Department of Science and Technology Institutionen för teknik och naturvetenskap
LiU-ITN-TEK-G--11/035--SE
From idea to finished book
-Photo book concept for
Stångåstaden
Nathalie Johansson
Riikka Jääskeläinen
LiU-ITN-TEK-G--11/035--SE
From idea to finished book
-Photo book concept for
Stångåstaden
Examensarbete utfört i grafisk design och kommunikation
vid Tekniska högskolan vid
Linköpings universitet
Nathalie Johansson
Riikka Jääskeläinen
Handledare Tobias Trofast
Examinator Gary Svensson
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From idea to finished book
- Photo book concept for Stångåstaden
By: Riikka Jääskeläinen & Nathalie Johansson Graphic Design and Communications
Tutor: Tobias Trofast Examiner: Gary Svensson
Sammanfattning
Stångåstaden är ett kommunalt bostadsbolag som ägs av Linköpings kommun. De har genom åren bidragit till ett antal utomhus konstverk runt om i deras bostadsområden. Eftersom de har en mycket vag dokumentation av dessa konstverk så kommer en fotobok att utvecklas för att sätta ihop en
sammanställning av alla konstverk samt för att visa upp dem. Vårt jobb är att skapa ett koncept för denna fotobok samt göra research av konstverken och fotografera dem.
För att skapa bra och hållbara riktlinjer för fotobok måste man först veta mer om fotoböcker och hur olika motiv skildras på bästa sätt. Så syftet med denna
rapport är att undersöka hur olika typer av fotoböcker porträttera sina motiv och visualisera information och utifrån detta formge riktlinjer för en intressant, informativ och snygg fotobok för Stångåstaden.
För att kunna svara på syftet har en genreanalys valts som metod eftersom det hjälper med förståelsen av en viss genre och dess olika element, samt ger inspiration vilket passar detta syfte väl. Innan genreanalysen genomfördes en litteraturstudie med specifik fokus på bildkomposition och bok design. Med litteraturstudien som grund skapades en modell för analys utifrån vilket
genreanalysen gjordes. Genrenanalysen gjordes på fem mycket olika böcker som valts ut med hjälp av Svenska fotografers förbunds årliga fotobokspris.
Som ett resultat av litteraturstudien och genreanalysen framställdes fem olika uppslagskoncept för att illustrerade hela det slutgiltiga konceptet. Dessa är en karta för översikt och uppdelning, närbilder för detaljer, många bilder att visa olika sidor, helbilder med specifika ändamål och miljöbilder för relation. Mer generella riktlinjer för konceptet är att varje konstverk kommer att ha minst ett uppslag var. Alla bilder kommer att vara i färg för att kunna skapa mer effektiva kontraster till förmån för konstverken. Dessutom är det viktigt att arbeta med komposition, perspektiv och format för att skapa balans och hierarki för att framhäva varje konstverk.
Abstract
Stångåstaden is a mortgage company owned by Linköping municipality. They have over the years contributed to a number of outdoor artworks all around their home properties. Since they have a very poor documentation of these artworks a photo book will be developed to showcase these artworks. Our job is to create a concept for this photo book as well as doing research of the artworks and photographing them.
In order to create good and viable guidelines for the photo book one must first find out more about photo books and how different motives are portrayed in the best way. So the main thesis of this report is to research how different types of photo books portray their motives and visualise information, then translate that into guidelines for an interesting, informative and visually attractive photo book for Stångåstaden.
To be able to answer the thesis a genre analysis was chosen as a method because it helps with the understanding of a specific genre and its different elements, as well as provides inspiration which suits this report very well. Before doing the genre analysis a literature study was conducted with the focus on relevance for image composition and book design in specific. With the literature study as a foundation a model for analysis was create on which the genre analysis was made. The genre analysis was done on five very different books chosen from the Swedish photographers associations yearly photo book award.
As a result of the literature study and the genre analysis five different concept-‐ spreads were create to illustrated the whole final concept. These are a map for overview and division, close-‐ups for details, many pictures to show different sides, full site with specific purposes and environmental images for relations. More general guidelines for the concept are that every artwork is going to have at least one spread alone. All the pictures will be in colour in order to be able to create more effective contrasts in favour of the artwork. Furthermore it is important to work with composition, perspective and format to create balance and hierarchy to enhance each artwork.
Table of Contents
1. Introduction... 5
1.1. Background... 5
1.2. Thesis ... 5
1.3. Questions ... 6
The main question this thesis aims to answer is: ... 6
1.4. Demarcation ... 6
1.5. Disposition ... 7
2. Method... 8
2.1. Literature studies ... 8
2.2. Model for analysis... 8
2.3. Genre analysis... 9
2.4. Selection...10
2.5. Pros and cons with the method...10
2.6. Alternative methods ...11 3. Theory... 12 3.1. Design principles ...12 3.1.1. Format...12 3.1.2. Hierarchy ...13 3.1.3. Balance...13 3.1.4. Contrast ...14
3.2. The photograph principals ...15
3.2.1. Type of images...16
3.2.2. Image composition ...16
3.2.3. Perspective...17
3.2.4. Placing of the motive ...18
3.2.5. Colour ...19
3.2.6. Forms in a picture ...20
3.2.7. Motion ...21
3.2.8. Format...22
3.3. Image analysis...22
4. Empirical part ... 24
4.1. Model of analysis...24
4.2. Genre analysis...25
4.2.1. Hillbilly heroin, honey by Hannah Modigh...25
4.2.2. Picture Imperfect by Kent Klich & Beth R...29
4.2.3. Naini and the Sea of Wolves by Trinidad Carillo ...33
4.2.4. Mitt i Naturen av Björn Larsson...37
4.2.5. Pure Architecture by Åke E:son Lindman...41
5. Result ... 46
5.1. Conclusions of the genre analysis ...46
5.2. Photo book concept...47
5.2.1. General guidelines ...47
5.2.2. Concept 1 -‐ Map for overview and division ...49
5.2.3. Concept 3 – Many pictures to show different sides...51
5.2.4. Concept 4 -‐ Full site with specific purposes ...52
5.2.5. Concept 5 – Environmental image for relations ...53
5.3. Discussion & conclusions ...54
5.4. Continued Work ...55
6. References... 56
1.
Introduction
1.1. Background
Stångåstaden is a public utility mortgage company owned by Linköping municipality. Today the company is the biggest actor in Linköping's housing market and they own a variety of different home properties all around Linköping. (Stångåstaden, 2011) In some of their housing properties
Stångåstaden have over the years worked together with the municipality and several artists to create an assortment of outdoor artwork for their tenants. The only documentation of these artworks Stångåstaden have today is in form of contracts with the builders and artists at the time of construction and practically no visual documentation. For this reason we were given the assignment from Stångåstaden to make a photo book of all the artwork and to gather together all Sångåstaden’s artwork into one complete collection.
The goal of the photo book is to in a clear way give an overview of the artworks that Stångåstaden has contributed to in Linköping. The target group for the book will be Stångåstaden’s board and staff and the art-‐council of Linköping, but also the inhabitants of Linköping who have an interest in art and sculptures. Because of that last group the book also needs to be visually attractive to be able to work for promotional purposes since it may also be sold in Stångåstaden’s boutique. This is why the book on one hand must distinctly provide the facts of the sculptures and on the other hand be visually attractive to make the inhabitants and corporations in Linköping interested in the content.
Since the artworks were made during a long period of time the condition of the creations are very varied. Our challenge during our project is therefore to make as cohesive book as possible. Today there is no complete compilation of
photographic material or text material for us to work with. So our job will, beyond making the design and concept of the book, consist of doing research about the artworks, taking pictures of them and write factorial texts about them. Furthermore after the concept is created it will need to be modified to work with three different budget proposals for the client; one economic, one luxury and one in between.
1.2. Thesis
This thesis aims to research how different types of photo books portray their motives and visualise information, then translate that into guidelines for an interesting, informative and visually attractive photo book for Stångåstaden. The different visual aspects such as colour, hierarchy, photocomposition and layout, has been studied to be able to provide the best possible design concept for Stångåstaden.
1.3. Questions
The main question this thesis aims to answer is:
• How do you make a photo book that visualizes the artworks uniqueness as well as makes it informative and transparent, from a layout and photographic perspective?
The question was then divided into three more specific sub-‐questions: • How are different motives portrayed in different photo books?
• Which graphic and photographic principles are important when designing a photo book?
• Which design aspects must be considered with the photography of the artworks?
1.4. Demarcation
In order to complete this project a considerable amount of research needed to be done, not just about the artworks but also on how to portray them in the best possible way. Since this report could not cover all of these aspects the focus of this report is to research how to best portray the artworks in a photo book. In the production of a photo book there are many different matters one must consider, but this thesis cannot cover them all. Therefore there is no focus on the technical aspects of photo book production. Furthermore this report will not cover the cost aspects in the result, however this will be considered for the finished prototype of the photo book since this is an important part for the client. Furthermore there are many aspects of design and photography and this report will only focus on those, which are important for visualizing Stångåstaden’s photo book.
Since some of the artworks that are featured in the photo book are in production during the summer and this report is due in the beginning of the summer, this report has only resulted in an extract of the photo book. However the concept was finished and an assortment of spreads and photography completed to visualise the whole concept of the photo book. The photo book as a whole will not be finished until a later date.
When going through the design principles there shall only be the aspects most important and relevant for this project. Because of the tight timeline it must be chosen if the most important point of analysis is to have all the different design principles or the wide selection of different photo books. If the focus is on all the design principles there would be time for analysing only one book. Considering that the wide selection of photo books gave a wider point of view of the different possibilities how to express the chosen design principles it was more suitable for this project. Therefore there was only a narrow selection of design principles that were focused on.
For Stångåstaden’s project in particular it would have been a good idea to do a genre analysis on not just photo books but books that are more informative like cookbooks or fact books to get a wider perspective. But given the short amount of time for this project the focus was on the photo books alone, in order to make a more thorough analysis of them.
1.5. Disposition
This disposition is here to help guide the reader to the structure of this report and the content of its different part.
Chapter 1 Introduction -‐ This chapter tends to give the reader the purpose of this work and the background for the company as well as explaining the thesis and those parts this work will not cover.
Chapter 2 Method -‐ In the method chapter there is a review of the method used to answer the thesis, genre analysis. It covers why this method was chosen and the pros and cons of it. The chapter also discusses potential other methods that could be complementary to the genre analysis as well as replacement methods.
Here the reader can also find information on the literature study and what types of books that were used. There is also a information about the model for analysis and this that need to be considered when putting it together.
Chapter 3 Theory -‐ In this chapter the theory recovered from the literature study is listed. The focus of this part is the different design principles that are most
relevant for the making of a photo book. In addition there is also those principles of photography that need to be considered for this project. There is also
information about what one should consider when analysing images. This chapter is the foundation for the model of analysis for the genre analysis.
Chapter 4 Empirical part -‐ This chapter contains the model for analysis as well as the genre analysis itself. The chapter is divided into five different parts, one for each book being analysed. The analysis is made up by three different parts; the purpose, the form and the content.
Chapter 5 Result -‐ In this chapter is the conclusions made from the genre analysis. From those conclusions as well as the literature study a concept for
Stångåstaden was developed and this is also presented in this chapter. Furthermore there is the discussion and reflection about the report and its result. Finally are the recommendations for how the work for this photo book will be continued.
2. Method
To be able to answer the thesis and come up with the best design concept for Stångåstaden a literature study will first be made about the principles of image composition and book layout. From this a model of analysis will be made that will be used to do a genre analysis of photo books. This will give an idea of how different motives are illustrated in photo books and how one can use this information to document Stångåstaden’s artworks.
2.1. Literature studies
It is important to be able to show that the purpose of the thesis is understood and by that to introduce all the literature that helps to deepen the study. According to Bryman the questions of thesis built the groundwork for the literature study and helps to find the focus to define what kind of literature will be needed. (Bryman, 2011)
The focus of this project is to define and implement the graphic and visual elements of a photo book. Therefore a variety of books about graphic design and photography was used, which were chosen based on their relevance for image composition and book design in specific.
Among the books that was used regarding photography and imaging were:
Fotografisk bild by Stefan F. Lindberg and Lars Åberg, Visual Poetry by Chris Orwig,
The photographer’s eye: composition and design for better digital photo by Michael Freeman and Within the frame by David duChemin.
Some books that were used for information about graphic design in books were:
Typografi, bild och grafisk design by Henriette Koblanck, Att göra böcker by Jost Hochuli and Effektiv visuell kommunikation by Bo Bergström.
2.2. Model for analysis
With the literature study as a foundation of framework a model for analysis will be created to look at the different design aspects of photo books. By using an analysis model one can look at specific parts of the design and then compare how they are used in different ways to create different purposes. By comparing the theoretical work and how different photo books use these principles to portray different objects and analyzing them a concept of guidelines can be established that will suit Stångåstaden’s purpose.
To be able to keep the analysis as objective as possible, guidelines about quantitative content analysis were used as a reference to know which parts to focus on and how to define the elements being analysed. By working this way the model of analysis becomes more reliable and it gets easier to compare the
questions that concern perception and feeling, because both of these are very subjective to the beholder and the context.
2.3. Genre analysis
In order to define the type of photo book that would fit Stångåstaden the best, one must first define what different types of photo books there are and what separates them. To answer this question and to identify how these different books use different design principles a genre analysis is a good method to use. Genre analysis is also used to give inspiration to the design with suits this project even more. (Blomkvist, 2007)
To be able to make a genre analysis of photo books one must first define what a genre is. According to McQuail a genre can be any type of category that has the following characteristics:
• Its collective identity is more or less equally recognized by its producers (the
media) and its customers (the media audience).
• This identity (or definition) relates to purposes (such as information,
entertainment or subvariants), form (length, pace, structure, language etc) and meaning (reality reference).
• The identity has been established over time and observes familiar conventions; cultural forms are preserved, although these can also change and develop within the framework of the original genre.
• A particular genre will follow an expected structure of narrative or sequence of action, draw on a predictable stock of images and have a repertoire of variants of different themes. (Mcquail, 2005, s. 370)
By placing different products in different genres it helps the user to know how to use the product because they recognize them for other similar products they have used before. (Arvola, Lundberg & Holmlid, 2010)
The purpose of a genre analysis is too look at similarities and differences of products in the same genre, in this case photo books, and describe them to be able to get at better view of the genre. Sometimes they also describe how a genre changes over time and how changes in a genre can turn into different sub-‐genres and mix-‐genres. By analysing this one can determine what genre is appropriate for different purposes. (Arvola, Lundberg & Holmlid, 2010)
A genre analysis can be made on a wide variety of categories but the three things all genre analysis looks at are form, content and purpose. (Arvola, Lundberg & Holmlid, 2010) The different steps of a genre analysis are according to Arvola as follows: The first step is to define the content of the product and its different elements. The second step is to identify the genre as whole and the form of the elements. Thirdly you describe the form of the whole genre and its elements. Last one identifies the common features and the differences of the products. (Arvola, Lundberg & Holmlid, 2010) There are no rules of what an element or
and object is, this is decided by the analyst and need to be modified depending on the purpose of the analysis. (Blomkvist, 2007)
2.4. Selection
The selection of photo books for the genre analysis will be made with help from the Swedish photographers association (Svenska fotografers förbund), here on referred to as SFF. Each year they give out an award for best Swedish photo book out of a variety of different photo books. Every year a new jury is appointed and they are comprised of photographers, book designers, art directors, artists, art critics and so on. (SFF, 2011) Because this award does not focus on a specific type of photo book nor on how established the photographer is there is a great variety of different books nominated, with different kind of purposes. The thing the books have in common is that they all do something special with their
message to make them stand out from the rest. This provides a great list of photo books to choose from and with the motivations from the SFF some unique photo books will be selected for analysis.
Photo books as a genre is wide and includes many different kinds of photo books; some of them are more informative and some are more illustrative and the motives illustrated vary from humans to man made creations. This makes it interesting to analyse the factors that are similar to all of them and therefore it was chosen to analyze as different photo books as possible. The five photo books differ from each other with size, content, motives and style, but they can still use the same principles for layout and photography. Therefore this provides a wide range to the genre analysis. The photo book for Stångåstaden will have photos of art and sculptures and the photo books that are analysed have wide range of motives from humans to buildings. This makes it interesting to analyse how the principles are used even if the motives varies and how to adapt these into the product.
The books were first looked on as a whole, trying to get a grasp of what their purpose is. Then spreads and pictures were chosen from the books that would illustrate the concept of the book as a whole. These pictures are either a
representation of common techniques and moods used in the book or because something about them breaks the pattern and makes them stand out from the rest of the book. Two or three spreads were chosen depending on the extent of the book. These examples represent and compile the whole book and this was enough to analyse the whole concept of the photo books.
2.5. Pros and cons with the method
When doing a genre analysis there is a great risk that the analyst becomes subjective and that his or her own values affect the result. Therefore it is of most importance that one stays as objective as possible during the analysis, although this is something that can never be a hundred percent achieved. To minimize this risk a detailed model for analysis from the framework of the literature study will be created, because by looking at the elements from a theoretical point of view
there is little room for own personal opinions. To be able to avoid the affects of own values the books will be analysed together and not individually. This may take more time but will keep the analysis more objective.
2.6. Alternative methods
As an alternative method it was considered to use qualitative interviews. Interviewing the photographer and the book designer behind the book would have given a deeper and more detailed aspect to the thesis and given the thought behind the layout and composition decision that has been made. Through
interviews with photographers and designers regarding their experiences and knowledge, information could have been found that cannot be learned by books alone. It could have provided more information about the things that should have been thought of when working with photos for printing and when making a specific photo book for art. But because of the lack of time this method would not have given the chance to see the photo genre as a whole and to see the different variety of possibilities when designing and photographing for photo books. If the time limit had been longer, it would have been complementary to do the interviews and genre analysis for the photo books.
3. Theory
In order to make a genre analysis one must first be accustom to the different elements that make up a photo book. Since the message of the image and what it tells its beholder is the most vital part of a photo book the focus shall be on photographs and how layout and composition affect the message and feeling of them. Not all of the principles covered in the literature study are going to be used during the genre analysis, because not all picture use these principles. But they will still serve a vital part when it comes to developing the concept for
Stångåstaden’s photo book.
Since there are so many rules and guidelines for graphic design and photography this report cannot cover them all. This part will focus on those how are the most relevant for making a photo book. Some principles that will not be addressed are the gestalt laws of perceptual organization; Law of Proximity, Law of Similarity, Law of Closure, Law of Simplicity, Law of Common Fate, Law of Good
Continuation, Law of Segregation nor will it cover typography, texture, cover design in specific, grids or retouching.
3.1. Design principles
It doesn’t matter if the design is for a poster, a brochure or a book there are different design principles that one have to be aware of in order to create a well-‐ composed product. Many of these design principles can be applied to both the layout of a photo book but also to the photos themselves.
3.1.1. Format
When designing a book shall the different factors that built the functional
entirety be considered. The book’s size must be thought through so that it serves its purpose and creates the best experience for the user. When choosing a photo book format Bergström mentions our two choices: the standard format and the special format. (Bergström, 2008)
The most common standard format is the A-‐series that is used in most countries for printed material. A folded A4 paper gives the A5 format and a folded A5 gives A6 format. The proportions of A-‐series come from the golden cut rule and
therefore is suitable for magazines and catalogues with multiple text columns. This is why the vertical format is more traditional and can be suitable for photo books that illustrate portraits. (Bergström, 2007)
It is more unique to think outside the box and use a special format instead of the ready to use formats at the printing company. Some of the special formats have become a standard in the branch, like the most common novel format, which is 130 millimetres wide and 210 millimetres high. The square format is
experienced boring because of its strong symmetry and therefore it is not commonly used, but it can be suitable because of its inner strength. The static
symmetry can be used in advantage by building contrast with an active
arrangement. The basic forms triangle and circle should not be forgotten either. They give an exciting and unique form, but must be thought through. (Bergström, 2007)
It is good to be considered how the reader will hold the book; will it be held by two hands, one hand or maybe read when it is lying on the table. When the book is meant to be held with both hands or is read on the table, it is possible to have a wider format for the book. (Hochuli, 1999) This kind of a format might be more suitable for photo books that introduce photos of landscapes, because the formats of the pictures tend to be horizontal.
When the purpose of the thesis is to design a photo book, the images become the most important factor and the format needs to provide space to be able to show the images in the right size and proportion. Therefore the size tends to require a bigger format to give the focus to the photos. (Hochuli, 1999)
3.1.2. Hierarchy
Hierarchy is the order of importance and can be seen everywhere in our lives, but in design it means how to show this order of importance visually. Visual hierarchy is the factor that makes the delivery and impact of the message easier and more effective and of course interesting. It is one of the most vital tasks for a graphic designer to clearly mark the separation of each level of importance to the viewer. Lupton and Phillips say that hierarchy can be simple or complex,
rigorous or loose, flat or highly articulated. But what is it that makes the hierarchy these things? Naturally every designer has his or her own personal style, methodology and training that affects the result of hierarchy. But with all this it is also the zeitgeist of the period that has an impact of how the hierarchy is approached. (Lupton & Phillips, 2008)
It is important for the designer to decide what kind of approach of hierarchy is needed to get the best suitable result. Hierarchy can be shown using different size for the motives and components or by using space. Even a colour is a good method to enhance the importance of a specific matter. (Koblanck, 2003)
3.1.3. Balance
Balance is a complex thing because on one hand you want to create balance in layouts and in pictures, for example you do not want the image or layout to be too heavy in one corner because this can give the feeling that the image is tipping over. But on the other hand sometimes too much balance ruins the drama and interesting part of the look. (Lindberg & Åberg 2004) So the difficult part is to create balance without ruining the excitement, because it is usually this part that attracts the viewer. (Bergström, 2007)
Things that can give a lot of weight in a layout are colours, objects, dark surfaces or other things that attract the eye. Especially when it comes to photographs one needs to be aware of the light. Because a dark surface is always perceived as
heavier than a bright surface, which means that a bright surface can be much bigger to give the illusion of having the same weight as a small dark object. (Lindberg & Åberg 2004)
Symmetry vs. asymmetry
Balance in a layout is either created by using symmetry or asymmetry. Symmetry means placing all the elements in relation to the centre of the page. The human eye has a predilection for symmetric compositions because it is an easy balance to look at and it creates ease, harmony and strength. (Bergström, 2007)
Symmetry is created by placing the element in the middle of the page, by putting two elements of equal weight on either side of the centre or several elements arranged in the same way around the centre. (Freeman, 2007) But sometimes a symmetric layout can feel dull and monotonous and then an asymmetric layout can be preferred. The elements in an asymmetry layout does not need to be aligned to the centre of the page which gives this type of composition a much bigger variety and therefore also more possibilities than the symmetric layout. An asymmetric layout can create balance without perfect symmetry which makes it much more appealing for designers. Both symmetry and asymmetry are common techniques in both designing layout and taking photographs.
Sometimes balance does not suit the feeling the design wants to portray, and then it might be a good idea to intentionally ignore the balance. By doing that the design elements can create tension and use the page in ways a balanced design never could. (Peterson, 2003)
Peterson summarizes this like it doesn’t really matter how balance is created or if it is intentionally avoided as long as it is done from the feeling and the purpose of the concept. (Peterson, 2003)
3.1.4. Contrast
No matter if one is planning a city, a party or designing a poster to avoid getting monotonous there needs to be contrast. When designing one often uses contrast without even thinking of it, for example black text on a white background gives high contrast and this makes the text easier to read. (Peterson, 2003) There are many different ways of creating contrast but four of the most common
disciplines in design are size, strength, shape and colour. (Bergström, 2007) Size is very useful to give the beholder an entrance into the design, this can be a large picture or headline for example. Because it is not easy to know were to start looking if there is no obvious staring-‐point, like if the design have the same construction as a chessboard. (Bergström, 2007)
Beside the four most common disciplines contrast can also be created in
photographs using the following counterparts: big-‐small, straight-‐bent, near-‐far, black-‐white, dark-‐bright, heavy-‐light, inside-‐outside, horizontal-‐vertical,
Contrast is most often used to enhance the obvious but using contrast as a
contradiction can sometimes be even more powerful. For example when working with typography portraying the word small in big, capital letters or light with a heavy, black font can send a bigger message than the more obvious choice. (Peterson, 2003) Furthermore contrast does not always have to be dramatic to be successful, sometimes a more subtle contrast suites the design better. No matter the level of contrast it must always be clear enough, because otherwise the beholder may wonder if it is just a design error. (Peterson, 2003) In order to work with contrast in good way one must be aware of all the elements that make up the design because all the parts can create some kind of contrast and it is also important to know the purpose of the design in order to create the most suitable design choices.
No matter what disciplines are used to create the layout Peterson gives the following guidelines to consider when working with contrast:
• Does the chosen contrast strengthen the idea?
• Are only the most obvious ways used or are there other ways of creating contrast
• When working with typography does the type suit the audience and message of the design?
• Is the contrast used being pushed far enough, is there enough difference between the contrasts?
• Consider that extreme contrast may not always be the best choice for the
design, sometimes discrete differences are more successful. (Peterson, 2003)
3.2. The photograph principals
When creating any type of graphical material it is important to have good material to work with. In the case of a photo book the quality of the pictures is what can make or break a book. This is not just a matter of the technical quality of the photographs but the quality of the content and the perception of the image.
In the process of taking pictures it is therefore crucial that the photographer do sufficient research of the motive and know the purpose of the pictures before taking them. It is important to find a new interesting way of showing the motive. A photographer should always think before and after taking the pictures and not during the actual photographing, this part is best done by instinct. (Lindberg & Åberg, 2004) But when beholding the knowledge of all the possibilities it
becomes easier to define the decisions one makes with intuition. Furthermore it is important to realize that when taking pictures for a specific purpose it is often so that only one or two out of a hundred are actually usable. So one should always photograph immensely more than is needed to ensure the chance of getting that one spectacular photo. (Lindberg & Åberg, 2004) However there are
some rules and guidelines the photographer should be aware of, even if just so they can break them.
3.2.1. Type of images
There are many different categories of images therefore the images also have many different goals. There are three major types of images: the factual images, the prose images and the poetic images. Many pictures are not just one of these categories but are usually somewhere in between. The factual images strive on being as close to reality as possible. It is important that facts like size and colour are realistically reproduced. (Lindberg & Åberg, 2004)
These images are used to represent the reality and document different current events and need to be without personal values. News-‐images and images for documentary purposes are types of factorial images. (Bergström, 2007) Today the factorial picture becomes more and more narrative and therefore closer to the next category, which is the prose picture. Here the photographer take the opportunity to interpret the reality and have a possibility to influence the way the beholder sees the picture, which means that the reality does not necessarily need to be accurately portrayed. These pictures are often used to tell a story for example a travel feature. (Lindberg & Åberg, 2004)
Furthest away from the factorial picture is the poetic picture. These types of images are more artistic and they rely on emotion and moods to convey their message. Poetic images can even be abstract and non-‐representational; their purpose can simply be to illustrate a feeling.
(Lindberg & Åberg, 2004)
3.2.2. Image composition
Image composition is a vital part of image making. It determines what is shown in the picture and what is left outside of the image and how the different
elements of the image relate to one another. The photographer uses this to enhance and simplify the important part of an image. There are four ways that affect the image composition; the cropping the photographer makes when the image is taken, the variation between a big or small aperture, the time and how much the photographer move and change the angle of the image. (Lindberg & Åberg 2004) Since most of the image composition is done at the moment of photograph it is a good idea to take as many photographs as possible from a variety of angles so to have a large selection of compositions to choose from. The one thing that is important to think of is that if it is in the frame or if something is left out of the frame it is because the photographer made it that way, hopefully intentionally and not by chance. (duChemin, 2009)
Cropping
Both the photographer and the designer working with the final product can do the cropping of an image. Image cropping is one of the most common treatments images goes thought and it is usually done to improve and enhance the message of the image. To crop an image is to reduce, focus and dramatize the content. To reduce is to remove some larger parts of an image because there are some
details that disturb and take focus from the main motive. This can for instance be a person at the edge of the picture that disturbs the balance. Focus means to crop the pictures so much that a specific person or detail gets the focus of the picture. This can be done by helping the beholder see things that might otherwise be left unnoticed. When dramatising a picture the beholder gets to see the extreme of the picture and that one special part. This can be an extreme contrast or it can be that the designer turns the picture to get a new angle or a different perspective. For example changing the angle of a hill can make it look like a steep mountain. (Bergström, 2007)
3.2.3. Perspective
An image is always two-‐dimensional, so to be able to give an image more depth and make it more lifelike shall perspective be used. (Koblanck, 2003) The perspective of an image is made up by how the different objects in the image relate to each other and to the horizon. When taking pictures outdoor you automatically get different surfaces that your motive relates to, the most
prominent being the sky and the earth. How these are chosen to be portrayed in an image affects how the beholder perceives the image. It is natural for a
photographer to place the horizon higher or lower in an image, because placing the horizon in the middle makes the image uninspiring. (Lindberg & Åberg 2004) In addition to placing the object in relations to its surroundings the images is also affected on the objects relation to the camera. Normal view is how a person normally looks at things and people particularly in real life. But when
photographing an object from below, called frog perspective, it makes the object feel big and powerful, despite how it relates in reality. The opposite happens when photographing from above, bird perspective. This can make an object look and feel small and powerless. (Koblanck, 2003) Hence by just adjusting these small thing the same object can give very different emotions.
Furthermore when working with photography in particular Freeman lists some other disciplines of perspective to use to create depth in a picture.
Linear perspective
Linear perspective is the most common way to create depth in an image. This principle works on the perception that all parallel lines in an image come together and eventually meet the further away they come from the camera. For example when photographing a road the parallel lines seem to meet at the horizon, but in reality they never actually do.
Diminishing perspective
does. When looking at similar objects on different distances from the camera the objects furthest from the camera are perceived as smaller than those closer to the camera. This effect works best when using the same objects in different relations to the camera or when using objects the beholder already have a
preconceived feeling of its size. This perspective can also be enhanced by placing the object closest to the camera in the lower part of the picture or letting the outline of the object overlap the objects in the background.
Aerial perspective
Then working with outdoor photography the photographer can use different weather phenomenon to create depth. In pictures with dust, mist or haze these effects cover the contrast in the background, which gives the illusion of more depth than there really is. This effect can be even more prominent when photographing with backlight.
Tonal perspective
In general lighter and brighter objects have a tendency to feel closer to the camera than darker objects do. So placing a bright object on a dark background can enhance the feeling of perspective. This can also be done by using the lighting in the right way. But using the opposite of this the photographer can create a figure-‐ground ambiguity, which can be very useful when reinforcing the abstract picture.
Colour perspective
The photographer can also create depth by using colours. Elements with warm colours are usually perceived as being closer to the camera than cold colours. So when considering just colours placing a red or orange object on a green or blue background gives a feeling of depth. This effect is stronger when using more intense colours, and the most intense colours should always be in the
foreground. Sharpness
When photographing it is important to contemplate were the focus in the picture should be. Because good focus suggests that the object is close to the camera and as long as the foreground is sharper than the background this enhances the feeling of depth. But sometimes it doesn't really matter were the focus is in the picture because as long as some objects are unsharp the picture gains depth. (Freeman, 2007)
3.2.4. Placing of the motive
Placing a motive in the picture is an important way to communicate with the viewer and different positioning tells the viewer different things. What Freeman underlines is that when a motive gets smaller it becomes more important how the motive is placed in the photo. (Freeman, 2007)
When there is only a single head motive that catches the eye right away in a monotonous background becomes the placing of the motive important. If the motive is turned to a specific direction it is good to place it outside the centre
