Coping with stress in a school and office environment : self reported stress and coping behaviour for teachers and administrative assistants

LICENTIATE THESIS

1989:08 L

COPING WITH STRESS IN A SCHOOL

AND OFFICE ENVIRONMENT

Self Reported Stress and Coping Behaviour for

Teachers and Administrative Assistants

Eva Brenner Wallius

Department of Technical Psychology

May 1989

TEKNISKA

HOGSKOLAN I WI.EA

COPING WITH STRESS IN A

SCHOOL AND OFFICE

ENVIRONMENT:

SELF REPORTED STRESS AND

COPING BEHAVIOUR FOR

TEACHERS AND ADMINISTRATIVE

ASSISTANTS

April 25, 1989 Eva Brenner Wallius

Arbetsenheten for Tcknisk Psykologi Tekniska llogskolan i Luleii

Preface

The studies included in this thesis have been funded by The Swedish Work Environ­

ment Fund, and/or The Swedish Council for Research in the Humanities and Social

Sciences.

I would like to thank my employers who have supported me during the work on the

different studies included in this thesis. They are in chronological order: The Labora­

tory for Clinical Stress Research, Karolinska I nstitutet; The Swedish Board for Occu­

pational Safety and Health; Lulea University of Technology; and IBM Nordic

Laboratories.

My advisor Docent Yvonne Waern, University of Stockholm, and my husband Olof

gave me support and encouragement during the work.

ABSTRACT

The theme of this thesis is the dynamic interaction that takes place between person and environment, when an individual tries to deal with, and attempt to overcome problems and difficulties in the working environment. This has been called the coping process. Different approaches with regard to theory and methodology has been reviewed, and two empirical studies of coping with work related problems was conducted.

Self-reported coping behaviour among teachers was studied through questionnaires presented two times during a school year. The coping behaviour reported at the first presentation of the questionnaire was found to affect the decrease in general strain as reported six months later.

Coping behaviour related to computer work in an office environment was explored through interviews with administrative assistants. Type of situation was found to be important for type of coping strategy used. Although there was individual differences in type of, and number of different coping strategies reported for each problem, all participants described the use of a repertoire of coping techniques.

In the traditional stress model, different variables are evaluated as single determinants with interactional effects. An alternative view is the transactional approach, where the relationships between person variables and situational variables are evaluated as qualitatively different person-environment transactions which lead to different types of coping behaviour. This approach demands that data is gathered simultaneously about the situation, the cognitive and emotional processes of the individual, and actual behaviour. Consequently, the use of a combination of different methods for studying the coping process is advocated.

Table of Contents

Preface

ABSTRACT

Chapter 1. SUMMARY

I-1

Introduction

1-3

Conclusions

1-5

References

1-6

Chapter 2. LITERATURE REVIEW

2-1

Introduction

2-3

Stress Research

2-5

Coping Research

2-11

Conclusions

2-23

References

2-25

Appendix

2-33

Chapter 3. EMPIRICAL STUDY I

3-1

Introduction

3-3

A Core Model of Teacher Stress

3-3

Method

3-3

Results

3-6

Conclusions and Discussion

3-10

Acknowledgements

3-11

References

3-11

Chapter 4. EMPIRICAL STUDY II

4-1

Introduction

4-3

Method

4-4

Results

4-5

Discussion and Conclusions

4-11

References

4-12

Appendix A. Coping Classifications

A-I

Appendix B. Problems Reported

B-1

Chapter 1. SUMMARY

Introduction

1-3

The Coping Process

1-3

Teacher Stress and Coping

1-4

Coping Behaviour Among Administrative Assistants

1-5

Conclusions

1-5

References

1-6

Introduction

Over the past decades, the interaction between person and environment has been dem-onstrated within occupational psychology and occupational stress research. Relation-ships have been found between environmental factors (physical, technical,

organizational and social) and individual factors (physiological, and psychological). Occupational stress research has identified a number of significant work environment factors that influence the health and well-being of employees (Levi, 1971). Departing from these findings, attention has been drawn to the importance of individual charac-teristics and the ability of the individual to moderate the effects of a stressful working environment (Blau, 1981; Cohen & Wills, 1985; Cooper & Crump, 1978; Cummings & Cooper, 1979). A situation might cause a stress reaction in one person but not in another. The control, buffering, or inhibition of the stress process by the individual have also been called coping.

The coping process and related variables have been essentially neglected in occupa-tional stress research, not necessarily because they are considered unimportant, but because of the lack of appropriate theories and methods to study coping (Folkman,

1982; Cummings & Cooper, 1979). It is critical for occupational psychologists to understand the mechanisms for coping with stress. The working environment is rapidly changing as well as increasing in complexity. It is not possible to identify and remove from a working place all possible sources of stress and strain. Hence, there is an increasing need for efficient strategies by the individual for handling the physical and psycho-social aspects of the work environment. The identification and exploration of these coping mechanisms can lead to more effective programs for training and treat-ment of personnel. This could also open possibilities for establishing guidelines and directives for the design of future working environments.

According to Webster's Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary (1987), the verb cope means "...to maintain a contest or combat usually on even terms or with success." or "...to deal

with and attempt to overcome problems and difficulties.". This explanation reflects the complex nature of the coping process and consequently leads to a number of questions concerning the nature of coping, the mechanisms of coping, and the manifestations of coping that arise as one is approaching coping research and coping theory. Is coping always related to conscious, goal-directed actions, or can defense mechanisms be labelled coping? Is coping the successful mastering of problems or does the coping concept also embrace behaviour that is unsuccessful in reducing stress? What is the difference between coping and problem-solving? Does coping follow stress, or does it follow the threat that could lead to stress in the event of unsuccessful coping? Are mental strain and distress indicators of previous maladaptive coping? Is successful coping also accompanied by psychological strain?

The Coping Process

In a review of coping research (Wallius, 1985) a variety of different perspectives used for studying the concept were presented. The approaches were different with regard to the situations studied and the methods used. This was also reflected in the ways coping was defined. In socio-psychological studies where the situations were non-specific, and extended over a long time span, coping was defined in terms of a general way of reacting to the environment. Within this general approach, the concept of coping was used to mean a general behavioural pattern, cognitive style, or problem solving strategy, used to act or react upon the environment.

In other definitions used, coping was described as the behaviour that in fact gives a positive outcome, that is, reduces stress, strain, or physical pain, and leads to improved

performance. This definition was used in experimental studies of coping where the sit-uation was controlled and the participants instructed to use a certain way of coping. Coping has also been defined as the process of trying to manage environmental and internal demands. This approach focused on the transaction between the person and the situation. The observable behaviour was regarded as the result of cognitive proc-esses where the individual estimates the risk and the opportunity involved in a specific situation. Lazarus and his colleagues (Lazarus & Launier, 1978; Coyne, Aldwin & Lazarus, 1981; Folkman & Lazarus, 1980), described these processes as primary and secondary appraisal.

The type of coping examined and/or observed seemed to be dependent on the type of situation studied. For simple and easily defined situations that were of limited range in time and involved one easily identified stressor, it was possible to identify specific coping behaviour and evaluate their appropriateness. In experimental settings where the type of stressors were anxiety or pain, cognitive coping strategies like distraction and self-statements were adequate. However, it is important to keep in mind that as a participant in an experiment it is part of the common understanding to accept the situ-ation as it is, and not try to change it. In studies of real life situsitu-ations, different types of coping behaviour have been identified through factor-analysis of questionnaire mate-rial. There seemed to be a consensus among researchers concerning two main classes of coping behaviour; problem-oriented behaviour directed toward the environment, and emotion-oriented behaviour directed toward the self. A third category representing cognitive reevaluation, was also identified in some studies.

It was proposed as a result from the review of coping research that a broad definition of coping, incorporating cognitive and emotional processes as well as direct actions where the goal is to affect the own stress process should be used. It was also con-cluded that coping involved conscious goal oriented cognitive processes as well as unconscious defence mechanisms, and that the outcome of coping behaviour could be successful as well as unsuccessful. A combination of different methods was concluded to be necessary to capture the person - situation transaction that takes place during the coping process.

Teacher Stress and Coping

In a study of teacher stress and coping (Brenner, Sörbom, & Wallius, 1985) self-reported coping strategies at the first term of the school year, were found to be related to decreased levels of general strain six months later. It was found through LISREL analysis that student related strain at term I was a better predictor of general strain at term II than the student related strain at term II. This was interpreted as reflecting some kind of adaptation or coping. The way the teacher evaluated and reacted to the potential threat related to students at term I, determined the level of general strain perceived six months later. Both avoidant palliative behaviour, and direct action were significantly related to positive change in general strain. I Iowever, only 30% of the var-iance in the change in general strain could be explained.

Although statistically significant, the coping effect found was weak. It was suggested that the efficiency of the coping process was different depending on the time perspec-tive, where the long-term effects found in the study of teacher stress and coping could be characterized as adaptation. It was suggested that the most important coping was the short-term, immediate evaluation of and reaction to potentially harmful situations. This was hypothesized to give an immediate outcome and set the level of person-environment fit, which in case of negative result might require additional adaptation over longer time.

Coping Behaviour Among Administrative Assistants

The short-term coping process was studied through interviews of administrative assist-ants (Wallius, 1989). Data was gathered about specific situations associated with com-puter work. For each situation questions were asked about thoughts, feelings, and actions taken. It was found that the reported coping behaviour could be classified according to dimensions of coping derived From questionnaire information. Fre-quently, more than one type of coping was reported for a problem situation.

The types of coping strategies used varied for different situations and different individ-uals, although a some degree of consistency could be identified. The interviews indi-cated that primary and secondary appraisal takes place, and that the result of this appraisal may be of importance for choice of actual behaviour.

Conclusions

The socio-psychological type of coping research can be described as person oriented, since the manifest behaviour is primarily studied as dependent upon the person's per-sonality, or general orientation towards the environment. The experimental approach is focusing on the situation and it is often implicitly assumed that a certain type of coping behaviour is more or less appropriate with regard to the situation, and inde-pendent of the individual. The ecological relevance of experimentally controlled situ-ations may be very low, and if the possibility for each participant to react and act according to the own appraisal of the situation is restricted, little knowledge may have been gained about coping. When using the transactional approach it is necessary to collect information about the situation, as perceived by the individual, and the resources and opportunities, as perceived by the individual.

The transactional approach requires that the pattern of relationships between situational variables and characteristics of the individual is evaluated as qualitatively different person-environment transactions which leads to different types of coping behaviour. This represents an alternative view to the stress model where different vari-ables are evaluated as single determinants with interactional effects.

A transactional approach to studying coping processes requires that information is col-lected concurrently about the situation, cognitive and emotional processes of the indi-vidual, and observable behaviour. This in turn makes the research design complex, where a combination of different instruments, measurements, and analysis methodol-ogies might be necessary. Similarly, the problem situations studied should be selected to be ecologically relevant, and provide enough freedom for the individuals to act and react according to their own subjective appraisal of the situation and their own coping abilities.

Results from the studies presented in this thesis support the approach described above. The use of repeated measurements for studying long term coping or adaptation, and interviews for studying the coping process in specific situations, proved to be a fruitful way of achieving more knowledge about the important mechanisms of coping.

References

Blau,

G.

(1981). An empirical investigation of job stress, social support, service length, and job strain. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 27,279-302.

Brenner, S-0., Sörbom,

D.

& Wallius,

E.

(1985). The Stress Chain: A Longitudinal Confirmatory Study of Teacher Stress, Coping and Social Support. Journal of

Occu-pational Psychology, 58, 1-13.

Cooper,

C.

L. & Crump,

J.

(1978). Prevention and coping with occupational stress.

Journal of Occupational Medicine, 20, 6, 420-426.

Cohen, S. & Wills, T. A. (1985). Stress, social support and the buffering hypotheses.

Psychological Bulletin, 98, 2, 310-357.

Coyne,

J. C.,

& Aldwin,

C.

& Lazarus,

R.

S. (1981). Depression and coping in stressful episodes. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 90,5, 439-447.

Cummings, T.

G.

& Cooper,

C.

L. (1979). A cybernetic framework for studying occu-pational stress. Human Relations, 32, 395-418.

Folkman, S. (1982). An approach to the measurement of coping. Journal of

Occupa-tional Behaviour, 3, 95-107.

Folkman, S. & Lazarus,

R.

S. (1980). An analysis of coping in a middle-aged commu-nity sample. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 21, 219-239.

Lazarus,

R.

S. & Launier,

R.

(1978). Stress related transactions between person and environment. In: Pervin, L. A. & Lewis, M.

(Eds.)

Perspectives in Interactional Psy-chology. Plenum Press, N.Y., pp 287-327.

Levi, L. (Ed.)(1971). Society, Stress and Disease. Vo1.1: The Psychosocial Environment

and Psychosomatic Diseases. London: Oxford University press.

Wallius,

E.

(1985). The Coping Process: A Comparative Review of Coping in Theory and Research. Undersökningsrapport 1985:42, Arbetarskyddstyrelsen,

Forskningsavdelningen, Arbetspsykologiska enheten.

Wallius,

E.

(1989). Coping Behaviour Among Administrative Assistants During Work

With Computers. (Article to be submitted for publication.)

Webster's Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary. (1987). Merriam-Webster Inc.

Chapter 2. LITERATURE REVIEW

Wallius,

E.

The Coping Process: A Comparative Review of Coping in Theory and Research. Undersökningsrapport 1985:42, Arbetarskyddstyrelsen,

Forskningsavdelningen, Arbetspsykologiska enheten.

Introduction

2-3

Stress Research

2-5

Stimulus-based or situational approaches 2-5

Response-based approaches 2-6

Interactional approaches 2-7

Stress and coping 2-8

Coping Research

2-11

Definitions of coping 2-11

Manifestations of coping 2-12

Coping and defences 2-14

Coping and adaptation 2-16

Coping and problem-solving 2-17

Measuring coping 2-20

Conclusions

2-23 Theoretical implications 2-23 Methodological implications 2-23

References

2-25

Appendix

2-33

-2

ABSTRACT

The development of coping research from stress research is reviewed. The coping phenomenon is discussed in, relation to psychological theory, and models of stress and coping are presented. Coping research is reviewed in terms • of theories, methods and results. Theoretical and methodological implications are discussed. It is proposed that coping should be defined as behaviour, overt or covert, conscious or unconscious, performed as a result of perceived strain and with the aim of reducing this strain. Research on coping should be designed to capture the dynamic process or transaction between person and environment.

1 INTRODUCTION

That people are affected by their environment is well known. Relationships have been demonstrated between (a) physical, technical, organizational, social and socio- cultural environmental factors, and

(b)

physiological, psychological and social consequences for the individual. In environmental research different paradigms have been employed depending either on the nature of the, factors forming the focus of interest, e.g. environmental (physical, organizational), or individual (psychological, physiological, and social), or on the level of analysis (micro, macro). See Beehr & Newman, 1978; Bronfenbrenner, 1977; Cummings & Cooper, 1979; Lazarus, Cohen, Folkman, Kanner & Schaefer, 1980; Stokols, 1978. .

How people interact with their environment is an important research problem in many branches of psychology. Within ecological psychology and person-situation-interaction psychology, situations have been defined and described according to the basic assumption that environmental effects are mediated through the perception of actual situations (Bronfenbrenner, 1977; Holahan & Spearly, 1980; Magnusson, 1981; 1982). Cognitive psychologists have studied the way people perceive the environment (Lindsey & Norman, 1972) and how they interpret it (Gentner & Stevens, 1983; Kaplan & Kaplan, 1982). In stress research there have been attempts to capture all interrelated parts of the interaction, from situational characteristics, via psychological mechanisms, to reactions by the individual. Cognitive processes and appraisal and their significance in the interaction between person and environment have been emphasized

by Lazarus (1966). This approach assumes that the person

evaluates each transaction with the environment with respect to its significance for the person's well-being (Cummings & Cooper, 1979; Lazarus et al, 1980; Shalit, 1977).

Some models of stress where the focus of research interest is on stimulus or responses also take into account the fact that individuals react differently in different situations. A situation might cause a stress reaction in one person but not in another. This implies not only some sort of appraisal, evaluation or information processing on the part of the individual, but also that the result of this Processing determines whether a stress reaction occurs or not. The control, buffering or inhibition of the stress process by the individual is called coping. The coping process and related variables have been relatively neglected in

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stress research, not necessarily because they are considered unimportant, but because of lack of appropriate theories and methods to study coping (Folkman, 1982).

The coping concept and phenomena, in relation to stress and strain will be explored in the following essay. Some remarks should be made on the use of terminology. "Stress" here denotes psychological and physiological reactions by the individual, due to environmental strain. "Stressor" denotes the environmental factors causing stress. "Stress process" denotes all steps from stressors to stress, including all mediating processes and the time dimension.

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2

STRESS RESEARCH

Stress research has been based on different psychological theories, depending on the part of the stress process or the type of independent and dependent variables that is focused on. The different definitions of stress can be divided in three main groups according to focus of interest: stimulus-based approaches, response-based approaches, and interactional approaches (Cox, 1978; Lazarus •& Launier, 1978; Laux & Vossel, 1982; McGrath, 1970). To classify stress research according to these categories, however, is sometimes problematic, since many studies theoretically attempt to incorporate more than one of these approaches, even if they are operationalized so that one approach is emphasized.

2.1

Stimulus-based or situational approaches

Stimulus-based approaches focus on the environmental factors, or stressors that cause reactions of stress. Some of these theories do not consider mediating cognitive processes. Any situation that requires coping or adaptation, for example "life changes", can according to such theories be considered stressful regardless of the desirability of the changes (Holmes & Rahe, 1967). Selye (1974, 1976) has thus labelled some stressors "good" (commitment to accomplishment) and others "bad" (frustration, resentment) irrespective of individual appraisal.

Other stimulus-oriented theories, however, incorporate individual appraisals. Research focus is on environmental conditions characterized by some degree of objective physical or psychological danger, but in addition stressful conditions must be appraised as threatening in order to evoke an anxiety reaction (Heinrich & Spielberger, 1982).

Within sociopsychological occupational stress research a number of sociopsychological situational factors related to individual stress reactions have been identified. Examples of such situational demands made upon the individual are (a) task characteristics: repetitive work, overload, underload (Frankenhaeuser, 1971; Gardell, 1976; Johansson, Aronsson &

Lindstrlm, 1978), role demands: role conflict, role ambiguity (Katz & Kahn, 1978),

(b)

organizational demands and

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characteristics: working schedules (Ikerstedt, Patkai & Dahlgren, 1977), the quality and quantity of control available to the individual (Karasek, 1981), and the quality and quantity of social support available to the individual (Blau, 1981; Caplan, Cobb, French, Harrison & Pinneau, 1975).

In occupational stress research particular emphasis has been placed on identifying specific and person independent stressors in the work environment. This has resulted in knowledge used to improve the general work environment, as well as increased understanding of the stress process. The use of the term "psychosocial", denoting the perception of environmental stimuli, emphazises the importance of the subjective appraisal and its effects on stress reactions and health. This is manifested (operationalized) by the use of self-report data with

questionnaire methods.

The situational approaches can be differentiated by their different approaches to or definitions of the situation. For this purpose it could be useful to make a distinction between "actual" and "perceived" situation (Magnusson, 1982). The actual situation is the objective situation independent of the individual's perception, while the perceived situation is the actual situation as perceived by the individual. In addition Magnusson separates "common psychological situations" from "unique psychological situations". In stimulus oriented stress research the term psychosocial obviously refers to the common situation rather than the unique situation. Thus a consequence of the stimulus-oriented approach is that stress. should be defeated by removing or avoiding all common potential sources of psychological stress, which it is assumed would have a general beneficial effect on all individuals.

2.2

Response-based approaches

Response-based approaches define stress in terms of reactions by the individual to environmental factors. These reactions take the form of nonspecific response patterns or arousal. A well-known theory within this approach is Seyle's theory of the General Adaptation Syndrome (Selye, 1974, 1976). Stress is defined as a state manifested by a specific syndrome consisting of nonspecifically induced changes within a biological system. Another approach is the specificity concept of stress. Specific stressors are connected via different physiological and biological systems to specific illnesses. (Lazarus et al, 1980;

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Lundberg, 1982; Mason, 1974).

In psychophysiological stress research the physiological and biological processes related to environmental strain on the individual have been explored. Catecholamine excretion, heart rate, blood pressure, EEG, skin conductance and muscle tension are examples of variables used as indicators of stress (Lundberg, 1984). Research has been conducted in order to analyse biochemical processes and their different relationships to perceived strain. Environmental strain and perceived stress have been found to affect health and well-being, resulting in various psychosomatic diseases (Levi, 1972; Levi, Frankenhaeuser & Gardell, 1981). Although the focus of interest is on the responses, the mediating role of the individual appraisal is theoretically accepted even if not studied empirically.

2.3

Interactional approaches

According to the interactional approach the interaction between the situation and the person determines behaviour. Stress is caused by an imbalance between perceived demands and perceived response capability (Cox, 1978; McGrath, 1970), or by a misfit between the individual's needs and the supplies provided by

the

environment (French, 1974). Psychological stress occurs when the situational demands tax or exceed available resources as appraised by the person involved (Lazarus & Launier, 1978). Interactional models of the stress process are used to explain differences in individual reactions due to stress. It is possible to differentiate between two types of interactional model.

Dynamic transactional models focus on the dynamic process of how a person evaluates the environment and reacts on it. A certain reaction gives a new situation, which is evaluated and reacted to, and so on in a continuously ongoing reciprocal process. This type of research has of course to be conducted within a time perspective (Folkman 1982; Folkman & Lazarus, 1980).

Static transactional stress research focuses on interacting or moderating situational or individual variables that affect behaviour. This interaction refers to unidirectional causality, and can be identified in cross-sectional studies. This type of interaction research has made it possible to identify major dimensions of situation characteristics interacting with the stress process. Environmental factors such as task variety, control and social support have been found to buffer or moderate

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the level of perceived stress (Blau, 1981; Gardell, 1980; Karasek, 1979; Karasek, Russell & Theorell, 1981; LaRocco & Jones, 1978; LaRocco, House & French, 1980; Lefcourt, Martin & Saleh, 1984). Person-specific characteristics found to be important in the stress process are personality characteristics: Type A (Lundberg & Forsman, 1979), locus of control (Lefcourt et al, 1984), and sociocultural factors: sex, age, social group, education, family social support (Billings & Moos, 1982).

2.4 Stress and coping

A conceptual model proposed by French and Kahn (1962) is the origin of many subsequent models of the stress process. See Figure 1. Kahn (1981) describes this conceptual model as consisting of four categories of hypothesis. Hypothesis of the A ' B category relate the objective work environment to the psychological environment; the B ' C category relates the psychological environment to immediate responses by the person; the C > D category deals with the effect of such responses on criteria of health and illness. The fourth category is the class of hypothesis that states that the A ' B , the B " C, and the C ' 0 relationships are modified by properties of the person and by interpersonal relations.

"...an adequate explanatory sequence...would consist of a chain of hypotheses beginning with some characteristic of the objective work environment, ending with some criterion of health, specifying the intervening variables in the psychological environment and in the immediate responses of the individual, and stating the ways in which this causal linkage is modified by the differing characteristics of individuals and interpersonal relations." (Kahn, 1981, p 21)

This quotation shows the problematic relationships between any assumed stress-model, and actual stress research based on such a model. My conclusion is that most models of stress, irrespective of their explicit assumptions (stimulus-oriented, response-oriented, or transactional), explicitly or implicitly conceptualize stress as a causal process, with interacting variables and (sometimes) feedback loops. By causal process, I mean that the C 0 relationship according to the model above is dependent on the preceding relationships, that is, the A ' B relationship, and the B " C relationship. However, in actual stress research these relationships have been studied one by one,

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rather than jointly as a chain of causal linkages. This might be due to two problems. First, the methodological difficulties involved in analysing causally interrelated variables by means of systems analysis, now partly solved by the LISREL method (Brenner, Slrbom & Wallius, 1985). Second, the problem of confounded measures involved in analysis of chains of interrelated variables (Lazarus, DeLongis, Folkman & Gruen, 1985).

Enduring properties of the person (genetic, demographic, personality)

Objective environment Psychological environment Response (physiological, behavioural, affective) Mental and physical health and disease B 4" D Interpersonal relations

Figure 1. Theoretical framework for research on the effects of work role on health. (French & Kahn, 1962)

Another characteristic in the model above, shared with subsequent models of stress, is the modifying or interacting variables, here "properties of the person" and "interpersonal relations". I consider these mediating and interacting factors to be a result of coping by the individual (an artefact of the coping process).

Lazarus et al. (1985) propose an alternative view of the stress concept, where stess is regarded as a complex rubric, or meaning sphere, consisting of a set of related but not similar variables. Instead of proposing a causal model, Lazarus et al (1985) provides a set of system variables, involved in stressful encounters, within a multivariate multiprocess system. This multiprocess system indicates variables considered fruitful to study. Coping is mentioned as a mediating process in conjunction with primary and secondary appraisal. In this multiprocess system it is inevitable that some variables are confounded, but this overlap refers to a fusion in nature rather than measurement errors.

"We urge researchers to be very wary of throwing out the baby with the bath water in their efforts to objectify stress as an event in the environment. The positivist position has, over the past 15 years, repeatedly failed to demonstrate its usefulness in stress and coping research." (Lazarus, DeLongis, Folkman & Gruen, 1985, p.778)

I think that this approach to coping and stress put special demands upon choice of design, measurement and analysis. Research has to be conducted so that the process over time is captured. Measures have to be valid and reliable so that the problem of confounded measures is minimized. The data gathered must be analysed as an interrelated system instead of analysed part by part.

3 COPING RESEARCH

Coping research focuses on mechanisms mediating the psychological and physiological reactions to environmental variables. The concept of coping is far from clearly defined and outlined in contemporary stress research. The coping concept reflects a complex phenomenon, as can be seen from the many different approaches to conceptualization and assessment (Billings & Moos, 1984).

Many issues concerning the nature of coping remain to be explored (Ilfeld, 1980). Does coping follow stress, or does it follow the threat or strain that could lead to stress in case of unsuccessful coping? Are mental strain and distress indicators of preceding maladaptive coping, or is successful coping also accompanied by psychological strain? Is coping always related to conscious, goal-directed actions, or can it take the form of unconscious defence mechanisms? It might be questioned whether coping is limited to successful anxiety-reducing and stress-reducing behaviour, or if the coping concept includes behaviour that is unsuccessful in reducing stress.

In this chapter I will review existing alternative approaches concerning the nature of coping, and different methodological approaches in coping. research. Previous research is systematically compared in Table 1, Appendix A, under the headings Definition of Coping, Subjects and Situations, Variables, Method, and Results.

3.1 Definitions of coping

The broadest definition of coping refers to a general way of reacting to the environment which is stable across context. In some of the definitions the relationship between stress and coping is not explicitly stated. Examples are coping defined as personality attributes (Vickers, Hervig, Rahe & Rosenman, 1981), functional strategies for survival and growth (Lowenstein, 1984), problem-solving sets (Meichenbaum, Henshaw & Hirne], 1982; Roberts, 1982), and style of adaptation (Murphy & Moriarty, 1976; Newman, 1979; Tennen, Affleck, Allen, McGrade & Ratzan, 1984).

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non-specific situations such as coping with life in general (Vickers et al, 1981), social context problems (Lowenstein, 1984; Meichenbaum, 1982), and human development (Murphy & Moriarty, 1976; Newman, 1979; Roberts, 1982; Tennen et al, 1984).

Some researchers use this general reaction definition but restrict it to specific situations, for example coping as a learned way of reacting in a situation (Cooley & Spiegler, 1980; Hayes & Wolf, 1984), or coping as a general response to stress (Stewart, 1978).

The most common definition of coping among the studies reviewed, and maybe the most useful, is as reactions accompanied by an intention to reduce feelings of stress, or reduce environmental Impact, or both. For example coping as responses to deal with stressors (Billings & Moos, 1984; Brenner et al, 1985; Freese, 1978; Hijzen, Van der Gugten & Bouter 1984; Hollandsworth, Gintner, Ellender & Rectanus, 1984), as environmental mastery (Shalit, 1977; Defares, Brandjes & Nass, 1984), as anxiety reducing efforts (Zettle & Hayes, 1983; Dewe, Guest & Williams, 1979; Dweck & Worthman, 1981), as efforts to manage environmental and internal demands (Coyne, Aldwin & Lazarus, 1981; Fleishman, 1984; Krantz, 1983; Menaghan, 1972). Some definitions have the generality approach and describe coping as response strategies for dealing with stressors (Houston, 1982; Ilfeld, 1980; Mullen & Suls, 1982; Parkes, 1984).

The most restricted definition of coping is where coping denotes only those reactions that in fact reduce stress or give a positive outcome. Coping is regarded as the reduction of stress or distress (McCaul & Malott, 1984; Stevens & Pihl, 1983; Videka-Sherman, 1982) or the reduction of degree of impact from stressful events (Shill et al, 1982), behaviour leading to successful performance (Shalit, 1981; Shalit, Carlstedt, St)hlberg-Carlstedt & T(ljedal-Shalit, 1983) or responses that serve to prevent, control or avoid stress (Coletta, Hadler & Gregg, 1981).

3.2 Manifestations of cople

The manifestations of coping found in empirical research is to some extent dependent on the hypotheses on types of coping, held

by the researchers. Kahn et al (1964) hypothesized that coping

would consist of one class of behaviour dealing with the objective situation, and one class of affective behaviour. This

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categorization have been used by Anderson (1976) in a study of managers coping with damages by hurricane floods, and by Parasuraman & Cleek (1984) in a study of coping with role stress. Other examples of classifications of coping behaviour are: appraisal-focused, problem-focused and emotion-focused coping (Billings & Moos, 1984); responses dealing with emotional effects, redefinition of problem, avoiding problem, direct action towards problem (Coletta et al, 1981); styles of adapting to life: obedient traditionalists, ideological conservatives, cautious modifiers and passionate recievers (Newman, 1979); self-focus or task-focused attention (Oweck & Worthman, 1981); low or high social exploration (Edwards & Kelly, 1980); use of problem-solving methods, seeking help from others, avoidant behaviour, drug-taking (Roberts, 1982); no action, non-instrumental action, instrumental action (Stewart, 1978); behavioural self-blame or external attribution (Tennen et al, 1984); preoccupation, escape, altruism, replacement (Videka-Sherman, 1982); environmental mastery, personal adaptation (Defares et al, 1984).

Factor-analyses of coping questionnaires have produced coping factors like: problem-focused behaviour, wishful thinking, help-seeking/avoidance, growth, minimizing threat, emotional support, self-blame (Coyne et al, 1981); action, rationalization/avoidance, acceptance, help from others, withdrawal/conflict (Ilfeld, 1980); taking action, substituting, positive comparision, selective ignoring, emotional discharge, passive acceptance, advice. seeking (Fleishman, 1984); express feelings and seek support, take considered actions, think of other things (Kyriacou, 1980); attempts at negotiation and discussion, optimistic comparisions, selective attention/inattention, conscious suppression of feeling and withdrawal from interaction (Menaghan, 1982); general coping, direct coping, supression (Parkes, 1984).

Some researchers have tryed to use some "objective" criterion of coping, such as behaviour considered to be adaptive according to social psychological theory (Lowenstein, 1984), or according to norms in society (Shalit, 1978; Krantz, 1983). Coping techniques have been proposed: transactional analysis, meditation, biofeedback, self diagnosis (Sethi, 1982; Newman & Beehr, 1979), and experimentally tested: cognitive coping self-statements (Cooley & Spiegler, 1980; Hayes & Wolf, 1984; Stevens & Phil, 1983), problem-solving training (Stevens & Phil, 1983; Cullen & Boersma, 1982), attention or rejection (Mullen & Suls, 1982), distraction or sensational redefinition (McCaul &Malott, 1984).

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type of situation studied. For simple and easily defined situations that are of limited range in time and that involves one easily identified stressor, as for example in experimental settings, cognitive coping strategies and learned techniques like rejection, distraction or self-statements seems to be adequate. When coping with problems in real life situations is studied, it is more difficult to differentiate between types of coping behaviour. However there seems to be consensus among researchers concerning two main classes of coping behaviour, that is, problem-oriented behaviour directed toward the environment, and emotion-oriented behaviour directed toward the self. My

conclusion from the comparative review of coping research (Table 1.) is however, that the effects and significance of these two qualitatively different types of coping behaviour still is ambiguous.

3.3

Coping and defences

Some authors have described coping in terms of internal processes like defence mechanisms (Bettelheim, 1979; Chodoff, Friedman & Hamburg, 1964; Murphy & Moriarty, 1976; Valliant, 1979; Valliant & Milofsky, 1980). Other authors make a distinction between defence mechanisms and coping strategies, (Frese, 1978; Haan, 1977; Heim, 1979; Mechanic, 1974).

Although ways of coping with external and internal conflicts are described and discussed in psychoanalytic literature, it is the abnormal reactions, leading to psychopathologies such as neuroses or psychoses, that have been most carefully studied. Observations on normality are often regarded as a by-product of clinical analytic work (Freud, 1937). Anna Freud presents nine different defence mechanisms (repression, regression, reaction-formation, isolation, undoing, projection, introjection, turning against the self, reversal), and finally adds a tenth mechanism belonging to normality - sublimation.

According to psychodynamic theory this set of defence mechanisms primarily helps us to cope with anxiety due to intrapersonal forces and conflicts. Freud (1937) mention however the possibility that the anxiety may be caused by external factors. The defence mechanisms are more or less appropriate depending on the developmental stage of the individual and limitations within the situation. Escaping into fantasy may be an adequate and realistic reaction in a child that is unable to get away from a damaging environment. The same reaction in an adult may be a

- 15 -

symptom of psychosis. The purpose of the defence mechanisms is to gain and maintain a dynamic equilibrium between the organism and the environment. The use of defence mechanisms may be unconscious and/or conscious (Freud, 1937).

In Haan (1977) coping mechanisms and defence mechanisms are both considered to be manifestations of the ego. Haan emphasizes however that coping mechanisms involve undistorted perceptions leading to appropriate actions, but defences, on the other hand, involve distorted perceptions resulting in ineffective and irrational decisions. Each defence mechanism has its own coping correspondent: isolation - objectivity, intellectualization - intellectuality, rationalization - logical analysis, doubt and indecision - tolerance of ambiguity, projection - empathy, regression - regression in service of ego, denial - concentration, displacement - sublimation, reaction formation - substitution, repression - suppression.

Folkman & Lazarus (1980) put forward as main objections to the defensive processes perspective the difficulty to measure and distinguish between different psychological defenses, the interdependence between the process and the outcome, and the fact that this approach tends to emphasize emotion-regulation before problem-solving. I think that these difficulties, however, apply to most coping research, wich in fact have been discussed in a later article by Lazarus et al (1985). My conclusions is that since the coping process involves both feelings of stress, and thus emotions, as well as active goal directed behavior, it seems reasonably to assume that there is conscious as well as unconsious processes involved.

Zettle & Hayes (1983) and Hayes & Wolf (1984) examined the effect of coping self-statements in a public context and in a private context. With exactly the same behavioural instruction and exactly the same stress situation, knowing that the experimenter knew about the self-statement to be used decreased the distress. This suggests that there is more to the cognitive coping, and/or emotional coping behaviour conducted by the subjects in this study than is captured by the experiment design. This coping could be conscious or unconscious.

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3.4

Coping and adaptation

An example of an information-processing theory of coping in specific situations is a model of stress and human performance proposed by Sanders (1983). See Figure 2. Sanders bases his model on four stages in the choice of reaction process, established by earlier studies. These stages are stimulus preprocessing, feature extraction, response choice and motor adjustment. These computational stages rely on three types of energetic resources involved in different stages. Arousal is required for feature extraction, activation is required for motor adjustment, and effort is required for response choice and coordination, supervision and evaluation.

With this model Sanders points out five patterns of stress. Stress can arise because effort fails to correct too high or too low levels of arousal or activation. This may cause stress due to overstimulation of the arousal system, to understimulation of the arousal system, to overstimulation or understimulation of the activation system or finally to direct failures of decision-making and reasoning (failures in effort). Sanders' model is a process model of active transactions between person and environment, and is based on the assumption that it is an active, controlled and resource-dependent process. One advantage of the model is its combination of cognitive appraisal processes with emotional components and psychophysiological processes with energetic dimensions. According to this model stress reactions follow when there is lasting disturbance of the equilibrium with continuing high demands on effort mechanisms without sufficient success in restoring equilibrium.

- 17 - Evaluation mechanism evaluation effort Energeti cal mechanisms 4 arousal activation I.

Processing stimulus feature response motor

preprocessing extraction choice adjustment stages

4 feedback

Figure 2. A cognitive-energetical model of human information processing and stress. (Sanders, A. F. Towards a model of stress and human performance.

Acta

Psychologica, 1983, 53,

p.

72.)

There is some evidence supporting the regulation model of the stress - coping relationship. Lundberg (1982) reported experimental results indicating that an individual may cope with environmental stimuli (e.g. noise) either by decreasing his performance in order to maintain a certain mental load, or by increasing effort to maintain performance. The choice of strategy might be influenced by actual controllability in the situation (Frankenhauser & Johansson, 1976; Hollandsworth et al, 1984), perceived control and causal attributions (Schulz & Schlnpflug, 1982), or assumptions and anticipations regarding the experimental setting (Hayes & Wolf, 1984; Lundberg, 1982; Zettle & Hayes, 1983). This again turns the attention to the evaluation mechanism; to understand experimental results on stress and coping it seems to be necessary to have information about this process as well.

3.5

Coping and problem-solving

Cummings and Cooper (1979) propose a cybernetic model of the stress-coping cycle based on the work of Miller (1965). The model is problem-solving oriented and emphasizes the importance of information feedback. Cummings and Cooper identify four distinct phases of the stress cycle: detection of strain, choice of adjustment process, implementation of adjustment process, and

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effects of adjustment processes on the stress or threat situation. Each of these phases includes a number of information-processing operations, considered to be of importance to the perceived strain and the adjustment process:

(1) Detection of strain presupposes:

- a preference for one state rather than another, - knowledge of the actual state,

- ability to compare the preferred state with the actual

state.

(2) Choice of adjustment processes is affected by:

- feedback error in prevalence and sources of strain, - feedback lag in detecting and interpreting strain, - feedback gain concerning change in rate and

intensity of strain,

- variety and appropriateness of adjustment processes available.

(3) Implementation of adjustment processes depends on time dimension:

- the relationship between the rate at which the response changes, and

- the rate at which the strain changes.

(4) Effects of adjustment processes on stress or threat situation depends on:

- negative feedback: successive coping behaviours interact with the situation to decrease strain (adaptive coping),

- positive feedback: the response-situation

interaction increases strain (maladaptive coping), - time dimension: short- and long-term effects of

person-situation interaction.

Coping as a problem-solving process was studied by Stewart (1978), who examined the problem perception of women, by interviewing them about a specific self-selected period in their life perceived as especially unhappy or upsetting. The women were asked questions about situational characteristics, preceeding events, perceived causes, actions and outcomes. This information was analysed in relation to results of a TAT-test 14 years earlier. Results showed that socially self-defined women perceived their problems as located outside themselves and the solution to their problems within themselves. They had a clearer articulation of the problem, a clearer explanation of causes. They tended to cite more causes of their problem and embraced a

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wider social context. They also used more instrumental responses to problems. A drawback of studies of this kind, however, is that although one has extensive information on the perceived situation, one knows little about the actual situation.

Both actual and perceived situation was studied by Shalit et al (1983), combined with an attempt to capture both cognitive, affective and instrumental (action) processes in one model. They divide each type of process into three stages of processing: appraisal, mobilization and realization. The adjustment process is assumed to involve all process modes and stages in a sequence where cognitive appraisal is followed by affective and then instrumental appraisal. Then follows cognitive, affective and instrumental mobilization and finally cognitive realization, affective realization and instrumental realization. According to their model effective "clearing" has to be conducted by the individual in each sequence to provide optimal performance. The sequential adjustment model was examined in a study of parachute jumpers, where the different processing sequences were measured by questionnaires. Prediction of jump effectiveness was higher when sequential appraisal was tested than when questions were used independently (Shalit et al, 1983), which supports the model.

Information processing, and decisional processes during stress or threat have been discussed by Janis and Mann (1977). They present a sequential model where the judgements made by the individual and the coping strategies available, are related to level of emotionality. The influence of emotions on information processing is important to consider, particularly in the design of man-machine systems that have to function under conditions of threat or stress (Person & SjIberg, 1978). The sequential information processing models of coping (Janis & Mann, 1977; Shalit et al, 1983; Larsson & Starrin, 1984) may however draw the attention away from the special characteristics of real life situations compared with artificial problem-solving situations. In real life coping situations the environmental conditions is continuously changing which makes the problem-solving dynamic. Brehmer has characterized dynamic problem-solving as: (a) requiring a series of decisions, (b) the environment and the problem itself is spontaneously changing and (c) changing as a result of desicion making, (d) the time is a critic factor, and (e) it is not possible to incorporate in a normative theory since there exist no single and correct solution (Brehmer, Allard & Lind, 1983).

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3.6

Measuring coping

Among the studies reviewed there are only a few that really evaluate the outcome of the coping behaviour under examination. Correlational relationships have been identified between different kinds of coping behaviour and psychological strain. But since the coping process is a dynamic interaction between situation and person, continuing over time, the knowledge which can be gained from cross-sectional studies is limited. In order to draw conclusions about causalities it is necessary to have an experimental or repeated measures design.

Anderson (1977), in a study of business managers coping with damage by hurricane floods, found that locus of control (external, internal) affected later performance through coping behaviour. "Internals" perceived less stress, were more task-centered in their coping behaviour and showed better performance. Performance operated as a feedback on locus of control, so that "externals" with less successful performance became more external over the 2.5 year period, and successful "Internals" became more internal. It is difficult to know whether the locus of control is caused by different levels of stress or environmental appraisal or if different locus of control causes different perceptions.

Teachers' self-reported' coping behaviour in the first term of a school year has been found to have significant effect on decrease in perceived strain from first term to last term (Brenner et al, 1985). Both problem-solving behaviour and palliative or avoiding behaviour had this positive effect.

Krantz (1983) studied college students' coping appraisals and behaviour with regard to failure in examination. Results showed that the recognition of many feasible options before the stressful event (examination) was related to problem-directed behaviour after the event. There was however no significant relationship between actual coping behaviour and performance in re-examination.

Menaghan (1972) interviewed married Chicago adults about their coping with marital problems. The interviews were repeated four years later. Results showed that optimistic comparisons (own situation better than others) were associated with decreased distress and less problems four years later. Resignation, pessimism and selective ignoring were coping behaviours related

- 21 -

to increased stress later. Negotiation did not affect later distress but was associated with less problems later.

Shalit (1981) examined the relationship between perceived complexity in the situation and successful performance among Swedish conscripts. Contrary to the hypothesis the soldiers evaluated as poor performers by commanders, had a more structured perception of the situation and were more emotionally involved. According to Shalit this could be due to the specific norms for successful performance in the military setting, and the soldiers judged as poor performers by their commanders may in fact be the ones coping better in actual combat.

Lowenstein (1984) used theoretical criteria of successful coping. The life situations of prisoners' wives were evaluated according to sociopsychological criteria and then related to self-reported coping behaviour and background characteristics.

A problem of being restricted to self-reported coping behaviour is the difficulty of knowing whether this reflects actual behaviour, perceived behaviour, or socially desirable behaviour (in the research 'setting or coping situation). Coping questionnaires are useful where information from large samples need to be collected. To a certain degree the results from such studies are dependent on, and limited by, the original hypotheses in the study. Many coping scales are constructed to capture two dimensions, i.e. problem-focused and emotional-focused coping behaviour. Other dimensions of coping may then be difficult or even impossible to detect.

Cross-sectional questionnaire studies may be useful in gathering information concerning varieties and variabilities in coping actions, between individuals and groups of individuals as well as between contexts. This knowledge provides a basis for more elaborate research on individuals and their coping activities in a specific context or setting and over time.

In experimental coping studies various coping techniques, resulting from training or forced by the experimental situation, and their effects have been studied. Common for many of the experimental coping studies reviewed is however, that the measurement of one or a few aspects of coping behaviour make the results difficult to interpret. It is well known that subjects in an experimental setting make inferences about the situation that may affect the results. Since cognitive appraisal is regarded as a central process in coping, it is important to gain experimental control over this process, which can be done only by measuring it. Coping theories emphasize the interaction between the

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individual and his/her unique set of abilities and the environment. Accordingly, controlled studies of coping should provide the subjects to act and react as a result of his/her own appraisal.

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4 CONCLUSIONS

4.1 Theoretical implications

In order to survive in an increasingly complex and rapidly changing environment, people need efficient strategies for control of the physical and psychosocial aspects of their environment. Failure of actual or perceived control leads to stress or strain, which in turn reduces the capacity for rational dealing with the environment. Inadequate coping or obstacles for adequate coping can lead to unpredicted and dangerous consequences in an highly automatized and computerized work environment.

A conclusion from the review above is that the concept of coping should be defined to denote all kinds of behaviour that an individual can perform, in order to affect his/her own process of stress. According to this definition coping may be actions, emotions, cognitive processing or restructuring, consCious as well as unconscious, and the outcome of coping may be either successful or unsuccessful.

Research on coping should be based on a dynamic transactional stress theory, which makes it possible to predict and evaluate the relationships between actual, physical properties of the environment, common or unique perceived properties of the environment, interacting person-specific variables, and physiological and psychological (emotional, cognitive and behavioural) reactions to the environment. The time aspect of this dynamic process, i.e. the growth or learning perspective including developmental aspects, should be emphasized.

4.2

Methodological implications

The psychological variables in coping research should be selected to give information on emotions (anxiety, distress) as well as cognitions (appraisals, attributions, goals, problem-solving strategies, perceptions, knowledge) and behaviour, with respect to both coping and outcome.

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Which specific psychological variables and what kind of setting and length of time should be captured has to be decided with respect to the situation studied. The process by which people cope with stress and strain in their daily life is undoubtedly of such a complexity that non-experimental system analysis studies giving information on relevant factors of the process must be combined with controlled or quasi-experimental studies of the ecologically relevant factors, preferably in the form of simulation studies, in order to increase our understanding of the dynamics of coping. Experimental paradigms that do not make it possible to study the dynamic interaction between person and environment are less useful for the exploration of coping processes.

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