Biodiversity Education and Sustainability Consciousness : A study on the effect of biodiversity education on the sustainability consciousness of Irish Primary School Students.

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i Linköping University |Department of Behavioural Sciences and Learning

Master program Outdoor and Sustainability Education, 60 hp Spring 2020 | LIU-IBL/MOS-A-2020/012—SE.

Biodiversity Education and

Sustainability Consciousness

.

– A study on the effect of biodiversity education on the

sustainability consciousness of Irish Primary School

Students.

Kathryn Nolan

Supervisor: Ola Uhrqvist Examiner: Marta Koc-Januchta

5th June 2020

Linköpings universitet SE-581 83 Linköping 013-28 10 00, www.liu.se

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Abstract

As we come to the end of the decade declared as United Nations Decade for Biodiversity 2011-2020, the impact humans are having our planet is clear. The current primary school children are the future decision makers, consumers and electors; therefore, they must be exposed to approaches that can assist development that is sustainable and that will prevent further degradation of our planet. A key way to achieve this is to transform the education current and future generations of children will receive. Education must address sustainable development to support the formation of responsible citizens, eager to actively engage in decision-making processes, environmental issues and societal matters. This can be assisted through a focus on a specific approach to Education for Sustainable Development, Biodiversity Education. To add to current research about this approach to ESD, I investigated the effect biodiversity education had on the sustainability consciousness of primary school children. I chose a qualitative method of data collection and analysis through focus group, semi-structured interviews with 5th class students. The results showed that the participant’s sustainability awareness, regarding two of the three dimensions of sustainable development, was highly developed; the environmental dimension and the social dimension. There was less evidence of a consciousness for the economic dimension of SD. Therefore, biodiversity education had a positive influence on the participant’s sustainability consciousness, making them more aware of sustainability issues and action-oriented to address these issues. However, they lacked one dimension of sustainability; therefore, their sustainability consciousness is not fully developed. Further research is needed to analysis and interpret the rationale as to why the economic dimension was less developed in these participants who attended a school that promotes biodiversity education.

Keywords: Education for Sustainable Development, Environmental Education, Biodiversity

Education, Outdoor Education, Place Based Education, ESD in Ireland, focus group interviewing.

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Abbreviations

BE: Biodiversity Education C: Child/participant

EE: Environmental Education

ESD 1: Education for Sustainable Development 1 ESD 2: Education for Sustainable Development 2 ESD; Education for Sustainable Development F.G- Focus Group (Interview)

FAO: Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations I: Interviewer

NCCA Ireland: National Council for Curriculum and Assessment in Ireland S.A: School A (Control School)

S.B: School B (Biodiversity Friendly School) SC: Sustainability Consciousness

SD: Sustainable Development

SDGs: Sustainable Development Goals

UN DESD: United Nations Decade for Sustainable Development UN: United Nations

UNESCO: United Nations, Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation UNICEF: United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund

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Acknowledgements

I would like acknowledge nature and Mother Earth.

Firstly, I would like to thank the participants of my research- the students and teachers from two primary schools in Ireland, as without them this research would not have been possible. I would also like to thank the principals of these two schools for allowing me to conduct research at their school.

I would like to sincerely thank my supervisor, Ola Uhrqvist, for his supportive and constructive assistance during the process of researching. I am grateful for his insightful knowledge, expertise, ideas and feedback. I am appreciative of his quick responses to queries, issues and questions and general advice. Thank you, Ola.

I am also thankful to Emilia and all other academics who contributed to the masters programme in Outdoor and Sustainability Education. I hope I can do justice to this year by implementing my new knowledge and wisdom within the education system in Ireland.

I wish to thank my fellow students in the masers programme of 2019. I have enjoyed so many wonderful memories with you all. I would particularly like to thank our supervisor group for their advice, awareness, stimulation and assistance during the writing process. I appreciate all your time and feedback.

I would also like to thank my friends back in Ireland for their amazing support, advice, laughter and encouragement.

I am so thankful to Abdel for his immense support and encouragement. I am so grateful for what this year has brought- it has been very special. I didn’t think I could laugh so much while writing a thesis, but you made that possible!

Finally, I am incredibly thankful to my family. I am lucky to have such a supportive, encouraging, loving and helpful family and I cannot thank you enough for all you do for me. I could not have achieved this without you.

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Introduction

It is the year 2020 and lives are improving. There is a decline in extreme poverty and child deaths; there is greater access to education, jobs and sustainable energy and gender equality is becoming more recognised (DESA, 2018). There is a slight improvement in the health of the planet as, increasingly, action to reduce emissions is visible, reinforced by the Paris Agreement (Nachmany, 2017). Many countries around the world are building forest fortresses to lock in carbon and safeguard water resources, and there are now more protected marine areas than at any time in history(Kerr, Kritzer & Cadrin 2019). Fortunately, because of the actions taken as a result of the Montreal Protocol, we appear to be on the path that will allow us to stay within the stratospheric ozone depletion boundary (Steffen et al., 2015). Growth in sustainable consumption and production policies have been adopted and are being implemented. Corporations are increasingly building sustainability into their business strategies, and linking outcomes to the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) (Scott & McGill, 2018). Scientific advice is having some effect.

However, 5 years on since the SDGs were adopted in a landmark date by world countries, and 20 years since a concept for sustainable development (SD) was first established, there is still a constant increase in global hunger (FAO, WFP &UNICEF, 2019), rising levels of conflict and displacement (Thompson, 2019), record-breaking extreme weather (Le Comte, 2020), and persistent inequalities are preventing and, in some cases, undoing progress. Action has not been swift enough to meet the targets of the 2030 Agenda (Guterres, 2019). Indeed, the rate of global progress is not keeping pace with the ambitions of the Agenda, necessitating immediate and accelerated action by countries and stakeholders at all levels. The year 2016 was the warmest year on record, with 2020 potentially overtaking this (NOAA, 2020). The world continues to experience rising sea levels and increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases (UN, 2018). SD is as relevant now as it was in 1987. Reaching the goal of SD is not an option. It is inescapable (Shay, 2008). It is argued that education is a means of achieving SD, therefore, education for sustainability has never been more relevant or essential as it currently is.

2020 marks the end of the decade declared as United Nations Decade for Biodiversity 2011-2020. The current primary school children are the future policymakers, consumers, entrepreneurs, voters, politicians and scientists. They are the generation that will be most affected by and consequently forced, to provide solutions to unsustainable development and environmental issues arising from present-day behaviour (Boeve-de Pauw & Van Petegem,

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2011). A key way of transforming these present-day behaviours is to transform the education current and future generations of children will receive. Present international environmental movements emphasise that children and young people’s engagement and potential influence on governments, policymakers and society should not be underrated. Education must address SD to support the formation of responsible citizens, eager to actively engage in decision-making processes, environmental issues and societal matters. This can be assisted through a focus on a specific approach to Education for Sustainable Development (ESD), biodiversity education (BE).

Sustainability or sustainable development is a term used to describe the principle of reaching human development needs while concurrently sustaining the ecosystem and natural resources which the economy and society depends upon by current and future generations of people (IUCN, UNEP, WWF, 1980). Sustainability is the long-term goal to be achieved i.e. a sustainable world and sustainable development is the process and pathway to achieve this. One pathway and process to help achieve sustainability is through education and therefore, education for sustainable development (ESD) aims to teach people how to live and behaviour sustainably. It empowers learners to make informed decisions for a just society and economic viability, and act responsibility to ensure environmental integrity (UNESCO, 2014).

In this research, it is argued that biodiversity education can assist this learning and the implementation of education for sustainable development. Biodiversity education lacks a clear definition (Navarro-Perez & Tidball, 2012), however, it can be understood as a process-oriented, participatory and action-oriented learning approach, emphasising the role of biodiversity and the necessity of it in our eco system (Tilbury and Calvo, 2005). It requires learners to view alternative perspectives to arrive at balanced opinions which reflects the interaction of ecological, economic and societal issues (Lindemann-Matthies et al., 2009).

1.1 Rationale

Previous research on biodiversity education has been concerned with the challenges (Navaro-Perez & Tidball, 2012), guidelines (Barker & Elliott, 2000), and approaches of biodiversity education (Okur, Yalcin-Ozdilek & Sahin, 2011;Schneiderhan-Opel & Bogner, 2019). There is research related to teacher’s perspective of BE (Gayford, 2010; Lindemann-Matthies et al., 2009;Collins-Figueroa, 2012) and further research on the connection between science teaching

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and BE (Dikmenli, 2010; Van Weelie & Wals, 2010; Yli-Panula et al., 2018; Schneiderhan-Opel & Bogner, 2019). Lindemann-Matthies (2002) also researched the influence of a nature programme on children’s perception of biodiversity. There appears to be a lack of research into the impact of biodiversity education, as an approach to ESD, on primary school children although it has been referenced to be an approach (Dreyfus, Wals & Van Weelie, 1999). Young (2001) studied the potential of developing education for sustainability through a local biodiversity action plan but there was not a specific focus on schools’ education. Moreover, while there is research on the impact of ESD on children’s sustainability consciousness (Berglund et al., 2014; Olsson & Gericke, 2016; Olsson et al., 2016; Gericke et al., 2018; Olsson et al., 2019), this research is concerned with the implementation of ESD rather than implementing an aspect of ESD, BE. Furthermore, this research was quantitative so it gave factual knowledge of the effect of ESD implementation on children’s sustainability consciousness but it did not explore the underlying rationale for this or the motivations or opinions behind the children’s sustainability consciousness.

This research attempts to address this gap in research and provide a deeper understanding of the effect biodiversity education has on the children’s sustainability consciousness. Building upon the important elements of ESD, the overarching goal of biodiversity education lies in enabling students to make informed decisions and be capable of acting in a pro-environmental manner. My research was interested in deciphering whether biodiversity education can also enable a more positive sustainability consciousness, rather than just pro-environmental behaviour, through biodiversity education as a method of teaching and implementing ESD.

1.2 Motivation for Research

I was motivated to do research on biodiversity education as I believe it is an appropriate approach to implementing ESD in primary schools in Ireland. I am passionate about outdoor and environmental education and I advocate for its inclusion in our education system. I would love to have an influence on our curriculum in Ireland where I can place more of an emphasis on sustainability and outdoor learning, through use of biodiversity education. I feel including explicit biodiversity initiatives and teaching into our curriculum is one step towards this. This thesis has provided me with the necessary knowledge, skills, arguments and evidence to approach the NCCA Ireland and now begin a change.

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Aim and Research Questions

The overall aim and purpose of this research was to understand and elicit the impact of learning through biodiversity education, as an approach to ESD, had on the sustainability consciousness of Irish Primary school children. This involved interpreting their opinions, ideas, experiences, attitudes and behaviour in relation to SD dimensions of the environment, the social and the economic. This was done through a comparison between the sustainability consciousnesses of participants in two schools. Examining their knowledge, attitudes and behaviour concerning these dimensions, assisted in understanding their sustainability consciousness. One school as a control school had no experience in biodiversity education and the second school was immersed in biodiversity and outdoor education.

My research was structured by two main research questions:

1. Does biodiversity education, as a method of teaching education for sustainable development, have an effect on children’s sustainability consciousness?

In this research question, I elicited whether biodiversity education can be an effective way of forming citizens possessing a comprehensive sustainability worldview and awareness. I was interested to see whether biodiversity education can be an approach to teaching education for sustainable development and an assurance that the children are exposed to the key concepts and aims of education for sustainable development.

2. How does biodiversity education, as an approach to education for sustainable development, impact on primary school children’s sustainability consciousness? In this research question, I was exploring how biodiversity education impacts on children’s sustainability consciousness. I was curious about what insight, opinions, feelings, emotions and knowledge the children in the biodiversity education school use to guide their approach to ESD issues and topics, through the task of designing an outdoor space.

Biodiversity education encompasses many elements of current issues and trends in pedagogy such as outdoor education, place-based education, education for sustainable development and health and wellbeing. My research aims to promote biodiversity education as an effective method of implementing not only ESD but the preceding pedagogies.

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An overview of the rationale, aim and motivations of this research has been presented. A more detailed exploration of the literature will be explored in the next chapter to give a background on the theory that supported my research and which significantly influenced my method, results and, in particular, the discussion chapter.

Theoretical Background

Research for this topic begins with a short introduction about sustainable development and then the history of education for sustainable development (ESD) as a way of achieving sustainable development (SD). This is followed by a description of the elements of education for sustainable development; education for sustainable development 1 (ESD 1) and education for sustainable development 2 (ESD 2). A clear understanding of each of these terms is given further in the theoretical background. The concept of biodiversity education as an approach to education for sustainable development is explained and school gardens, as a method of organising biodiversity education in an educational system, is briefly outlined. The importance of UNESCO key competencies: systems thinking competency, anticipatory competency, normative competency, strategic competency, collaboration competency, critical thinking competency, self-awareness competency, and integrated problem-solving competency, outlined in UNESCO’s latest publication Issue and Trends in ESD, is discussed and then there is a reflection upon the critique that surrounds education for sustainable development. After this, there is an exploration of the connection between outdoor education and education for sustainable development through a discussion on the implementation of education for sustainable development pedagogy and learning. A description of outdoor education and placed-based education supersedes this. Place attachment and nature connections influence on education for sustainable development is explored. Finally, the theory behind sustainability consciousness and how it can be understood and attained in the research, is given.

3.1 Sustainable Development

Although the term for sustainable development (SD) can be seen earlier, the concept was not endorsed or established until 1980 (IUCN, UNEP, WWF, 1980). In this decade a definition of SD, which has become widely known, was conceived:

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Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs (WCED, 1987, pp. 43)

In the Brundtland Report (WCED, 1987), an important step was made to bring environmental, social and economic dimensions together towards the concept of SD. It is respected and still used, 23 years later, due to its strength in intertwining environmental issues with socio-economic problems from both local and global perspectives, for now, and into future generations. Placing environmental factors to the forefront when pursuing development, as well as economic and social factors, is paramount to safeguard the ability of future generations to also enjoy an increased standard of living (Messerli et al., 2019).

A critique of the given definition of SD is that, fundamentally, it is based on the needs of humans, making it an anthropocentric concept. Many anthropologists would dispute the idea that in practice ‘environmental’ concern(s) is necessarily harmonious with the developmental goals of the communities it is supposed to target (Smyth, 2011) particularly those mentioned in the SDGs. Its vague definition allows for multiple interpretations which encourage, authorise and tolerate the most influential key players to avoid making explicit commitments to achieve the core of sustainability (Ben-Eli, 2018). Decisive actions to achieve common goals are often evaded. SD is a complex concept and it is argued that at its central framework lies a paradox (Gupta, 2017). There is a built-in tension where the word ‘sustainable’, with its history in the environment and ecology, is in contrast to the word ‘development’, which has its roots in the economic aspect of society.

In all parts of life, paradoxes can be found; the Bruntland report (WCED, 1987) even acknowledged that protecting the environment and economic growth and development are not always compatible. The role of SD, therefore, is to mitigate between the two parts; sustainable and development by living in harmony with nature, the only source of our survival. This progress towards SD and harmonisation with nature has to be a learning process (Vare & Scott, 2007). This places education at the frontline of the process towards SD.

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3.2.1 Environmental Education and Education for Sustainable Development

The approach to implementing SD in educational contexts is known as education for sustainable development (ESD). ESD has become an important element of environmental policy-making and SD strategies. Education is a key enabler of SD (Leicht, Heiss, & Byun, 2018). The seeds of ESD were planted with the concept of Environmental Education (EE), particularly at the international conference on EE- the Man and Environment, held in Stockholm in 1972. The Tbilisi Declaration (UNESCO-UNEP, 1978, pp. 26-27) followed this. The declaration detailed several principals involving the central components of sustainable development, primarily, the links that exist between economy, environment and development and the need to acknowledge the social aspects of the environment.

EE, however, only dealt (deals) with environmental problems and the protection of the natural environment for their ecological, economic and aesthetic value. EE’s focus was considered too narrow (Sauvé, 1996) and the needs and rights of human populations associated with these environments were overlooked. Eilam & Trop (2011), however, consider an alternative perspective and suggest that the terms are interchangeable, as they share such similar content and goals. The goals that EE and ESD refer to are the “acquisition of responsible environmental behaviour” and “active citizen participation” (Eilam & Trop, 2011, p.45), through high-quality education. The authors acknowledge the differences between EE and ESD but ultimately postulate that the underlying pedagogy of the two topics can be considered to be the same.

Whichever side one lies concerning the relationship between EE and ESD, it is clear that EE does not encompass all the aspects towards SD as it negates the societal and economic dimensions to development. Therefore, it soon became obvious that the concept of SD required and resulted in a reorganisation and redirection of EE (de Haan, Bormann, & Leicht, 2010) and education ‘for’ and ‘in/as’ sustainable development (two different approaches- ESD1 and ESD2, that I will elaborate upon in an approaching chapter) followed.

The importance of including SD in education continued with commissions and conferences including the United Nation DESD 2005-2015, (Combes, 2005). This decade brought ESD to the forefront of the international educational agenda and managed to raise awareness of the

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importance of ESD (de Hann et al. 2010). GAP (Global Action Plan) in 2013 built upon the achievements of the United Nations DESD. The latest concept, Agenda 2030 addresses all sustainable development goals. Education runs through all these goals, indeed ESD is arguably at the heart of the 2030 Agenda. ESD is explicitly mentioned in Target 4.7 of SDG4 stating “sustainable development must be integrated into education and education must be integrated into sustainable development.” (Leicht et al, 2018) This is the core objective of ESD. Agenda 2030 and the previous United Nations DESD, are the current basis and foundational framework from which ESD policies and pedagogy are created.

3.2.2 Elements of and approaches to Education for Sustainable Development

A fundamental idea behind ESD is the importance of maintaining connections between the different dimensions of SD, empowering learners to act for “environmental integrity, economic viability and a just society” (Leicht et al., 2018) so that individuals have the chance to apply the principles of SD throughout their lives. Although these concepts are conflicting as discussed earlier, this very complexity can assist in the learning process of becoming a sustainable citizen (Wals, 2011). This complexity mirrors everyday life where the students will encounter conflicts that arise due to differences in interpretation, opinions etc., similar to the conflicts between the three pillars of sustainability. Students engaged in ESD are supported to develop cross-disciplinary thinking and become critical thinkers. ESD explicitly promotes this within the UNESCO key competencies (Leicht, 2018). An important objective of ESD is to highlight the differences in perspectives between individuals and groups in society by engaging students in action competence. Mogensen and Schnack (pp.68, 2010) discuss the role of ESD in connection with action competence in which the approach develops the “students’ ability, motivation and desire to play an active role in finding democratic solutions to problems and issues connected to SD”. Breiting (2009) also makes this connection. Emphasising differing perspectives can present possibilities to learn to deal with diverging thoughts and opinions, relating to the SD issues, in a democratic way. This approach is similar to what Vare and Scott call ESD 2 which is synonymous with learning as sustainable development (Vare & Scott, 2007, pp. 194). Conflicting perspectives are explored along with the contradictions inherent in sustainability issues, through critical thinking, to make better decisions about the future.

ESD 2, however, is only effective when it is carried out in conjunction with “learning for

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should promote attitudes and behaviour among individuals in a certain direction. It comes from a fact-based tradition of learning which facilitates changes in what people do by promoting behaviours and ways of thinking, where the need for this is identified and agreed. Although there is opposition towards the view of ESD 1 that there is a direct connection between an increase in knowledge and changes in attitudes and behaviour (e.g. Wals, 2011; Jickling & Wals, 2008), according to Vare and Scott (2007) ESD 1 serves a function. Dembkowski & Hanmer‐ Lloyd (1994) and Kitzmuller (2009) note that people need to have knowledge to know what they can or can’t do, to act pro-environmentally. Acting based on predetermined goals can help people do the obvious to contribute to SD by changing attitudes and behaviours. Short-term goals can promote the benefits of SD to society and individuals.

Biodiversity education mainly implements ESD2 approaches of holism, pluralism and action competence in its teaching and learning. Gaining knowledge from textbooks and information provided by the teacher does occur (ESD 1) but majority of learning is through an ESD2 approach.

3.2.3 Biodiversity Education as an approach to Education for Sustainable Development

As biodiversity education encompasses ESD2 approaches, it is a relevant approach to implement ESD in a school. Research has shown, as will be discussed further in this document under nature connections, that indirect experiences with nature contributes to children’s environmental concern and connection to nature, and experiences in nature can have a positive impact on children’s pro-environmental behaviour thus enabling children to become more of a sustainable citizen. Teaching and learning about and within biodiversity education gives the learner an opportunity to make these connections and have these experiences in nature. ESD requires the need not only to teach theoretical knowledge about the connection between environment and humans (both the social and economic aspects) but also to allow pupils to translate this knowledge into practical action in the school setting. This can be achieved through biodiversity teaching and learning. Biodiversity has been described as one of the major pathways to sustainability and the protection of biodiversity as one of the basic roads to sustainability (Gayford, 2000; Dikmenli, 2010). Biodiversity education can then be seen as a model for teaching ESD and learning about SD.

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As mentioned earlier, 2011-2020 was declared UN Decade on Biodiversity to promote the essential element of biodiversity. Goal 14 and 15 of the SDG’s (DESA, 2016) advocate for the protection, restoration and sustainable use of ecosystems, halting biodiversity loss. Indeed, a key theme of ESD is biodiversity, identifying it as an essential sustainable development issue (UNESCO, 2014). Biodiversity learning is central to ESD and offers a high potential for action by learners to solve the biodiversity challenges present in the world today. Human activities threaten biodiversity on a global scale, thus preventing further biodiversity loss requires scientifically literate and environmentally responsible citizens (Schneiderhan-Opel & Bogner, 2019). Biodiversity education as part of ESD may lay the foundation of fostering a sense of responsibility for biodiversity and its preservation among future generations. Biodiversity loss not only impacts environmentally but socially and economically as biodiversity is essential to our planet’s survival.

It is important, however, that biodiversity is not taught to be valued just for the ecosystem services it provides, creating an anthropocentric worldview for the learner. An ecocentric worldview, where biodiversity is understood to have intrinsic value and have a right to exist irrespective of whether it/they has/have or haven’t a benefit for human society, should also be stimulated. Research from Thompson and Barton (1994) and Nordlund and Garvill (2002) imply that ecocentric thoughts, values and attitudes are more likely to become pro-environmental behaviour than anthropocentric thoughts, values and attitudes. Therefore, it is important that learners understand and appreciate the value of biodiversity for human well-being and prosperity. However, educational approaches should also emphasise biodiversity’s importance to trigger and encourage protection and conservation of biodiversity for environmental reasons. This will positively contribute to the development of sustainable thoughts and pro-environmental behaviour.

Torkar (2016) discusses the importance of not overlooking cultural ecosystem services just because of the anthropocentric worldview criticism. He emphasises that educators should promote knowledge of the services ecosystems offer to humans, to gain support for biodiversity’s conservation. These services should be addressed in terms of changing human values and sustainability.

Van Weelie and Wals (2002) discuss the links between biodiversity teaching and learning and general ESD. BE, they argue, has three perspectives that can be used to implement ESD. First,

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“nature and self”- encouraging opportunities to value and experience biodiversity first-hand, secondly, “ecological literacy”- analysing the relationships that exist between different species in our ecosystem and human position within the ecosystem and thirdly, “the politics of nature”- discussing fair distribution of natural resources and understanding influence of policies and treaties. Biodiversity education is in harmony with ESD as it enables learner’s and educators to construct, critique, transform and liberate their world (Wals, 1996) through an emotional, ecological, ethical and political position (Kassas, 2002). Saito (2013) argues that the links between ESD and biodiversity education and concern should go beyond the mere ecological literacy development and aim to empower people through the mediation of scientific and technological knowledge. He stresses the importance of connecting educational processes to real life, to make people capable of facing environmental problems through an interdisciplinary and comprehensive approach. As biodiversity learning often occurs outdoors, this learning from nature offers a large scope and opportunity for considering how to organise our economy and society in the future for sustainability.

Biodiversity education faces challenges according to Navarro-Perez & Tidball (2012). There is a challenge to define the approach for biodiversity learning and teaching to incorporate all aspects of ESD. Secondly, there are difficulties in how to work with a concept which has been accused of being ill-defined (Dreyfus, Wals, & Van Weelie, 1999). It has so many dimensional layers that this may be difficult for educators to transmit and learners to comprehend. This can be overcome by integrating biodiversity outside of its usual position- within natural sciences, to challenge learners to critically explore different meanings, uses and values of biodiversity. A school garden can assist and facilitate this.

3.2.3.1 School Gardens

Biodiversity education often occurs outside, in nature (Lindemann-Mathies et al., 2009). Educators create opportunities for learners to understand and experience a variety of plants and animals and their habitats. Many are re-discovering the value of garden spaces as places for learning in an educational context (Cutter-Mackenzie 2009, Jagger et al., 2016). This facilitates the learner(s) to gain psychological and emotional benefits from experiences with nature, support student’s environmental learning and a reconnection to place (Bell and Dyment 2008; Walter 2013;). There is an enormous opportunity for gardens to re-connect learners and communities with the natural world and motivate individual attitude and action toward a more

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sustainable future through a discovery of the web of relations within our world (Zelenika et al., 2018). Research (Chawla, 2015; Pretty & Smith, 2004; Wells and Evans 2003; Zelenski, Dopko, and Capaldi 2015) shows the impact gardens have on environmental knowledge, attitudes, intentions and willingness to act. Zelenika et al., (2015) research shows that participants in a garden scheme were more knowledgeable about sustainability issues, more connected to nature, and more willing to engage in sustainability actions after a period of exposure to a garden. Through biodiversity education, school gardens generally feature quite often as a learning setting. Learning often occurs outside, in a nature garden setting where an outdoor classroom is integrated into the curriculum as a pedagogical tool. It offers learners an opportunity to learn and then implement the key concepts and competencies promoted by education for sustainable development, which will be discussed next. Through a school garden the students are facilitated to achieve a transformation of their community, school and the ecosystem and engage in holism through discovering the connection of humans with biodiversity and then the wider ecosystem and our dependence upon it for our survival. Finally, they are given an opportunity to envision change by acting upon their ideas and decisions. The concepts are vital to having a sustainable consciousness, therefore through school gardens within biodiversity education, students can gain awareness of sustainability.

3.2.4 Education for Sustainable Development Key Concepts and Competencies

UNESCOs latest document ‘Issues and Trends in ESD’ signals a shift in their thinking and implementation of ESD where they have been accused of representing an ESD 1 model. It has redirected the course from an emphasis on ESD as a flat, uninspiring approach to a more transformative approach that involves building capacities for future decision-making. This document and Ӧhman (2008) place an emphasis on three main concepts in ESD. Holism- seeing the bigger picture, envisioning change (pluralism)- creating people that will make realistic changes, and achieving transformation- learning to engage with people and places to make it better for all and for the future population. UNESCO promotes ESD as “education that encourages changes in knowledge, skills, values and attitudes to enable a more sustainable and just society for all.” (Leicht et al., 2018). UNESCO recognises that traditional, single-route promotion of knowledge (ESD1) is no longer adequate to encourage students to be responsible, action bearing citizens of the earth (Leicht et al., 2018).

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The biggest evolution of UNESCO ESD philosophy lies with the key competencies, highlighted in Issues and Trends in ESD. They are of particular significance for people to think and act in favour of SD- systems thinking competency, anticipatory competency, normative competency, strategic competency, collaboration competency, critical thinking competency, self-awareness competency, and integrated problem-solving competency. This “competency-based approach can help to bridge the gap between knowledge and action,” (Leicht et al., 2018) combining both ESD 1 and ESD 2 together, something biodiversity education aims for also. Self-directed learning, participation and collaboration, problem-orientation, and inter and transdisciplinarity methodologies employed by teachers and students assist in the development of these competencies. Learners need motivational drivers and a corresponding set of values to act on these competencies (Leicht et al., 2018). There is an interplay between the competencies, motivational drivers, values of the learner and an opportunity to act on all these, on the sustainability performance of a learner. Therefore, these competencies along with knowledge, values (attitudes) and behaviour (UNESCO refer to these as learning objectives- cognitive, socio-emotional and behavioural), heavily influenced my research; my research aims, methods, analysis and thus the results and findings. Although there has been criticism of UNESCO policy documents, ultimately, they form the basis of the majority of ESD teaching internationally therefore we need to use them as a point of departure.

3.2.5 Critique of Education for Sustainable Development

UNESCO not only comes up against criticism and challenge but so does ESD itself. ESD promotes critical thinking, therefore its own ideologies and methods should also come up against the same critical thinking and challenge.

While the political dimension of ESD is revered and advocated for by many researchers (Fien, 2000; Levy & Zint, 2013; Lundegård and Wickman 2012; Van Poeck and Vandenabeele 2012; Bengtsson and Östman 2013; Knutsson 2013; Hasslöf, Ekborg & Malmberg 2014; Sund & Öhman 2014; Andersson 2016; Gonzalez-Gaudiano 2016; Håkansson, Östman & Van Poeck 2017; Håkansson et al., 2019) other researches in the field of ESD (Kopnina 2012, Jickling 2013, Meijers & Kopnina 2014, McKenzie et al. 2015) critique the political involvement as a danger that such pluralism associated with the political aspect of ESD may preserve dominant political ideologies and cement economic policy and concern, obscuring and eliminating environmental concerns. The concept of ESD may be devoted to political agendas

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or purposes, particularly neoliberal policy, in an economic like approach to education by various actors such as policy-makers. (McKenzie et al. 2015). Uncoupling from the focus of nature and the integrity of the environment occurs. ESD has the possibility of neglecting its underlying scientific basis- the environment and its protection, resulting in an undermining of the environmental movement. The shift from EE to ESD, it is argued, has been a loss to the world and to education. The key concern is that ESD presents a radical change of focus from prioritizing environmental protection towards mostly social and economic issues, which may or may not be related to the environment (Kopnina, 2012). It comes back to the question of the relation between EE and ESD as discussed by Eilam & Trop (2011). Whether they are perceived as separate fields of education with areas of overlap (Breiting et al., 2005; Fien and Tilbury, 2002), EE is part of ESD (De Haan and Harenberg, 1999) or they are two separate entities where EE is the accepted as the foundation of ESD yet the later has evolved as an educational practice of its own (Tilbury 1995; Fien 1997; Huckle, 1999).

This has an influence on the importance of the environment and where one places it on the spectrum of ESD. Kopnina (2012, 2013) argues that while the moral obligation towards the developing world is defended by ESD theorists (Stevenson 2006), the moral obligation towards protecting the non-human world and the ecosystems that inhabit the planet along with humans is often less evident in ESD discourse. Has ESD forgotten its roots? As a result, part of my research aims to bring the environment back into the forefront of the discourse on ESD by highlighting how learning physically in the environmental dimension can help achieve the goals of ESD.

There poses a risk, however, that too much focus on the environment and the issues and challenges that exist in its survival can incur feelings of guilt in students and lend them the impression that they are destructive beings causing “threats to the future through their way of living” (Popkewitz, 2008; as quoted in Ideland & Malmberg, 2015). ESD has been accepted as almost the only approach to the future and its survival.

In 'Governing ‘eco-certified children’ through pastoral power' (Ideland & Malmberg, 2015), the concept of ESD is challenged. One is encouraged to reflect upon the approaches of ESD teaching to find the most appropriate methods to teach children to be conscious citizens, without being made feel guilty. The authors only provide opposition towards ESD, however, and their article only discusses negative discourse about what is currently wrong about ESD; its teaching

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materials and teaching itself. No solution or alternative pedagogy is provided. That said they do raise a valid point that with ESD, people are being governed and controlled by definite agreements and codes of what it is to be environmental and environmentally aware. Although each individual has a choice in every decision they make, there is still a right and wrong decision being emphasised and demanded which the authors align with Foucault’s concept of “pastoral power.” The person, child in this case, internalises what is right and wrong in what is done, said and thought, as they have been indoctrinated to believe. The option of challenging what is being taught is not a reality and instead implicit teaching and learning, forcing personal guilt upon children, is applied. Learning in an environmental setting where the children see value in the environment for what it is and learning to appreciate this environment may be one way of learning without the accompanying guilt or indoctrination. Biodiversity education does this through teaching values and appreciation of nature without focusing on the negative impact humans are having.

Learning about certain topics in ESD can emphasise the impact of an individual on their environment but how this impact is managed by the teacher is important. Teaching ESD through critical thinking as discussed above is one solution to the problem argued by Ideland and Malmberg.

3.2.6 Education of Sustainable Development Pedagogy and Learning

Although there are still many welcomed challenges and critiques to ESD, it is the most widely recognised method of teaching and learning about sustainability and SD. Environmental attitudes and behaviour already emerge during childhood (Ebersbach, Brandenburger, 2020) therefore ESD should begin from an early educational setting. How it can be incorporated into teaching and learning is an important question. Educators are encouraged to use innovative pedagogy to make their teaching and subsequently the learning, interactive and learner-centred that enables transformative, inquisitive and responsive learning (Leicht et al., 2018). Values and attitudes are developed for a sustainable future. The traditional teaching methods of delivering knowledge to students who accept and retain this knowledge is no longer sufficient to inspire people to act nor does it create sustainable citizens. Telling students about the environment and societal issues is not enough; therefore, ESD rethinks the learning environment.

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There is a gap between environmental awareness and knowledge and pro-environmental behaviour according to Kollmuss & Agyeman, (2002). They found that having sufficient knowledge about the environment does not correlate with pro-environmental behaviour. Therefore, it is not enough to simply explain information about the environment and ESD to learners. Learners must be engaged with self-directional, participatory and collaborative learning that places problem-solving at the centre of all learning. Similar to many issues facing humans, the international community has placed a tremendous amount of faith in the ability of education to attain the goals of ESD. Educational centres, therefore, must employ and implement transformative pedagogies in their teaching of ESD. Eilam and Trop devised a four-step approach which, not only illustrates the need for a new style of pedagogy but also defines what is needed for effective ESD (Eilam and Trop, 2011, 5-9): 1. Academic learning processes, 2. Multidisciplinary learning, 3. Multidimensional learning, and 4. Emotional learning.

A theme that permeates through all the four steps is the term Eilam and Trop call: Natural learning. This is learning which takes places in an open space that has relevance to what is being learned. It includes real-life, concrete experiences therefore it has origins in experiential learning theory as described by Kolb (1984). ‘Place’ is essential to this type of learning as there is a relation between the subject being learned and the learner’s relevant world. Therefore, natural learning (encompassing all four steps to effective ESD) and consequently ESD can be taught through outdoor, place based education. It facilitates these steps as the traditional subject area content, skills and dispositions are taught through an integrated, interdisciplinary and frequently project-based approach where all learners are accountable and challenged. There is an emphasis on learner-centred, action-oriented methods in an outdoor environment. The crucial aspect of natural learning and place-based education is that it is in opposition to traditional teaching methods where learning is confined to the classroom. The benefit of natural learning methods is that students gain a deeper understanding of topics and systems (Eilam and Trop, 2011). Outdoor and place-responsive teaching and learning fulfils the pedagogical recommendation from Eilam and Trop to effectively implement and teach ESD to learners. Therefore, I believe sustainability education can be implemented with an outdoor, place responsive setting, which is what biodiversity education chiefly incorporates.

3.3 Outdoor Education

Outdoor Education (OE) can be defined as “learning in, about and for the outdoors.” (Mannion, & Lynch, 2015 pp.3) The keyword in that definition is for. Learning for environmental knowledge, attitudes and behaviour. It is an all-encompassing education where learners develop,

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think critically, reflect, experience, gain knowledge, socialise and establish an understanding of themselves, others, landscapes, nature and the world itself, through being outdoors. O.E is a practice which has the potential to bring extensive benefits and advantages to both education and consequently to society and the environment (Waite & Bolling & Bentson, 2016), cementing the connection of ESD with OE. Several OE theorists have argued that one of the unique, outstanding features that characterise OE as opposed to other pedagogies is the direct engagement with activity in natural environments, further illustrating its connection with ESD. OE aims to develop participants knowledge and attitudes towards the “more than human world” (Dyment & Potter, 2015, pp.198) in an attempt to position the environment at a pivotal location in the student’s minds, to ensure its conservation. It is clear that there is a direct link between OE and ESD.

OE plays a notable role in educating for a sustainable future. OE was previously seen as a way of combining the body and mind together as a process of creating a just society whereas (Zink, 2010) a more modern rationale for the implementation of OE is that it is a site for personal development in conjunction with environmental education. This new vision has two main foci; firstly, a more critical socio-ecological, sustainability and place-based vision of OE; and secondly, for OE to be positioned more explicitly within the academic school curriculum, thereby positioning ESD in the centre of the curriculum. OE positions the environment as a central focus in this promotion of student learning (Tan & Atencio, 2016). OE’s beginning position is the lived experience of the learner’s lives, it encourages an experiential method of learning in and about the world and it encourages experimental approaches to living in that world (Nicol, 2014). There is an increased understanding that OE provides an opportunity to widen children’s experiences in a way that promotes holistic learning which is a pedagogy ESD theory advises. OE not only fosters pupil’s cognitive development but it values outcomes such as confident learners with a sense of right and wrong, collaborative team players and concerned citizens with a strong sense of civic responsibility, outcomes also encouraged by ESD. OE, I believe, is a vehicle to propel the vision of ESD. In the last number of years, place-responsive education has come to the forefront of OE theory to assist this vision.

3.4 Place-Based Education

A specific theoretical framework of OE and one that assists ESD is responsive or place-based pedagogy (PBE). This theory explicates efforts to teach “by means of an environment

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with the aim of understanding and improving human–environment relations” (Mannion, Fenwick & Lynch, 2013, pp.792). It emphasises the importance of humans engaging with the natural world and coming to understand more intimately their own place in nature. Integral to achieving the goals of ESD are teaching and learning practices that emphasise environmental and social justice (Furman & Gruenewald, 2004). McInemy, Smyth and Down (2011) discuss how PBE sees students as producers rather than consumers of knowledge and thus it provides knowledge and experience to participate in democratic processes, a competency some ESD theorists stipulate as necessary to become a sustainable citizen. It assists students to develop a potential ability to create solutions to social and ecological problems.

Teaching and learning in nearby places, thereby connecting schools with the community and society, is emphasised in PBE. ESD literature acknowledges that the community is an important place of transformation towards an understanding of sustainability (Leicht et al., 2018). This holistic view of seeing local, community issues will assist learners to see the bigger, global sustainable development issues. Learners will understand that what they do in their locality has a direct influence on what happens in other parts of the world. Place-responsive education challenges the concept that “sustainability happens far away” (Carlsson & Uhrqvist, 2018) with the opportunity to engage learners with local, community-based sustainability conflicts. PBE contributes to the development of an awareness of, respect for and love of self, others and the environment. Place should not be used as just another location or “container” (Mannion & Lynch, 2015, pp.87) but is an entity in itself that teaches and transforms. It is important the learner has an emotional connection to what is happening through a link with aesthetic experience and sense of place, the final step in fulfilling ESD pedagogy recommendations (Eilam & Trop, 2011). It is important to find a place where the school community can gain a sense of ownership and connection with, to “produce viable and valuable environmental educational experiences” (Mannion, Fenwick & Lynch, 2013, pp.793). The teaching and learning should be place-transformational for all parties involved in the learning process; children, teachers, the wildlife, trees; all entities connected to the place.

3.4.1 Place Attachment

As biodiversity education, through place-based education takes place in and around the community the education setting is located, PBE is a method of increasing knowledge of the nearby environment but also it increases the sense of attachment learners feel for their place and

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space. In our modern world, children have less access to and limited experiences in nature and natural environments (Higgins, 1996; Beames et al., 2012; Cosgriff et al., 2012), therefore their understanding and knowledge of the environment they live in is also limited. Contact with nature has been found to be positively associated with environmental behaviour (Collado & Evans, 2019) as there is an appreciation of its beauty and the positive characteristics connected to nature (Hartig et al., 2001). Developing an attachment to a place, through affective and cognitive means, gives children a feeling of connection which can contribute to pro-environmental behaviour and in turn sustainable behaviour (Scannell, Gifford, 2010a).

However, the relationship between place attachment and concern to act on behalf of that place depends on the type of place attachment. Scannell and Gifford (2010b) found that of two dimensions of attachment, civic and natural, natural place attachment anticipated the likelihood of pro-environmental behaviour whereas civic attachment had no bearing. An attachment to the physical environmental aspects of a place causes a reaction and engagement in behaviour that serves to conserve and protect that place (Lewicka, 2010). PBE is generally situated in a natural environment therefore it is a way of influencing learner’s pro-environmental behaviour through giving learner’s a sense of attachment to the place the learning occurs. Scannell and Gifford (2010a), however, advise caution with this theory that place attachment contributes to pro-environmental behaviour, as the research is limited and inconsistent. Place attachment can also be known as nature connectedness (Mustapa et al., 2019).

3.4.2 Nature Connections and Experiences with Education for Sustainable Development.

The ontological concepts objects, subjects; mind, matter; people and places, when viewed from an ecological standpoint, identifies the relationship between humanity and nature as one inseparable relation where humanity is dependent on nature for survival (Nicol, 2014). We cannot be disconnected from nature due to our relationship with it. Kopnina (2011) argues that the environmental problems are anthropogenically created and severe i.e. a people-centred world where there is a belief that the world exists for the exclusive use of human beings, ignoring the impact on the “other” in this world, resulting in problems. Seeing value in the ‘other’ i.e. nature, for what it gives rather than seeing value in nature for what it is. She states that education of ecologically minded future generations could help with the resolution of environmental problems, as it is human nature to want to care for something one sees a value in (Seidman,

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2009). This calls for reengagement with nature and understanding our shared place with and within it.

When nature is understood as an interconnected whole then the challenge becomes one of understanding an integrated world and PBE assists this as strands of knowledge are not compartmentalised but taught in a context where the knowledge (and thus the curriculum) is presented and studied as a relation to one another. If nature-based experiences are essential to sustainable living, as Louv (2005) argues they are, then it is clear that OE and PBE have some potential to teach ESD because people are already there, immersed in nature. Knowing nature will lead to sustainable living as there is an assumption that certain types of experiences lead to personal and social action. There is likely a relationship between experience with nature, a connection to nature and an interest in environmental concerns (Chen-Hsuan Cheng and Monroe, 2010).

Research by Fägerstam (2014) on observations made by teachers teaching through OE, notes pupils “increased connection with the surrounding environment” (Fägerstam, 2014, pp.59) which the teachers credited to OE. Direct and indirect nature experiments are widely acknowledged to enhance environmental awareness and to foster sympathetic attitudes (Dahlgren & Szchepanski 1998, Lloyd & Gray, 2014). Kuo, Barnes and Jordan (2019) reviewed previous research and discuss whether experiences with nature promote learning. Their review found that experiences with nature develop children’s self-awareness, similar to a consciousness and promotes their development as environmental stewards (Kuo, Barnes & Jordan, 2019), similar to results Fägerstam evidenced in her investigations. Both authors deduce that an emotional connection to nature determines children’s conservation behaviour. Knowledge of a topic is a factor in the environmental concern of people but the emotional connection, one’s values, ethics and worldview ultimately create and effect action and behaviour. The development of attitudes, responsibilities, and appreciation towards nature and the environment, through OE, is best achieved by means of affective rather than cognitive methods (Dahlgren & Szchepanski 1998). Spending time in nature cultivates an emotional connection to nature, which in turn cultivates sustainable attitudes and behaviour therefore direct contact with nature creates ecologically literate citizens (Lekies et al., 2015). OE often takes place in and about nature so findings by Fägerstam and Kuo et al. have implications for augmenting the potential of OE, through BE, to teach ESD.

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The type of experiences in nature a child has impacts on the pro-environmental behaviour of this child as an adult (Wells and Lekies, 2006). Although research has deduced that both direct and indirect experiences with nature contribute to an increase in connections to nature (Duerden & Witt, 2010), children have less knowledge, interest and devotion to nature when the experiences with nature are only indirect with no direct experiences (Aaron & Witt, 2011). Wells and Lekies (2006) also agree that free play in nature has stronger influences on adult pro-environmental behaviour compared to experiences that are compulsory for the learner.

Direct experiences in nature are physical engagements with nature and other non-human species; in unstructured play i.e., free play and indirect experiences are more structured, restricted engagements with nature such as school outdoor learning. With a decrease in the frequency and opportunity of direct experiences with nature available for children, it is important to test Wells and Lekies theory, that direct experiences with nature have a stronger desired effect on environmental concern and behaviour. The research carried out in this thesis involves indirect nature experiences and investigates the effect an indirect nature experiences, through BE, has on the sustainability awareness and concern of children.

Wells and Lekies arguments have since been rebuked by Mustapa et al. (2019) who have found that indirect experiences with nature make more of a contribution to children’s environmental concern and connection to nature than direct experiences. Indirect experiences can be an alternative and an effective method of developing children’s connection to nature; influencing their sustainability and environmental concern. As there has been a significant reduction in children’s exposure to nature and thus nature experiences, even further since 2006 when Wells and Lekies developed their theory, indirect experiences have an important and necessary role in positively influencing children’s environmental behaviour and concern. This has implications for my research and future teaching as it gives relevance to indirect experiences with nature for children in school through OE and PBE.

It is important to be aware however that the theory that connections with nature increase pro-environmental behaviour is also a contested concept. Kollmus & Agyeman, (2002); Öhman & Sandell (2012) have challenged this by questioning the idea that children’s exposure to nature and experiences within it will teach them to care for it thereby challenging the concept of OE and its contribution to sustainable development. The long-term effects of connections and experiences in nature have little research foundation. Although, as is evident from above, there

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is research that shows nature connections and the impact of this on environmental concern, this research has only been studied mostly on adults rather than children. The assumption that knowledge leads to pro-environmental attitudes and values and subsequently towards environmental involvement, is difficult to substantiate (Kollmus, Agyeman, 2002). It has been debated that nature is too often the backdrop for OE experiences rather than being situated centrally in the pedagogy and outcomes of OE practices (Wattchow & Brown, 2011; Dyment, Potter, 2015). I believe therefore that teaching through a focus on biodiversity can assist in bridging the gap between OE and nature, leading to greater sustainability knowledge, attitude and behaviour.

3.5 Sustainability Consciousness

As noted above, integrating both cognitive and affective factors empower and influence the learner’s worldview. Therefore, in ESD it is vital to include both cognitive and affective aspects of learning (Kalsoom & Khanam, 2017). Sustainability ultimately comes from individual knowledge, attitudes and behaviours (Pappas et al., 2013). Student’s knowledge of sustainability issues should be enhanced and their attitudes and behaviours transformed during ESD. Development of sustainability consciousness requires transformative learning experiences (Blake et al., 2013; Singleton, 2015; Kalsoom & Khanam, 2017). This thesis investigates biodiversity education as a transformative learning experience and the impact of this on the development of sustainability consciousness.

Boeve-de-Pauw et al. (2015) defined SC as

a composite notion, unifying contents in environmental, social, and economic issues, as well as psychological constructs relating to knowledge, attitudes, and behaviours relating to such issues.

SC is more than knowledge regarding sustainability. Pure knowledge alone cannot fulfil the aims of ESD but the added combination of affective aspects of attitudes and behaviour help to achieve its aims. Therefore, knowledge, attitudes and behaviours play a central role in the data collection and analysis of this research, to garner students’ sustainability consciousness.

The concept of SC is retrieved from the field of environmental education, where environmental consciousness has been introduced by researchers (Sánchez & Lafuente, 2010). Similar to

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Kollmuss and Agyeman’s (2002) concept of pro-environmental consciousness, SC is a complex of cognitive and affective learning. UNESCO advise educators to employ a holistic, pluralist, transformational and empowering pedagogy thus recognising the affective attitudes and behaviour factors, along with the cognitive (Leicht et al., 2018). Breiting and Mogensen (1999) have described students’ action competence as closely related to co-variations between knowledge of action possibilities (knowingness), confidence in own influence (attitudes) and a wish to act (behaviour).

Cognitive aspect involves knowledge or information regarding social, economic and environmental issues and their inter-relationships. Affective learning means a deeper level of awareness and concern regarding sustainability issues which is reflected through one’s attitude and behaviour. An attitude is “a mental state-conscious or unconscious; a value, belief or feeling and a predisposition to a behaviour or action” (Altmann, 2008). It has a cognitive (thoughts, ideas and beliefs) and affective (emotions and feelings) components. A behaviour (cognitive and affective) is the preceding attitude expressed in a behavioural response resulting from the attitude (Jagers, 2009) i.e. an exposed action to an attitude. The link between attitudes and behaviours is not always clear (Kollmuss and Agyeman 2002) but the difference between them is often misunderstood. Knowledge, attitudes and behaviour are referred to by UNESCO as cognition, socio-emotional and behaviour which are objectives, they argue, should be integrated with the competencies of ESD for effective ESD pedagogy and learning (Leicht et al., 2018).

Combining knowledge, attitudes and behaviours with the three dimensions of ESD assists the researchers’ interpretation of the participant’s SC. The researcher is also cognizant of the competencies and objectives, advised by UNESCO to further garner the SC of the participants.

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Figure 1: Conceptual representation of sustainability consciousness.

K = knowingness; A = attitudes; B = behaviour; ECO = economic; SOC = social; ENV = environmental; Sus Cons = sustainability consciousness (Gericke et al., 2018).

Summary

In this chapter, the link between ESD and biodiversity education has been explored. Biodiversity education is a non-natural learning and pedagogical approach to implementing ESD, which Eilam and Trop (2011) argue is the most effective way of teaching about ESD. Biodiversity Education can give students an increased sense of attachment to nature and they are given the opportunity to reconnect with nature through indirect experiences. I gave a theoretical background about the foundations of ESD, first as the concept EE and then it’s broader conception to encompass all aspect of SD; the environmental dimension along with the social and economic dimensions. This assisted a deeper understanding of the connection of ESD with the environment, which is argued by Kopnina (2011) to have been side-lined, as biodiversity education can assist this issue as it teaches students to hold a more ecocentric worldview where nature is valued for what it is but not forgetting the social and economic needs of humans.

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Methods

The overall aim of this research was to understand and elicit the impact learning through biodiversity education, as an approach to ESD, had on the sustainability consciousness of Irish Primary school children. In the following section the methods used during this thesis are described. I will discuss the data collection methods in addition to the data analysis methods applied and explain the research participants. This chapter ends with the ethical considerations and limitations of my research.

4.1 Choice of Method

The aim reflects my concern towards the subjective nature of opinions and experiences of the children. A flexible design and qualitative research context was most appropriate and therefore chosen as I wanted to unearth the thoughts, opinions and feelings of my participants (Braun & Clark, 2013) to determine their sustainability consciousness. I strove to understand the phenomenon of the effect of biodiversity education, as a method of ESD on sustainability consciousness. I involved my participants in a dynamic process of focus group interviews and discussions rather than a survey or questionnaire. A qualitative research setting allowed me to probe further into opinions and rationales (Liamputtong & Ezzy, 2005).

Previous research on SC of young people observing the implementation of ESD, has been conducted using a questionnaire and was restricted to the Swedish context (Berglund et al 2014; Olsson & Gericke, 2016; Olsson et al., 2016; Gericke et al., 2018). Similar research investigated the impact of the Green School Flag programme on SC of young people in Taiwanese schools (Olsson et al., 2019). To understand how the implementation of ESD affects the learning of students, I developed upon this research by studying an aspect of ESD, biodiversity education and its effect on sustainability consciousness. My predominant interest was in the way the children feel and reflect on sustainability and I focused on interpreting their perceptions.

4.2 The Participants and Context of the study

The participant group were teachers and students from two primary schools in Ireland. A primary school in Ireland is the first mainstream school a pupil attends from the age of 4/5 to the age of 12/13 years. Both participating schools are located in the South East of Ireland and are situated in a small rural town, of a population of roughly 2,500 citizens each. Each school

Biodiversity Education and Sustainability Consciousness : A study on the effect of biodiversity education on the sustainability consciousness of Irish Primary School Students.