Repatriation in an ever changing world
How expats perceive that repatriation processes can be improved
Master’s Thesis 30 credits
Department of Business Studies Uppsala University
Spring Semester of 2019
Date of Submission: 2019-05-29
Martin Forner
David Larsson
Acknowledgements
We would like to show gratitude to those who have helped us making this thesis possible.
Firstly, we would like to thank our thesis supervisor Cecilia Pahlberg for helping us along the way. Secondly, we would like to thank those who have read and contributed with ideas on how to improve our study. Finally, we would like to thank all the expats who have contributed with their
specific knowledge. Nothing would have been possible without their knowledge.
Martin Forner David Larsson
Abstract
In an increasingly more globalized world the international competition is fierce. Today, working across borders is a new normality. It calls for greater demand to send employees abroad on international assignments. Therefore, employers need to address implications that come along with this increasing demand. One of the main implications is the issue to retain employers after return from international assignments since many of them tend to resign.
Research about this issue has been conducted. However, this research has primarily taken an employer standpoint and thereby employees have been overlooked.
This thesis presents both (1) an employee point of view of the repatriation process as well as (2) a more updated and comprehensive take on the entire repatriation process as a three step process beginning already prior departure. The paper concludes that high turnover rate after return remains a major problem among expats. Lastly, a final model is suggested to facilitate the transition and decrease this high turnover rate. By applying this approach on the repatriation process, companies could hopefully benefit in terms of decreased turnover cost as well as more satisfied employees.
Keywords:
Repatriation process Failed repatriation Expatriate
International assignment
Title: Repatriation in an ever changing world: How expats perceive that repatriation processes can be improved
Authors: Martin Forner &
David Larsson
Date: May 29th, 2019
1. Introduction ... 6
1.2. Problem statement ... 7
1.3. Purpose ... 7
1.4. Research Question ... 8
2. Theory ... 9
2.1. Background... 9
2.1.1. Failed international assignment ... 9
2.1.2. Various perspectives for sending expats...10
2.1.3. Different types of expats...12
2.1.4. Introduction to the model of the thesis ...12
2. 2. Prior departure ...13
2.2.1. The expatriate ...13
2.2.2. The agreement ...14
2.2.3. Cross Cultural Training ...15
2.3. During the stay ...16
2.3.1. Pre-return Adjustment ...17
2.4. Post return ...19
2.4.1. Individual variables ...19
2.4.2. Job variables ...20
2.4.3. Organizational variables/Communication ...20
2.4.4. Network Variables...20
2.5. Effective repatriation process ...22
2.5.1. Shortly after return ...22
2.5.2 Review of international assignment ...22
2.6. Theoretical summary...23
3. Methodology ...25
3.1. Qualitative and quantitative methods ...25
3.2. Selection of approaches and methods ...25
3.3. Data collection ...27
3.3.1. Interviews ...27
3.3.2. Surveys ...27
3.4. Data analysis ...28
3.5. Criticism of the paper ...29
3.5.1. Limitations on the theory...29
3.5.2. Limitations of the study ...29
3.6. Trustworthiness ...30
4.0. Empirics ...31
4.1. Interview findings ...31
4.1.2. Pre departure ...31
4.1.2. During the stay ...32
4.1.3. Post return ...32
4.2. Empirical findings from survey...33
4.2.1. General questions ...34
4.2.2. Pre-departure ...35
4.2.3. During the stay ...36
4.2.4. Post return ...37
5. Analysis ...39
5.1. Pre-departure ...40
5.1.1. Type of expat ...40
5.1.2. Cross cultural training ...41
5.1.3. Agreement ...42
5.2. During the stay ...43
5.2.1. Mentor ...43
5.2.2. Visit to home country...43
5.2.3. Communication ...44
5.2.4. Pre-return training...44
5.3. Post return ...45
5.3.1. Network ...45
5.3.2. Individual ...46
5.3.3. Job variables ...46
6. Conclusion ...48
6.1. Pre-departure ...48
6.2. During the stay ...49
6.3. Post return ...49
6.4. Concluding model ...51
6.5 Further research ...52
References ...53
Appendix ...59
Appendix 1. Operationalization table, pre-study and survey...59
Appendix 2. Operationalization table, follow-up questions ...63
Appendix 3. Pre-study interview template ...65
Appendix 4. Survey questionnaire ...67
Appendix 5. Follow-up questions and answers ...73
Appendix 6 Regression analysis ...78
Appendix 7. Correlation table ...83
Appendix 8. Descriptive statistics table, extracted questions without correlation ...84
The authors want to introduce the thesis through theses quotes and fictive but likely story.
“I was always interested in working abroad and one of the reasons I chose my current employer was that I believed that there would be opportunities to work as an expat”
“Always interested in working abroad and experience other cultures”.
The quotes above come from two of the respondents in this survey and illustrate quite well reasons to why employees want to take on a role abroad. However, upon return in the home country unexpected difficulties might occur and the following story describes a fictive case.
Four years ago, your employer sent you abroad to work. It took a while, but you and your family eventually settled quite well in the new country. You are now about to move back to your home country. When you left for the new country, everything went smooth with some support from your employer, e.g. find housing and school for your kids. You will soon realize
that moving home is at least as stressful as moving to the host country, if not more difficult.
What makes it harder this time is the absence of the same support as then. After a stressful move back home you are assigned your old position even though you expected a promotion.
You feel great distress since the transition, harder than expected. Additionally, your employer appears to be uninterested in promoting you or leveraging your newly acquired knowledge and experience. You feel demotivated and begin seeking other jobs. After a month you find a
new employer where your new knowledge and skills are appreciated and valued.
The above scenario is an example of a failed repatriation process where the company never gets value from their investment, the employee. Scholars estimate that an expatriate in the nineties cost the company around US$300.000 annually, which in this case would be US$1.2 million (four years) for the entire international assignment (Black et al., 1992). This cost is about three times higher than a regular employee’s cost. Although the scenario above may seem a bit extreme, it is common that expatriates change employer shortly after returning home. And, numerous employees who chose to stay with the same employer experience great dissatisfaction throughout the entire repatriation process (ibid.).
1. Introduction
A major change that can be seen as a direct outcome of the rapid globalization is the increased cross-border operation (Bonache & Brewster, 2001). Companies today are more active in the global market than they previously have been in order to stay competitive outside the home market (Fischer, 2003; Arogyaswamy & Hunter, 2018). Activities in multiple markets imply an increased need to transfer a company’s very valuable knowledge across borders (Szulanski, 1999). Despite IT communication, some of the knowledge requires human interaction in order to be transferred in a sufficient way since it requires e.g. imitation and follow up questions (ibid; Collis & Montgomery 1998). A means to transfer knowledge is by deploying employees, so called expatriates (expats) at units abroad for a set period of time, usually about three to five years (Collings et al., 2007; Black, 1991), during
international assignments (Edström & Galbraith, 1977). Consequently, a quest for deeper insights about various cultures emerges among these expats (Collings et al., 2007; Caligiuri
& Cascio, 1998; Quelch & Bloom, 1999) in order to facilitate the managing of an international workforce (Collings et al., 2007) and also to benefit from each country’s specific advantages (Ciabuschi, 2005). Eventually, when the international assignment comes to the end, the last phase of the assignment, the repatriation process, begins (Harzing 2001).
Companies strive to retain returnees long-term after return (Scullion & Collings, 2006c) in order to tap into and disseminate the newly acquired knowledge from the international assignment (Yeaton & Hall 2008 p.1). By retaining returnees, the knowledge will be transferred twice; first between units and subsequently internally within a unit (Gupta &
Govindarajan, 2000). However, despite that an employee returns to a familiar setting, the transition and readjustment that follows has been shown to impose hardships (Gullahorn &
Gullahorn 1963; Black et al., 1992b). Some scholars even claim the repatriation to cause more discomfort for international returnees than the sole international assignment (Chamove
& Soeterik, 2006; Linehan & Scullion, 2002; Stevens et al., 2006). Poor reentry preparations might render in unexpected mental readjustment difficulties (Stroh et al. 2000), e.g. due to grief of the lost life in the host country (Adler, 1981; Baughn, 1995; Chamove & Soeterik, 2006; Linehan & Scullion, 2002). This grief might even reach clinical levels (Sahin, 1990) and be comparable to experiencing a great loss of a dear person (Chamove & Soeterik, 2006).
Academics mean returnees might exhibit signs of this distress up to six months after return (Furukawa, 1997). Research shows that many returnees quit their job after returning home due to this distress (Black and Mendenhall 1990, Szkudlarek, 2010). For the employer this
implies a great financial loss (Selmer, 2001; Dowling & Welch, 2004) as well as loss of valuable knowledge (Gupta & Govindarajan, 2000). To prevent these losses, more emphasis must be put on the repatriation process (Stroh & Caligiuri, 1998; Forster, 2000). Therefore, a reconceptualization for international assignments is needed where the repatriation process should be included as a final stage of the international assignment (Tung, 1981). Companies today tend to focus far too little on this process (Bonache & Brewster, 2005) or neglect it entirely (Szkudlarek, 2010) resulting in weakened competitiveness in the global market (Ciabuschi, 2005). Simultaneously, a poor repatriation process might as well lead to difficulties finding new expats willing to accept international assignments (Lazarova &
Tarique, 2005; Scullion, 2001; Forster, 2000).
1.2. Problem statement
Firstly, studies show that an expat costs between three and five times more than a regular employee at the home office (Selmer, 2001). Other studies show even higher costs (Webb 1996). These large investments are done by companies in a hope that they will yield a return (Breitenmoser & Bader, 2015). However, if returnees resign upon or after coming back, the company never gains the expected return (Breitenmoser & Bader, 2015; Black and
Mendenhall, 1990). In fact, the rate of post return resignation is common; 20-40% of expats quit within two years after return to the home country (Black & Mendenhall, 1990) which according to Webb (1996) e.g. will cost American companies $2 billion annually. Despite such high costs only in the US, limited number of studies has been done in the area of repatriation process. One reason for this lack is the belief that expats “are just coming home”
which is thought to be easy. On the contrary, a number of studies show the opposite way around; coming back to the home country is harder than going to the host country in the first place (Black & Gregersen, 1999; Paik et al., 2002). Studies conducted within the repatriation field are quite old and mainly looked at from the corporate point of view and the
understanding of the process has remained quite unaltered since the eighties (Szkudlarek, 2010).
1.3. Purpose
Firstly, the purpose is to examine whether or not the high rate of resigning expats remain an issue. Unlike many previous studies within the corporate repatriation field, this study aims to present an employee view of the repatriation process. By drawing on existing theories, a
suggestion of a recent repatriation model will be presented in order to broaden the
insubstantial research within the repatriation field. Moreover, through this study a revised employee view of the repatriation process is presented since few studies have been conducted lately. Hopefully, this study will not only benefit the expats but also employers in how to deal with these issues.
1.4. Research Question
What determinants do expats perceive as crucial throughout their repatriation process and what can employers do in order to facilitate the transition to the home office?
2. Theory
The following chapter will introduce existing literature and theories about repatriation. First, the background to understand the origin of international assignments, and in extension, repatriation, including problems associated with them. Subsequently, we will present three repatriation steps, which in turn draws on theories of numerous scholars. Each step brings up specific determinants for a successful repatriation process. At the end of the chapter, these steps emerge into a model we propose will lead to a successful repatriation, retained returnees and is cost-effective.
2.1. Background
Because of the rapid globalization that can be seen throughout the world, companies now need to be active and compete in more markets than their home market (Fischer, 2003;
Arogyaswamy & Hunter, 2018). Although the emerging technology has driven globalization, transformed and “flattened” the world (Friedman, 2005), there are still existing contrary opinions (Ghemawat, 2007). In the last couple of years, some argue that globalization has taken a step back due to a more right-wing influenced politics, e.g. the US trade tariffs, the United Kingdom exiting European Union etc. (Saval, 2017). Despite the current political streams and the past globalization, each country and region still hold their specific culture (Hofstede, 2001). It is, therefore, imperative that companies gain more knowledge about each market and its culture and disseminate this knowledge (Collings et al., 2007). Although experience is often one of a company’s essential resource, it is difficult to transfer some of it through technology, referred to as internal stickiness (Szulanski, 1996). This is because some knowledge transfer requires physical presence, e.g. through observation, repeated training and answering follow-up questions (ibid.). One way to acquire such knowledge or experience is by sending staff, so called expats (Cho, 2018). The expats can be sent either from the headquarter to a subsidiary and vice versa or between two or more subsidiaries. Regardless of which part of the world employees are relocated to, crossing cultural boundaries implies some discomfort or cultural shock. Such discomfort may jeopardize the entire international assignment if the expat fails (Mangala, 2005).
2.1.1. Failed international assignment
Studies done in the area of expatriates have some mutual conclusions. Firstly, international assignments are a massive cost for the company. A study made by Selmer (1999) estimates that a company invests from US$ 150.000 - 200.000 in every expat. In total, Webb (1996)
estimates the cost of failed expatriates only for US companies to be as high as $2 billion and this is only the cost that can be measured. Black et al. (1992) means that the cost to send an expat abroad can be even higher and be two to three times more than the cost would be for the same employee back home. Secondly, the rate of failed international assignments is high.
Moreover, about 20% of returning employees either quit or are headhunted to other companies within nine months and 50% quit within 24 months (ibid.)
Simultaneously, defining what constitutes a failed international assignment is debated within the academic field. The company expects to get a return on their investment, which can be the outline for defining a failure (Breitenmoser & Bader, 2015). On the other hand, Yeaton and Hall (2008 p.1) define it as “Expatriate failure can be defined as the premature end to the assignment, the premature return of an expatriate to his or her home country, or the
resignation of the expatriate employee”. In order to supplement their definition, an additional aspect will be added. Namely, those who quit their work shortly after arriving back home since this means the knowledge that the expat gains in the host country will not fully be disseminated and utilized in the home country (Stroh et al., 2000). These combined definitions have shaped the description of the failure that will be used in this thesis: an expatriate failure is when an expat returns home prematurely, quit during the stay or quit upon or shortly after return to the home country. Although many international assignments fail because of expats who return home prematurely, this thesis will merely focus on those expats who quit upon or after return to their home country. Even though a lot of international assignments fail, both the organization and the employee have their own reasons for either sending expats or accepting an international assignment.
2.1.2. Various perspectives for sending expats
There are different theories about the purpose of sending expats on international assignment to other units within the company. There is one side that takes a more organizational view, while the other takes on an employee view (Collings et al., 2007). Dickman and Harris (2005) posit that international assignments are often more beneficial for the employee than to the organization for which they work.
2.1.2.1. Employee perspective
There are two main reasons for employees to take the role of an expatriate. Firstly, the belief that it will boost their future career and give them an advantage in terms of promotion after
returning to their home country (Allen & Alvarez, 1998; Feldman, 1991). In the same view, Stahl et al. (2002) suggest that, since international experience is highly ranked, it gives the expat an advantage even in the external labour. Secondly, it is common that companies offer higher compensation for employees living abroad (Allen & Alvarez, 1998; Feldman, 1991).
Even if these are the two most common reasons, there are several other reasons, such as the opportunity to live in another country, discover different cultures and adventure seeking (ibid.). Even though international assignments often are beneficial from a career point of view, some studies show the opposite view. One study shows that 77% of returnees viewed their international assignment as having a negative impact on their career (Black et al., 1999) and according to another study, 93% of top executives did not rank international experience as crucial for a promotion (Tung & Miller, 1990). Besides, Allen and Alvarez (1998) conducted a repatriation study where they found out that some highly talented people chose not to work abroad as it would put them in what the authors call “out of sight, out of mind”.
When people leave their home country for a certain period, the authors suggest that senior managers will forget about the expats and not bear them in mind when it comes to promoting people for higher positions (Feldman, 1991).
2.1.2.2. Organizational perspective
Barsoux et al. (2002) suggest three reasons why organizations send expats. Firstly, to transfer knowledge, i.e. competencies and specific skills, from the headquarter to a subsidiary and vice versa. However, this is debatable, and Selmer et al. (2000) argue for the opposite stating that knowledge sharing is secondary and the main reason is the skills that the expat acquires during the international assignment. However, most studies agree that knowledge transfer is an expat’s most important role (Lazarova & Tarique 2005; Szkudlarek, 2010). Furthermore, Barsoux et al. (2002) state that career development is another reason why organizations send employees abroad, typically managers. Through an international assignment, a manager has the opportunity to develop and strengthen leadership skills and gain self-confidence in working more independently. Thirdly, expats are transferred abroad as a means of gaining control over operations abroad. Typically, this applies to senior staff with deeper insights into how to align processes, routines etc. of a subsidiary, with the equivalents at the headquarter.
(ibid.). Regardless of these motives, the expats themselves are still a significant determinant if the international assignment and repatriation will be successful.
2.1.3. Different types of expats
Since different assignments require different types of training, it is imperative to state clearly what the expat should do before departure to the host country. In 2001, Harzing suggested three different roles to be assumed by expats: (1) “bear”, an expat sent from e.g. headquarters as a means of controlling foreign operations; (2) “bumble-bee”, a person sent “from plant to plant” (Harzing, 2001, p. 369) to socialize and connect units within an MNC and, lastly, (3)
“spider”, a person who assumes a more informal role in networking and communicates at a unit. These roles have different levels of integration with the host country’s employees.
Because of a lower level of integration with locals, “bears” require less training, whereas
“bumble-bees” and “spiders” demand more because of their more interpersonal function (Harrison, 1994, Kim 2001).
The type of expat selected for an international assignment depends on the purpose of the assignment(Tung, 1981). Companies with more dependent subunits and more focused on a home-oriented strategy tend to transfer “bears” to a higher degree than companies with a host-orientated or global strategy. The use of this strategy is because a greater need for control and surveillance is needed to align the subsidiaries with the headquarter (Harzing, 2001; Perlmutter, 1969).
2.1.4. Introduction to the model of the thesis
To structure the next theory section, theories will be based on a model made by Jassawalla et al. (2004). In this model, three different steps to facilitate repatriation are highlighted: prior departure, during the stay and after return. To gain a broader view of the different stages, other studies and theories are used to explain the different steps that expats experience and are a part of prior, during and after their international assignments. If these steps are properly executed, the authors argue that both the company and the expat will benefit from the results (ibid). Such as reducing the expat’s uncertainty and anxiety levels, making them feel better about the international assignment and make them feel that sense of belonging within the home company after returning home. (ibid.). Brabant et al. (1990) also argue that having a positive attitude towards the international assignment leads to more successful repatriation.
Fig. 1. Model of effective repatriation.
The model visualizes how effective repatriation can be viewed as a coherent and reversed three-step process commencing prior departure. A proper foundation is created for the next steps by addressing critical issues within each step and handling them correctly. Determinants for every single step will be added successively in the following paragraphs, 2.2.–2.4. At 2.6. The final model of repatriation will be presented.
2. 2. Prior departure
Tung (1981) states that much can be done to facilitate the repatriation even before departure by ensuring that the company chooses the right type of person and further educates him/her on how to act as an expat and how to deal with people from other cultures. Her study shows that when this is done correctly, it will help both the company and the expat on a more personal level to feel great about the repatriation after returning. Because different projects and companies require different types of expats, these programs and steps must be different depending on the task (ibid.).
2.2.1. The expatriate
To draw further conclusions as to why repatriations so often fail, examining different determinants that affect an assignee is necessary since failure is usually due to personal reasons (Fish & Wood, 1999). Adequate skills to adapt well to a new environment also facilitate repatriation re-adjustment (Ward et al., 2001). Therefore, companies sending expats
must match the characteristics necessary for a successful international assignment with expats exhibiting these characteristics.
Different determinants that facilitate cross-cultural adjustment are discussed within the academic field. Some scholars emphasize more essential features, such as openness to respecting foreign customs, faith and group dynamics (Ashmalla, 1998; Martin & Harrell, 2004). Gupta and Govindarajan (2002 p. 3) talks about a global mindset that they define as
“...openness to and awareness of diversity across cultures and markets with a propensity…”.
Also, decision-making and communication skills are mentioned too as essential to delegate and build trust among local people (Ashmalla, 1998). Another characteristic is age; older employees tend to re-adjust more smoothly (Hyder & Lovblad, 2007) but, likewise exhibit more anxiety about career rather than own relational concerns as opposed to younger expats (Martin, 1986). A 2007 study by Lazarova and Cerdin shows that the average age of expats that participated in their study was 42 years of age. Consequently, what many expats have in common is that they were born during the ‘80s and the ‘90s, the so-called Generation Y, also known as Millennials (Blain, 2008). This generation is the multitasking generation that grew up with the internet in desktops and started using smartphones first as adults (Twenge, 2017;
DeVaney, 2015). Unlike previous generations, the Millennials are team-oriented and rather intrinsically driven unlike previous generations (Blain, 2008; DeVaney, 2015). They want to make a difference and make the world a better place (ibid). When it comes to career,
Millennials greatly appreciate work-life balance and want access to senior management and career planning (Bye, 2018; DeVaney, 2015). All these characteristics combined lead to a group of employees who are more likely to resign and find other jobs if they feel that the employer does not recognize their needs and skills (Bye, 2018; Greatwood 2016). Millennials are inclined to stay with the same company for two years or less (Greatwood, 2016). This fact that Millennials are not as committed to one employer and change jobs more frequently is something that can often be seen in expats in general that can support the fact that expats are often Millennials. (Lazarova & Cerdin, 2007).
2.2.2. The agreement
After selecting the right person for the assignment, some scholars suggest that a signed agreement should be in place between the expat and the prior departure organization (Chew
& Debowski, 2008). This agreement should include information about what is expected from the expat and what the expat expects from the organization and who should help with what during the time abroad (ibid.). It should include all practical questions from compensation,
job description, housing, length of stay, child care etc. (Allen & Alvarez, 1998; Chew &
Debowski, 2008). It should also involve possible outcomes and should look into the future and inform the expat what kind of jobs will be available after a return if the work is done successfully with the possibilities of a career boost. Importantly, the expat is guaranteed at least a similar position after returning to the home country (Chew & Debowski 2008). The main goal is to comfort the expat by signaling that the company is committed and
understands the importance of smooth repatriation that will lead to more attractive international assignments in the future (Chew & Debowski 2008).
2.2.3. Cross Cultural Training
As described above in the section “2.2.1. The expatriate”, the characteristics required for an international assignment and eventually successful repatriation must be matched with the right candidate. Following this selection process, the next step is to educate the candidate to further prepare him/her for the assignment (Ashmalla, 1998, Black et al, 1988). Preparations before departure can reduce the failure rate of international assignments (Tung, 1981). Also, the main task for MNCs is to find and educate people who can work across different cultures and to implement this, cross cultural training, CCT, is the main tool (Harrison 1994).
Black et al. (1988) define CCT as a process in which an expat learns to become
psychologically comfortable and familiar with a new culture. Most studies seem to agree that the main objective of CCT is to reduce the degree of cultural-shock that occurs when living in a host country by increasing efficiency in cross-cultural negotiations, decision-making and customer relations (Harris & Moran, 1991). Findings also show that expats are often accompanied by their family and sent out for a more extended period. It is, therefore, imperative that the family members also receive pre-departure training as they face similar challenges (Tung 1981).
Administering the CCT depends on who the expat is. For expats who have had similar missions before or who have traveled a lot, the extent of the program is not as important as for someone who is going away for the first time (Martin & Harrell 2004). However, a study by Cox (2004) shows that this assumption is wrong and points out that earlier or previous international experience does not help to create successful repatriation. Also, how different the culture in the host country is – cultural distance – affects the adjustment to new cultures (Black et al. 1992b; Harrison, 1994). Also, companies offering CCT programs are
encouraged to allocate between three to twelve months to the program. A program should be between 40-50 hours and each session should last for at least two hours to be more efficient
in the training process. The CCT structure can be divided into two different categories:
general orientation and specific development (Harrison, 1994). General orientation is focused on the understanding that there will be a change – a cultural shock – and stressful situations that could occur and how to deal with these issues successfully. The expat will also need to discuss their own strengths and weaknesses. There will also be more concrete examples of how the culture works and other important variables in the host country to make sense of the surroundings. Finally, the focus on the workplace and the situations that can occur at the office are brought up and discussed. The main goal under specific development is to learn more hard facts about the country, economic system, geography, religion etc. This learning process is followed by some language training to understand the basics, and all of this
together is to understand attitudes in the host country. Finally, some case training should take place where real examples are brought up, and the expat should act like themselves, and their actions will be discussed later (ibid.).
Fig. 2. Model of effective repatriation.
A proper foundation for the second step is created by addressing these three determinants before departure and handling them correctly. Determinants for the next step will be presented in the following paragraph. Although ´communication’ is a specific determinant under 2.4., during all three steps, multiple scholars raise the need for organizational support, and therefore the need is seen as constant and visualized in the bar to the left. The final repatriation model will be presented in 2.6.
2.3. During the stay
Regardless of how thorough the pre-departure training is, expats experience different emotional phases throughout their international assignment (Tung, 1981). By acknowledging these phases the stay will be less stressful and thereby facilitate a smooth repatriation (Ward et al., 2001). Scholars have named these phases the U-curve model. The U-curve comprises four different phases that an expat undergo upon arrival in a new culture (Black & Mendenhall, 1991; Winkelman, 1994). Initially,
an expat experience about a month – (1) the honeymoon/tourist phase – where cultural differences are perceived as exciting. Subsequently, the (2) crisis or culture shock phase takes over. Here, feelings of regret and isolation from local residents ensue. The following phase, (3) the adjustment and
reorientation phase, entails a successive progression toward deeper understanding about the host country culture which lead to the last phase. Here, in (4) the mastery or acculturation phase, the expat reaches a high level of acculturation and develops a bicultural identity (ibid). Despite experiencing the U-curve, the difficulties within the phases and possible culture-clashes that come along can be
mitigated by appropriate pre-departure training (Okpara & Kabongo, 2017).
2.3.1. Pre-return Adjustment
Already during the time period in the host country, especially the last six months (Black et al.,1992 p.
229), a lot can be done in order to make an easier transition for the later repatriation step (Harzing &
Pinnington, 2015 p. 568). Also, expats and employers need to have reciprocal expectations in place for the return (Chew & Debowski, 2008). Showing gratitude towards returnees and acknowledging acquired insights is vital, particularly during the end of the international assignment (ibid.).
However, several determinants for a successful repatriation take place continuously during the stay.
These will be discussed below by using a model imposed by Black et al. (1992a).
2.3.1.1. Communication
The interaction between an expat and the home country tends to focus on work-related issues, such as coordination and reporting. Thus, the expat get less, or none, information about more general issues.
As a result, repatriation might be comprised to some extent, and the assignee may experience that the employer and colleagues have forgotten him/her (Black et al. 1992a; Chew & Debowski, 2008).
Consequently, frequent exchange of more general information such as on-the-job or home-country daily life can substantially facilitate re-adjustment outside the workplace (Szkudlarek, 2010).
Similarly, research suggests quality rather than the quantity of communication with the home country to reduce distress upon repatriation (Cox, 2004). Furthermore, online communication is reported to be a positive means of maintaining relationships with individuals in the home country (ibid.).
2.3.1.2. Mentor
Another way to facilitate the repatriation process is by having a designated contact person, a mentor, at home country site (Black et al., 1992a). Although this person mostly responds to work-related issues, he/she may also be an important source of information about more private subjects, such as housing upon return (ibid.). This mentor needs to be carefully selected as research shows that the attitude of some home country individuals towards
returnees could be discriminating (Fry, 2007). By assigning the right mentor, the likelihood of a successful repatriation process increases (Black et al., 1992; Chew & Debowski, 2008).
2.3.1.3. Visit to home country
Although excellent communication and a mentor are essential sources of information,
frequent visits to the home country are positively linked to repatriation (Brabant et al., 1990).
During visits to the home country, the expat is allowed to exchange information between colleagues from a more social and personal point of view (Black et al., 1992a). Employees in the home country also get the opportunity to see possible changes in the expat (Black &
Gregersen, 1999).
2.3.1.4. Pre-return training/orientation
Tung (1981) states that the phase of repatriation must be considered as part of the entire expatriation process. Therefore, scholars suggest that pre-return training should be offered as well as pre-departure training is offered (Black et al., 1992a, p. 229). Other scholars resonate similarly and call for a predetermined repatriation program to address post-return concerns (Chew & Debowski, 2008; Black et al., 2000; Stroh & Caligiuri, 1998). By this re-
conceptualizing and program, the feeling of being a foreigner in the ‘home’ country and the distress that comes with it will be reduced (Chew & Debowski, 2008; Black et al. 1992a, p.
229). Moreover, it is argued that a set return date might cause a problem as there may not be a suitable position for the returnee in place. It is, therefore, advisable to set a more flexible return period between three to twelve months for the return (Chew & Debowski, 2008).
All of these four variables, combined or alone, can facilitate the re-adjustment process.
However, expats also need to start thinking about repatriation to gradually change their mentality and picture themselves living in the home country (Black et al., 1992a). Hopefully, this leads to realistic expectations, and scholars state that this facilitate the process of
repatriation (Rogers & Ward, 1993). By doing so, both physical repatriation and mental transition can be facilitated. It applies in particular to expats returning with family and/or returning to home countries where relatively much has changed since their departure (Black et al., 1992a).
Fig. 3. Model of effective repatriation.
By addressing these four determinants during the stay and handle them correctly, a proper foundation is created for the third step, post return. Determinants for the third step will be added later in the paragraph below.
2.4. Post return
Upon return in the home country, the last phase of the repatriation starts, the post return phase. Research has found that returnees, after return, experience a loss of context equal to the experience during expatriation in the host country. Scholars have labeled this phenomena as the reverse culture shock or the W-curve model (Gullahorn & Gullahorn, 1963). Some scholars have argued that the W-curve model has limited support (Susana, 2001;
Onwumechili et al., 2003) or is a more a ‘flat’ W-curve since a familiar setting, home country, implies less distress to adjust compared to a entirely new setting (Adler, 1981).
However, scholars agree that a cross-cultural transition implies difficulties to a certain extent.
Therefore, attention needs to be raised regarding these difficulties. According to Black et al.
(1992a) there are four different determinants that can influence returnees’ repatriation. These are explained below.
2.4.1. Individual variables
Under this variable, three personal attributes emerge that will help expats to adjust to the host country and also be of great importance when it comes to repatriation (Black et al., 1992a;
Ward et al., 2001). The first one is self-oriented factors, which are mainly about how strong the expat’s self-image holds. Under the second category, the relational-oriented factor can be found first. It describes the level of communication and contact with the home country of the expat. Perceptual-orientated factors are how the expat can deal with the understanding of invisible cultural rules and norms.
Even if these factors help both in the host country and after returning to the home country, it can also cause problems. This reasoning is because people with a high level of these variables may find that they have adjusted so well to the host country that it will be harder to repatriate afterward. For example, if an expat adjusted to the culture and norms of the host-country, it might be challenging to go back to the home country. The longer the expat’s stay, the harder it is to have successful repatriation (Black & Gregersen, 1999).
2.4.2. Job variables
Another important aspect when it comes to a successful repatriation is the job variables. For example it is important that the job description and role clarity are relevant when going back to the home country. When it comes to clarity it is often a fact that an expat that returns home after a successful international assignment is expected to be promoted after returning home.
This is also said to be one of the main reasons why an employee accepts an international assignment. Some studies have shown that this is often not the case. These studies show that returning expats often will find themselves being demoted to a lower position then they had as an expat (O’Sullivan, 2002).
2.4.3. Organizational variables/Communication
The home organizational protocol and repatriation approach can either support or obstruct the process. It is crucial that the company is transparent and supportive when it comes to
communicating the steps and how the process of repatriation will proceed upon return. It may also be necessary for the company to review various financial compensation packages for the expat in facilitate the transfer (Black et al., 1992b; Feldman, 1991; Paik et al., 2002; Black et al., 1992a).
2.4.4. Network Variables
Often, expats feel they have an increase in their social status when they are in the host country. They feel more special in the host country, and they feel more important. However, they are in for a shock when returning home as the expat feels less special. Another aspect
that could cause problems for the expatriate upon return is the housing conditions. It is common for expats to sell their house or terminate their lease when they leave their home country. If they do not get assistance from the company after returning home, this can cause some problems that can lead to discomfort and problems (Feldman, 1991).
The last variable that the model brings up is the re-adjustment of the spouse, and this is the problem that was brought up earlier with the family aspect. When an expat agrees to take on an international assignment, the entire family dynamic changes and partners often need to quit their jobs and find a new one, and the children need to start at a new school. Then, when the assignment is over, and repatriation begins all these changes most likely happen again, and the problem is often that the family has become too comfortable and well established in the host country.
Figure 4 Model of effective repatriation
By addressing these three determinants after returning to the home country and handling them correctly, a proper foundation is created for how a successful repatriation should be done. A final part will be in the theoretical summary, which will also show the finished model for how scholars argue that successful repatriation should be handled.
2.5. Effective repatriation process
The three step model by Jasawalla (2004) above are supplemented with theories developed by various scholars (Chew, 2004; Solomon, 1995; Varner & Palmer, 2002). While the sections above regarded more psychological variables, this model draws on more practical steps of the repatriation process. The various steps of the model will be examined below.
2.5.1. Shortly after return
When it is time to return to the home country it is quite common that a perfect position does not exist at the home office. If this is the case Chew and Debowski (2008) suggest that the company should find a temporary position for the returnee until a more suitable long term position opens up. It is then important that the expat understands this is just a temporary solution.
Furthermore, shortly after the return, the company should show the expat appreciation.
Firstly, by having an interview where a high ranked manager sits down and try to see how the knowledge could be transferred. Also, figuring out how the expat now can be utilized better is important in addition to also review possible problems regarding the repatriation that far.
An event could also be in place to welcome the expat and his/her family home. A lot might have changed at the office, e.g. new employees and managers that the expat does not know yet (Chew & Debowski 2008).
2.5.2 Review of international assignment
Scholars have found different areas of concern for expats upon returning to their home country. These are cultural, financial and job-related issues (Napier & Peterson, 1991). It is therefore important to take care of such concerns through continuous communication
between expat and home country (Chew & Debowski 2008). This approach also applies when returning to the home country to evaluate the experiences of expats. Interviews or set surveys can, therefore, be conducted approximately two months after return. It is recommended that spouses be included to get their point of view (ibid). Also, an evaluation is recommended by Chew and Debowski (2008) to discuss topics such as the effectiveness of the repatriation process; review possible support gaps, comparison between the company’s expatriation strategy and other similar businesses. The feedback from the interviews or surveys serves as a vital source of knowledge that can be widely disseminated throughout the organization. It also signals that the company is transparent about this feedback and also nurtures the well- being of those returning home.
2.6. Theoretical summary
Fig. 5 Final theoretical model for a successful repatriation
A comprehensive model that visualizes how an effective repatriation can be seen as a coherent and reversed three-step process beginning already prior departure to the host country. By following this
In an increasingly globalized world, large corporations need to transfer more knowledge by sending out employees abroad. Working in and adjusting to a foreign setting implies a significant physical and not least mental change. If employers do not address the issue properly, international assignments are more likely to fail in terms of premature return or resignation during or shortly after return. Moreover, these resignations imply significant financial losses and also a loss of knowledge. However, the extent of the losses also depends on what type of expat that was sent and what the goals of the organization and employee were. Then, upon return, there is an existing misconception that moving home is not a problem. Therefore, little focus is placed on repatriation process. By re-conceptualizing the entire repatriation process by viewing all three steps – prior, during and post – as part of the
process, the authors develop a complete model for a successful repatriation. Scholars suggest that by following these steps, the likelihood of long-term returns long term will be increased and valuable knowledge will be transferred between units and employees within large corporations. Simultaneously, by having a well-functioning repatriation process in place, international assignments continue to be a lucrative means to advance one’s career, and consequently, interest for sojourns is maintained. Ultimately, this leads to updated knowledge being transferred continuously and large corporations remain competitive in this
ever-changing world.
3. Methodology
In order to answer the research question in paragraph 1.4, the model illustrated in figure 5 has been chosen. The model draws on multiple theories suggested by scholars and it will constitute the foundation for collecting the data needed to fulfill the purpose of the thesis. In this section, the authors explain how the study will be conducted and designed in order to reach the purpose of the thesis.
3.1. Qualitative and quantitative methods
Since the study was both exploratory as well as explanatory, both a qualitative method as well as a quantitative method was used. The qualitative minor part of the study in the first step consisted of a smaller pre-study in form of two semi structured interviews. For the quantitative major part of the study, survey questionnaires were used. Subsequently, follow- up questions were asked to survey respondents to gain deeper insights. The qualitative pre- study was conducted in order to ensure that questions for the survey questionnaire would be suitable and aligned with the subject of the thesis (Bryman & Bell, 2011, p.13). Also, the quantitative survey was chosen since it gave a better chance to reach more respondents. By using both methods, the aspiration was to minimize the drawbacks of each method, i.e.
retaining a sufficient data set and similarly gain sufficient depth (ibid, p. 14)
3.2. Selection of approaches and methods
Among the various epistemological point of views that can be chosen for a research study, this study used a interpretivist standpoint. The motive for this choice was that this study – unlike natural science – put more emphasis on individuals and the social context surrounding them. Furthermore, conducting research also calls for applying an appropriate approach, either an inductive and more exploratory approach or a deductive and more explanatory approach (Patton 2002). However, when conducting the data collection for this study a mixture of these approaches was used, a so called abductive approach.
This approach is deemed to be the most suitable since (1) the repatriation field has not been given as much attention as expatriation and thus (2) the field has not been researched
extensively over the past three decades (Szkudlarek, 2010. An abductive approach, therefore, was used throughout the study in order to balance the issue of examining existing theories as well as the possibility to generate novel knowledge.
Since existing theories was tested, the data sample needs to consist of a certain quantum in
order to gain legitimacy and be valid for a generalization of the answers. Hence, the main method for this thesis will be quantitative with an abductive approach. However, as mentioned earlier, some pre-study interviews were conducted at the early stage and eventually at the end of the data collection open follow-up questions were sent to all those who answered the survey. Thereby a mix between quantitative and qualitative was used. As mentioned above, theories were tested but the intention of the authors was some new
variables would be added to the final model. This way of working gives abductive approach a broader legitimacy where old theories will be used as well as the belief of adding new theory to the repatriation field. The choice for this was based on the fact that there are existing theories about the subject. Simultaneously, these theories have not been extensively
examined lately and possible new knowledge within this academic field might have emerged.
Also, scholars themselves suggest that more research within the field is necessary
(Szkudlarek, 2010). Moreover, after deciding an approach, a means to collect data for the study was decided. Different methods have their different areas where they are suitable (Holme & Solvang, 1997). Our choice is presented below, 3.4.
3.3 Operationalization
In order to make sense of what questions that should be asked to answer the research question, the three step framework we created in the theory section was used.
Each of the variables that the theoretical framework states are needed in order to make an effective repatriation have been used and broken down into various questions. Exactly what questions and how they connect to theory, and thus are expected to answer questions, can be seen in appendix 1 (survey and pre-study) and appendix 2 (follow-up questions). In the last step of our data collection when follow-up questions were asked, the questions were instead more open since more depth was desired to be extracted from the answers. The open
questions asked here were selected from the survey questionnaire and altered a bit in order to make the respondents elaborate a bit more on the answer. The questions that were chosen were either questions where the statistical data from the survey was unclear or not sufficient or questions that were adequate and that more thorough answers would be interesting. What these questions were meant to answer, and what part of the three step model they linked to, is showed in the survey questions and can be seen in appendix 2.
3.4. Data collection
3.4.1. Interviews
In order to conduct the study, additional pre-study interviews (appendix 2) were arranged before the questionnaires were submitted to examine how returnees today experience the repatriation process. The strive was that these interviews would give a more comprehensible view of issues related to the repatriation process by (1) gaining deeper insights about existing issues problematized in the theory section and by extension (2) to encounter possible issues that unintentionally were overlooked in the theory section. Through these interviews, the aspiration is to supplement the theory section in order to compose a questionnaire that is as extensive as possible in order to make the study as true and correct as possible. The
interviewees were employees in Swedish and German companies. One of the interviews was done face to face in Stockholm whereas the second interview was conducted through Skype since the expat today lives in the US. After the data collection, some survey questions were examined more in depth by submitting a questionnaire with open questions to survey
respondents. Of all 103 survey respondents 8 respondents replied to these follow-up question.
Not all 103 respondents wanted to leave their email address in the survey questionnaire and thus potential number of respondents to be reached was decreased. The data from the follow- up questions (appendix 8) data was then interpreted by a thematic analysis where certain themes and patterns were found.
After the data was collected from the two pre-study interviews, the original questionnaire was slightly adjusted. The decision was based on the feedback from the two pre-study
interviewees. The questionnaire was then submitted in several expat groups. Subsequently, after closing the survey, the second follow-up questionnaire (appendix 5) was sent to all those who wrote their email address in the first questionnaire.
3.4.2. Surveys
The sample for the data of this study was found amongst public expat groups on social media, e.g. “Expats in XX”. By submitting surveys (appendix 4) through such groups the survey will potentially reach around 100.000 respondents. Simultaneously, the groups were deemed to contain a large sample of respondents who disqualify for the survey since they are not sent abroad by companies and thereby are excluded from the survey. It is difficult to know the exact numbers of respondents that will be needed since the total population of expats who have been expats the past 15 years is unclear and difficult to establish. However, it is clear
that a large sample will be needed in order to be representative entirely for the population and it is anticipated that the great sample offered through these various groups ensure a high validity. By conducting the data collection this way it differed from the majority of similar studies within the field. Namely, previous studies have mainly taken a corporate standpoint where the respondents have been found amongst executives in companies. Instead, this study approached the subject from an expat’s perspective and the answers were not interfered by any companies since respondents answered the survey privately. The survey (appendix 4) was a structured questionnaire with both open answers and ‘yes or no’ answers as well as a majority of graded answers, i.e. a scale. The scale 1-7 was chosen since it was an uneven number where 4 is a neutral answer and there are three options on each side which give a sufficient number of higher and lower answers. 1 is the lowest, implying ‘disagree’ with the statement whereas 7 is the highest and implies ‘fully agree’.
In order to ensure that all the different parts of the theory will be represented in the
questionnaire, a table is created where all sections of the theory are represented and explained what they are supposed to answer and which questions are linked to what subject. The table is enclosed in appendix 2.
Under the last item in the questionnaire, respondents could leave their mail address in case we wanted to ask follow-up questions to get more depth about certain questions.
3.5. Data analysis
Firstly, even if the purpose to conduct two pre-study interviews mainly was to ensure relevant questions in the first questionnaire, a decision was made to include these answers in the empirics section. Questions where respondents answer ‘other’ and state specific answers, a type of thematic analysis will be used in order to, if possible, sort these answers under one of the categories suggested in the questionnaire.
Moreover, all graded questions along with ‘yes or no’ questions will first be examined and presented in a regression analysis (appendix 6). This, in order to find possible links between various variables that might affect the perception of the repatriation process. When analyzing model 1 and 2 in the regression analysis, p-value lower than 0.05 indicates significance level of 5%. Regarding t-values in model 3 and 4, values below and above (-2 – +2) indicates the result is significant for a population.
In the next step, possible correlations between all determinants affecting the repatriation will be presented in a table (appendix 7). Here, 0,25 will be chosen to describe that some sort of
correlation exists. Subsequently, the data will be calculated and presented continuously in the empirics section, e.g. averages and number of respondents giving a certain answer. The numbers presented will be rounded up and presented in three different steps in accordance with the final three step model under paragraph 2.6.
Furthermore, lower alternatives will be grouped together and higher answers will be grouped together in two different groups in order to show differences between them. Lastly, some questions will not be suitable to include in a regression analysis. Hence, those questions (appendix 8) are going to be analyzed collateral and only presented descriptively under the empirics section. Also, the question regarding what country the home office is based in has been divided between ‘Sweden’ and ‘Other’ in order to distinguish possible patterns to examine if some conclusion can be drawn from this data.
3.6. Criticism of the paper
3.6.1. Limitations on the theory
The theory section is set to give an overall view. Theories from the most relevant and respected scholars in the academic field of repatriation has been used. The theories are
eventually added together to give the theoretical framework that will be used as an outline for the study. As been debated through the thesis is the fact that the studies and theories which have been the central part for this paper is from the 80s and 90s. It means that things might have changed during the last 30 years. Even though newer studies have been added in the theory section, older studies still remain the corpus within the field. Nevertheless, this only implies how important further studies within the field is. Moreover, some theories about repatriation have been excluded from this thesis since they either go against the general opinion or have their focus in other areas than this paper.
3.6.2. Limitations of the study
Since it is important that the study is conducted without any links to companies, the survey will, as mentioned above, be distributed through social media. One can argue if this is a limitation or not in this study. By doing the collection this way, some of the power of selecting who the respondents are is taken away. Even if only expats are requested for this study, others who are non-expats and members of these groups may answer even if they disqualify. However, the need for a large sample of respondents, together with the specific request and the closed groups with focus on expatriates is deemed to still constitute a solid
sample. Another limitation of the way this study is designed is that respondents might skip answering certain questions and this is difficult to control and figure out why certain questions might be skipped. After the data collection was finalized, we could see that of all 103 respondents, the question with the lowest response rate had 94 answers which still is 91%
of the total respondents.
3.7. Trustworthiness
An essential objective of a quantitative study is validity, which can be divided into four subcategories. (1) Measurement validity: by using graded and ‘yes or no’ questions coding is possible, i.e. the requisite to use suitable and correct means to examine a phenomena is ensured. (Bryman & Bell, 2011, p. 42). (2) internal validity, here regression analysis and correlation are used in order to ensure causality between different variables, e.g. X depends on Y and not any other unknown variable (ibid.). (3) external validity: by mainly using quantitative method, the data is valid in an external context outside of this study and results can be deemed to hold water in a more generalized setting. Lastly, (4) this study holds ecological validity since it regards a profound existing problem and not only a created, artificial phenomenon. In this study, the topic is indeed of a nature that does affect the daily life of those returnees repatriating from abroad.
Furthermore, by using a quantitative method, a good reliability is ensured since numbers are easier to transfer unlike qualitative interviews, which are more, contextual bound. The data in this study can be conducted repeatedly but still conclude similarly (Bryman & Bell, 2011, p.
41). Throughout this methodology section, the strive has been to give an as extensive explanation as possible in order to guide the reader how the study will be conducted. By doing this, future researchers are given the chance to conduct and test a similar study.
Thereby, the degree of replicability is deemed to be sufficient. The degree of replicability is strongly linked to a good reliability and is particularly important in this study since
quantitative method is chosen (Bryman Bell, 2011, p.42).
4.0. Empirics
Under this section, the data collection of the study will be presented. First, the smaller, qualitative part of the study will be introduced. The second section brings up the core of data collection, the survey results. All survey responses can be found in the form of tables and diagrams for each question.
Operationalization, survey results and interview responses can all be found in appendix 1-8.
4.1. Interview findings
In this section, the two pre-interviews that were conducted before the survey will be merged together with the seven follow-up questions. These nine answers of respondents will once again be structured according to our three step model.
4.1.2. Pre departure
When conducting the pre-study interviews and asking the follow-up questions, it was evident that the majority of the respondents fitted well for an international assignment. They travelled and/or lived abroad before. One respondent said, “I was studying abroad and been traveling for longer periods previously and therefore wanted to live and work abroad”. A majority of the respondents answered in line with this quote. Six of nine interviewees said that one of their main reasons for accepting the assignment was the desire to live in another country with a different culture. Answers like “Always interested in working abroad and experience other cultures” were common. Only two of the respondents were evaluated throughout the process of being selected for an international assignment. However, all respondents either had a global mindset, due to their previous international experience, or were open minded and keen on new cultures. The majority of the respondents never had any CCT which some
respondents said caused problems since they were not prepared for what to come. Two respondents had some CCT before going but felt it was carried out poorly. When asked if respondents had an agreement declaring conditions or position on return, many respondents answered they had no signed agreement. Not having an agreement in place caused problems and concerns for all respondents since it was an uncertainty for them what would happen after the international assignment. Regarding this, one respondent said “It was also a
challenge to find an appropriate position within the company”. Before departing, both of the pre-study interviewees had a set time for the international assignment, two years and 18 months. However, for various reasons, both respondents had to stay longer than they
originally agreed upon which was frustrating since they both had planned to move back and found themselves in a position where they felt they did not have any power to negotiate a sooner return.
4.1.2. During the stay
Eight of the respondents had, more or less, continuous contact with their home office. Three respondents said it was part of their assignment to be a link between the home office and the host office. In general the communication regarded work related issues and not as much private and career related issues as the respondents wished. “HR visited me once during 1,5 year and there was barely any dialogue”, one respondents answered. When the pre-study respondents were asked about visits to home country, one respondent who worked as a link between the two offices estimated to visit the home office six to eight times a year. The other expat, who worked more with gaining knowledge from the host office, visited the home office two times a year. When asked if the respondents considered the communication with home office to be important, the majority thought it was
important. A respondent said “Overall the contact was good but I think you can never have too much contact”. Contact made them feel like they still were a part of the home office. Hence, they could keep in contact with their colleagues and managers. None of the respondents said they had any kind of pre-return training or that it was even mentioned and it was nothing they reflected on. However, when reading other questions implicitly, it indicates that they thought it would have helped them to prepare for problems when coming back. For example, one respondent said “They should definitely assist in the same way as when sent abroad as the difficulties are the same even if you speak the native language”.
4.1.3. Post return
Eight respondents encountered problems regarding the relocation. Two of the interviewees said they terminated their lease before going abroad or and a third said he never ever had his own housing the home country which implied that all three respondents had to find new housing after return. One respondents left the home country right after finishing the
university studies and experienced major problems upon return 11 years later, “The difficult part was that I was expected to handle all matters for me and my Japanese wife and 2 sons with housing and other necessary matters on my own as the company thought nothing of it as I was a Swedish national”. Another respondents said “I would have liked more support in relation to the first assignment, mostly in relation to schooling of children”. None of the respondents got any real assistance from their employer. One respondent mentioned that tax issues were handled by the employer. One respondent could not find any lease and for that
