are healthy, it is shown as a green tinted colour, and if the crops are in bad condition or dead, it is shown as a red colour (Betschart, 2019, pp. 150-152).

Figure 1

Project team sharing printed maps

Note: Picture used from Drones for Agriculture in Tanzania by S. Betschart, 2019: 152.

The program EcoRobotics that took place in Tanzania is not directly supported or funded by the Tanzanian government, but WeRobotics is a solid organization with donors and partners such as The World Bank, UNICEF, MEDAIR, World Food Programme and The Rockefeller Foundation (WeRobotics, 2020). This means that the

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31 funding for future projects such as this one should not be a concern, but longevity

within technological development could be damaged if the government doesn’t support it and make sure to take more initiative in this sector.

Tanzania are as of 2020 moderately increasing in their attempts to reach the SDG 2, and are in need of similar solutions in order to continue. A closer look at the targets, and we can see that Tanzania right now is scoring 0.8 on the scale of 0-1.41 (where 0 is best and 1.41 is worst) on the Sustainable Nitrogen Management Index (SNMI), an index to measure environmental performance and agricultural production (Zhang and Davidson, 2016, p. 1). What this tells us is that Tanzania are moving towards the right direction, but more initiative is needed and where in our case, governmental

involvement can help achieve that (UN Report, 2020, p. 45, 443).

6.1.2

Japan – Agricultural drone pioneer

This example is meant to show Japans approach as a whole and how they have adapted the drone technology to their agricultural needs. The drone sector in Japan has been viable for almost 40 years, being introduced during the 1970s, Japan is sometimes seen as the pioneers of using drones in agrarian purposes. Here, the main use of drones is for managing pesticides and sowing seeds, but as Japan face an often times difficult

geographical landscape the potential for drones and their effectiveness is highly sought after, which could explain the appreciation for drones (Reger et al., 2018, pp. 62-63).

The government of Japan are also showing a great involvement in the implementation of drones in their different sectors, as shown by the less extensive restrictions regarding the use of drones when compared to for example Germany and the US (Ibid. p. 74).

Some government support of drones has started to show with some new government bills and projects being directly supported by the government.

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32 The use of drones in Japan is also aimed towards helping the aging population with

agrarian work, mainly with the common tasks of managing pesticide use and sowing seeds in order to attend to Japans global rice industry. It has become so common to use drones in Japanese agriculture that about one in three bowls of rice consumed in Japan has been from drone assisted growing. Time efficiency is usually the biggest factor for investing in drones, where one example indicating that the usually 10 day long sowing process can be reduced to one or maybe two days, all done by a sole farmer with the assistance of a drone (Financial Times YouTube, 2015).

Japan is because of this a great example how one can address an arising issue (the aging population and less dedicated farmers) with a new technological approach. The use of satellite images to help and strategize crop planning have been used before, but in a country like Japan where monsoons are a current issue, satellite images can be disturbed or rendered useless. Here, drones provide a cheaper and more frequent alternative that also can provide the same, or sometimes better, data on crop status (Iwasaki et al., 2019, pp. 27–28).

Japan has some challenges remaining in the sector regarding SDG 2 but are overall increasing in performance, while being ranked 17 overall on the 2020 SDG index. Most of the challenges in the goal are connect to high energy consumption in food

production, which drones could potential be a solution to (UN Report, 2020, p. 41).

Japan have a SNMI index of 0.6 (ranked 0-1.41) which is increased from 0.7 from the 2019 report (UN Report, 2019 p. 249). Even though changes and new technological solutions are in place in Japan and progress are being made, Japan is one of the most populated countries in the world which means that changes often takes time before they are settled in.

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6.2 SDG 3 Good Health and Well-Being

The use of drones in healthcare is something that has been tested in a handful of countries, some being developing countries such as Senegal (Knoblauch et al., 2019) and others being developed countries like Canada and the USA (Hiebert et al., 2020).

Drones are versatile with their appliance and can assist in the healthcare sector with tasks such as blood and organ transportation, high value item transfer between hospitals as well as medical delivery to rural and often cut-off societies. More specialized drones just for medical purpose needs to be in focus according to Timothy Amukele, Assistant Professor in the Department of Pathology at Johns Hopkins University. But he is hopeful and explains that this is something that will receive more attention as the need and use for drones become more widespread. (Amukele, 2019, pp. 296–297). Below are examples of two case studies that will bring more detail about what use drones can have in healthcare that directly is achieving progress towards SDG 2.

6.2.1

Ghana and the Covid-19 pandemic

Ghana is a country that only recently have opted to digitalize major parts of their society, including everything from a digital ID card, mobile money transfer & payment and what we will be interested in, drones. The Ghanaian government have worked hard to improve the society and to try and digitalize and streamline many services through what they call the Digital Ghana Agenda, where the use of drones are one of the new methods that they have begun to use (Demuyakor, 2020, pp. 242, 244). By cooperating with the US based drone company Zipline Healthcare Logistic Company, the

government are now to a certain extent using drones as a transport vehicle in their healthcare sector. The drones operate both with hospital to hospital issues, such as blood transfusions and medical equipment, and also with hospital-to-person issues such as deliverance of medicines, medical supplies, and safety medical equipment. The drones work on a 24/7 basis and they are being sent out from four main centres, each containing around 30 drones each (Ibid., p. 245).

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34 Since the outbreak of Covid-19, drones have helped in Ghana to connect hospitals with

people often found in rural areas, providing both test-kits and safety equipment. The drones are in this situation a preferred alternative since it both reduce transportation difficulties including time constraints and availability due to low quality roads, and also reduce the human contact which should be as limited as possible to minimize risks for spreading the virus, seen in figure 2. Since the use of drones were already in order before the pandemic, Ghana’s response to the outbreak has been good and the country has one of the highest testing capacities on the African continent (Ibid., pp. 245-246).

Figure 2

The delivery experience

Note: Picture taken from flyzipline.com (2020) https://flyzipline.com/how-it-works/

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35 The initiative to introduce Zipline’s service in Ghana came from the Ghanaian

Government and therefor the funding is secured right from the start (Lamptey and Serwaa, 2020, p 69). The Ghanaian President, Nana Akufo-Addo, also announced that an increase from 1% to 2.5% of the national GDP should be used towards science, technology and innovation, which all strengthens the government position on the matter (Demuyakor, 2020, p. 244). The public opinion is also overwhelming positive, as reported by Demuyakor (2020) through his questionnaire study about the attitudes towards drones.

Ghana is a country on the rise with increase in advancement on almost every goal, including SDG 3. There still are major challenges in regard to the goal, but Ghana is slowly improving in the sector (UN Report, 2020, p. 45). Ghana’s fight for infection disease control including HIV, tuberculosis and Covid-19 is greatly improving and the SDG 2 is overall improving in the country which could be partly attributed to the countries focus for new technological solutions (Ibid. p. 233).

6.2.2

Madagascar and Tuberculosis disease control

Tuberculosis is a disease that can be found all over the world and sheds many lives annually. During 2019 alone, a total of 1.4 million people died of the disease making it one of the most widespread cause of death globally stemming from a single infectious agent (WHO, 2020). Madagascar is unfortunately no exception, and in 2017 around 30 000 cases of the disease were reported. Under the harsh circumstances that the country was facing, including understaffed healthcare units and poor medical laboratory capacities, they opted to try and improve their tuberculosis diagnosis rate with the incorporation of new technological solutions. Madagascar National TB Control Program (NTP) is a government branch that has been established for 30 years, and 2017 they decided to try out the DrOST (Drone Observed Therapy System) program. The program was structured with a chain of new innovation, where drones

The implementation of development technologies and the future of drones: The way forward with sustainable technological solutions through a focus on drones and the SDGs