National policies on internally displaced persons

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Bachelor thesis

National policies on internally displaced persons

A comparative study on policies inclusiveness of environmental IDP´s in Cambodia and Papua new Guinea

Author: Josefin Sjöberg Tutor : Lennart Wohlgemuth Examinator: Heiko Fritz Term^{: VT20}

Subject: Peace and development Level: Bachelor Course code^{: 2FU33E}

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Abstract

The impacts from climate change is among the most pressing issues that the international community is currently faced with. Climate change makes that thousands of people all over the world are and will continue to be forced to flee from their homes, thus becoming displaced. Very little is written about this group of environmental IDP´s and their protection by national policies.

This is especially problematic for less developed countries, where little focus is on the IDP´s but where their plight is even more dire. This is due to the fact that those countries to a greater extent lack resources to manage climate change disasters in effective ways. The purpose of this study is to contribute to the debate on IDP´s, and to address the need to involve IDP´s in national policies, in an effort to protect those groups. This research problem was examined through analysing two cases, i.e. the development countries, Cambodia and Papua New Guinea, which have been studied through a qualitative case study with the use of structured focused comparison.

The analytical framework used to analyse the findings retrieved from the cases was the Policy implementation process framework, which offered different variables to examine and guide the analysis. This was further complemented by the concept vulnerability, in order to get a more comprehensive picture on influencing variables.

The findings illustrate that both cases has managed to introduce extensive policy frameworks on the subject of climate change and environmental disasters, but only PNG explicitly incorporates IDP´s in their policy plan.

The study further recognised the shared challenges for both cases on policy implementations. Insufficient human and financial resources due to lack of commitment and mainstreaming at government-levels are the main problems facing both Cambodia and Papua New Guinea.

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For future research it is therefore important to continue efforts of

recognising the need for national protection for environmental IDP´s and to continue evaluating national frameworks.

Keywords: IDP´s, Climate change, Disaster risk management, Cambodia, Papua New Guinea.

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List of abbreviations

CC-Climate change

CCA-Climate change adaptation

CCCSP- Cambodia Climate Change Strategic Plan DRR-Disaster risk reduction

DRM-Disaster risk management IDPs- Internally displaced persons

IDMC-Internal displacement monitoring centre IO- International organisation

IOM-International Organisation for Migration IPCC- International Panel on Climate Change NGO-Non-governmental Organisation

NCDM- (Cambodia's) National committee on disaster management NCCC-National climate change committee

NDRMF-National Disaster Risk Management Framework SDG-Sustainable development goals

PNG-Papua new Guinea

UNDRR-UN office for Disaster risk reduction

UNHCR- United nations high commissioner for refugees

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Introduction

The negative effects of climate change have been observed and written about tracing back almost 60 years, with proposals of policy

implementation, strategies and ways to prevent it. In spite of this, these adverse effects are now among the most pressing issues facing the world today. Increasing severe hazards, droughts, flooding and complete areas in risk of disappearing due to higher sea levels, are all becoming severe problems that are affecting a considerable number of people and nations.

These are all problems which may ultimately hit hardest on those who lack the means and level of development to tackle them (IPCC, 2014).

These climate change related disasters cause forced displacement, both within and across borders for millions of people each year, and the numbers are continuously increasing (IDMC, 2019). Population movement due to changing environments and disasters is not a modern phenomenon. What is new however, is the increasing frequency and intensity of weather events and environmental disasters most likely caused by climate change, which now pose as the main reason for increased displacement and risks following that. Several initiatives from different international agencies such as IOM, UNHCR, IDMC, IPCC, have recognized this and offer many publications on the subject of environmental disasters, including guidance of strategies, increasing knowledge and policy frameworks etc. Two prominent examples of this are: The Sendai framework, the UN´s internationally agreed

framework on disaster risk reduction (UNISDR, 2015) and the Nansen principles, a guide for states in regards of actions to prevent and handle climate and environmentally caused displacement (NRC, 2011). Based on these examples alone, it is evident that there are policies and ample of recommendations available. The real issue then, is whether nations are

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actually taking the necessary steps, and are implementing these policies meant to tackle these present and future environmental disasters causing forced displacement.

1.1 Research problem and relevance

Forced displacement due to climate change is thus an issue that continually grows in severity. It is an international problem that, eventually, most countries of the world need to deal with; therefore, the need to address it is of great urgency (UNHCR, 2019). If the protection of internally displaced people(IDP´s) is not taken into consideration when developing and

implementing strategies and policies, this problem will only grow bigger, leaving a large number of people in vulnerable situations. In regards to this, it is a moral imperative for nations and policy makers of today to implement strategies for post-disaster management and protection of environmentally displaced persons.

Despite existing policy frameworks, relatively little research has looked at less developed countries policies on environmental internal displacement.

Even less has been written on their success or failure in implementation.

Further, there is also a lack of published work about to what degree nations and other actors are prepared to deal with these issues. Thus, it is my aim to analyze various policies, and their implementations, of the less developed countries Cambodia and Papua New Guinea. Via comparative analysis, I hope to arrive at a conclusion concerning the policies relevance´, together with where the potential challenges lies for their implementation.

1.2 Research objective and questions

The objective with this research is to add knowledge and awareness to the debate regarding environmental internal displacement and the existing field

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of national policies concerning that. The study will thus contribute to bring further knowledge on potential challenges that are relevant to the field of policies that covers disaster IDP´s. This in turn will hopefully create greater understanding on what is needed to tackle this urgent issue and its

recognised challenges.

These following questions will assist in meeting the objective:

-Are there any available national policies that incorporates environmental induced human displacement, and if so, what is the content of those?

-How far do governments rely on international organisations and/or NGO´s to tackle these issues?

-What are the main challenges for policy implementation, and are there common ones for both cases?

1.3 Analytical framework

The analytical framework used in this research to analyse the findings will be “The framework of policy implementation process”, developed by Van Horn and Van Meter (1977). This framework is chosen since it offers appropriate tools to analyse the cases, and the issue of existing policies and their implementation in relation to their coverage of disaster IDP´s.

Central to the framework of policy implementation are eight differing variable clusters, argued by Van Meter and Van Horn to have biggest potential in influencing the process. These factors do not only affect

implementation performance but during the process they may also influence the other variables, thereby a cross-sectional view is needed in order to be able to analyse the complete picture. These eight variable clusters consist of;

the policy standards; the resources set to be available for the

implementation, as example funding´s; sufficient communication between inter-governmental actors and enforcement activities in order to achieve a

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coherent process when achieving the objective; the characteristics of implementing agencies e.g. competence; the political environment; the economic and social conditions and lastly, the disposition of the implementers.

These variables will be the subject of focus when using the framework to analyse the research findings, in order to be able to draw conclusions on where the potential challenges is found throughout the implementation process.

In addition to the framework, the concept of vulnerability and some of the main characteristics used measuring it, will be applied in order to attain a broader perspective on influencing variables, and through that adding a valuable perspective to the analysis (Birkman, 2006).

1.4 Methodological framework

The research approach taken for this thesis is a qualitative desk study. A qualitative study is appropriate when the research is “..addressing the meaning individuals or groups ascribe to social or human

problems..”(Creswell and Poth, 2017:8) , which suits the research problem that addresses the social issue of functioning policies for disaster IDP´s.

Case study is additionally a method chosen for this thesis. Case studies are used to investigate in depth, a temporary phenomenon in its current context.

Applied in this thesis, it will be an in depth examination of the situation for disaster IDP´s and the national policies in each representative case, in order to find explanatory answers to the social phenomena presented (Yin, 2018).

An abductive approach will be used throughout this study, based on the argument that by using the analytical framework presented, this will assist in analysing and understanding the research findings of the observed cases (Danermark, 2001).

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Two cases are selected for this research, the countries Cambodia and Papua New Guinea. These will be analysed through a comparative case study approach, which will be complemented through using the method of structured focused comparison. This method will facilitate the comparison through allowing quite general, but focused questions guide the comparison, in order to pursue analysing variables that is relevant for the research

objective and theory (George and Bennetts, 2005).

The choice of cases this study will analyse, are based on that the specific countries are considered and evaluated to be more vulnerable to climate change effects, and regarded as less developed. This based on the argument that nations considered more vulnerable tends to face greater challenges dealing with climate change disasters, for instance, lack of various resources and hence have limited capabilities in disaster management (O'Brien et al., 2006). With basis on the presented argument, the selection of the cases of Papua New Guinea and Cambodia is therefore justified. Each case will be presented more thoroughly in the chapter Methodological framework. The sources used to find existing policies covering environmental IDP´s, will be the most recent published official policies and strategic plans on disaster and climate change, together with status reports on disaster risk reduction issued by UNDRR.

1.5 Disposition

The study is divided into seven parts, including the previous part of Introduction.

Following will be the chapter Literature review, which will present previous research and debate regarding environmental IDP´s, together with the available international frameworks of policies, in order to emphasise why this research is important to the field.

The third chapter will present the analytical framework. The chosen

framework of policy implementation process and its variable clusters will be

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thoroughly explained. Following, will the concept of vulnerability and the influencing factors be presented.

The Fourth chapter will explain and present the methodological framework in-depth.

The fifth chapter, Findings, is where the data collected through the research will be presented.

The sixth chapter is the Analysis itself. Here, the findings of the previous chapters will be analysed with the use of the chosen analytical framework.

The last and seventh chapter will be the Conclusion, here the results of the analysis will be summarised and future recommendations will be presented.

2. Literature review

This chapter will present the term IDP and the different fields that the literature covers, in order to narrow the focus down to the group of

environmental disaster IDP´s. Following, will the literature on disaster risk management and climate change adaptation be reviewed, in order to connect these relevant terms and frameworks to national policies protection of disaster IDP´s.

Climate change, as one of the main contributing factors to human

displacement, is an issue that will in times ahead increase in numbers and severity (IPCC, 2014).

There is a wide set of disciplines in the literature regarding people in

displacement as a result of environmental disasters. A variety of terminology is offered regarding this particular group, but since the various terms differ in which circumstances they implicate, there is none that covers all human displacement in relation to climate change (McAdam, 2012, p 18). The term

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most suitable in the context of this thesis is internally displaced

persons(IDP). The definition of this term that will be used in this research, is based on the Guiding principles definition of internally displaced people, which is as following;

“Persons or groups of persons who have been forced or obliged to flee or to leave their homes or places of habitual residence, in particular as a result of or in order to avoid the effects of armed conflict, situations of generalized violence, violations of human rights or natural or human-made disasters, and who have not crossed an internationally recognized border." (OCHA, 1998)

Since IDP´s differ from the term of refugee or migrant, they were not initially covered by the UN's refugee convention in 1951, or any other international laws. The guiding principles on internal displacement was therefore constructed to set international standards of human rights

recognition and relevant laws for the IDP´s, in order to fill the security gap recognised; however, it is not legally binding. Jane McAdams (2018), underlines the importance of the principle and how it achieved greater recognition for the needs of internally displaced people. Despite this, she argues that policies and strategies of nations are continuously insufficient in managing displacement, regardless of the principle. Kälin(2018) adds to this line of debate, that the principles are merely soft laws and that they need to be incorporated into actual domestic “hard laws”, thus ensuring government obedience to the principles. He also underlines the continuous problem of authorities who are responsible to ensure the human needs of IDP´s, that yet continues largely to disregard the group, despite the fact of the considerable amount of displaced people that are steadily increasing each year.

The literary field that covers IDP´s has kept evolving since the issuing of the principles, and it now stretches across different perspectives and approaches, of which some are dealing with post-displacement problematics such as

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health and mental issues, reintegration problematics and livelihood losses (Siriwardhana, Stewart, 2013). In debates about security and protection, IDP´s have tended to be overshadowed in relation to refugees, creating further problems of neglect and recognition for the special needs of the group (Cohen & Bradley, 2010).

The main focus of the debates on IDP´s amongst organisations and scholars have long been targeted toward those displaced by persecution and conflict, and less so on those displaced by disasters.

Several publications have acknowledged the continuous issue of insufficient focus and protection for IDP´s, and argues for the recognition to meet the particular needs and circumstances of disaster IDP´s, since they differ from the conflict IDP´s circumstances (Cohen & Bradley, 2010. UNHCR, 2006.

Kälin, 2018). The specific group of persons displaced due to environmental disasters have often failed to be included in early frameworks dealing with displaced people, an issue seemingly to persist among state and non-state actors that are responsible to ensure the human needs of the IDP´s (Cohen &

Bradley, 2010). Stojanov(et al.) argues that the lack of recognition for those leaving their homes because of environmental related causes, could be explained through the complexity of distinguishing environmental causes from other influencing factors, as example economic or social ones(2014).

Examples of failure to recognise environmental IDP´s can be seen in the case of the disaster Katrina in the US, were the government avoided by all means the term IDP. Similar to the government of Indonesia, which after a tremendous tsunami also refused the term, hence neglecting the disaster spectrum of IDP´s (Cohen, 2009).

One recurring problem raised by scholars is the issue of who should stand as responsible in taking action and assist IDP´s (UNHCR, 2006). They are initially under the responsibility of their own sovereign state since they have not crossed any borders, however are also covered through the Guiding

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Principles under International human rights law. John Barnett And Michael Weber, have contributed to this debate arguing that the responsibility to ensure humanitarian needs for IDP´s belongs to a range of actors at all levels, local to international. If the government can or will not assist and protect, other actors have responsibility to do so, however if these as well lack capacity or will, this creates further a gap of protection for the IDP´s.

Much depends on whether nations initially have sufficient policies, and to what extent they have been implemented.

An extensive set of literature exists covering the importance of connecting the field on disaster risk reduction (DRR) with the field of climate change adaptation (CCA), as necessary for developing policies and sufficient

strategies for nations on climate change disasters (Collier, et al 2011; Begum et al. 2014 ; Thomalla et al. 2006). In this field, adaptation is presented as how actors respond to the environmental disasters and effects. Revenyues (2007) argues in his article, that when people reside in vulnerable

environments, the only adaptive possibility is often to leave their homes.

Their continuous vulnerability is thereafter dependent on how societies respond, which can be determined by the strategies of an DRR plan for the post-disaster management, set out in the national policies. Birkman argues that one needs to be able to measure the vulnerability aspects, in order to develop guidelines for actions to reduce the risks posing the people who are vulnerable. Therefore addressing and finding the factors that contribute to vulnerability is vital in the process of disaster risk reduction (Birkman, 2006).

In addition to that debate, Chang`s, (et al, 2012) article argues that the success of a disaster management strategy is dependent to a large extent on resources, economic capabilities of the country, the competence of agencies, capacity of government and the country's legislation. It is thus dependent on state development, and least developed countries are in a more critical

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situation when lacking one or several of these variables, leaving a gap of policy implementation of protecting the IDP´s. A problem that is also noted by O´Brien (et al, 2006) in their publication on climate change and disaster management.

An international framework developed for disaster risk reduction is the Sendai framework 2015-2030, a guide for the world's nations on reducing disaster risks. It however, as written in the framework, “... requires the strong commitment and involvement of political leadership in every country at all levels in the implementation and follow-up of the present Framework

…”(UNISDR, 2015:9). With no international law enforcing this framework, it can only work as a guide, with no ensured application in nations policies.

Once again, pointing to the problem of national and international responsibility on climate change policies and IDP´s protection.

As discussed above, the field of human movement caused by climate change and the policy frameworks dealing with this issue, is extensive. Recognised in the literature is the lacking focus on countries with low socio-economic development, incorporating these policies, in what manner they cover disaster IDP´s and to what extent they are implemented. The cases of Cambodia and Papua New Guinea have not in previous research been subjects of any in-depth analysis on the cases of environmental IDP´s per say. Cambodia has seen large amounts of migration movements the past 15 to 20 years, both across borders and from rural to urban areas due to

increasing sudden, and slow-onset disasters, but little attention has been given to those forced to displacement (IOM, 2016). Papua new Guinea has been more prone to be a focus of debate, with more research looking into the different adaptation processes in response of environmental related disasters.

However, like Cambodia, the discussion is more focused on the choice of migration in response to environmental disasters or planned relocation of communities, with less focus on those left vulnerable due to forced

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displacement (IOM, 2015). Hence, there is lack of previous systematic studies concerning policy´s on disaster IDP´s in the cases of Cambodia and Papua New Guinea. Therefore the aim of this research is to fill that

recognised gap.

3. Analytical framework

In this chapter the framework on policy implementation process will be introduced, which will be used as the analytical framework for this study. The authors definition of what policy implementation entails will firstly be

presented. Thereafter, the different components constituting the framework will each be explained in order to get an in-depth understanding of the influencing factors. Then, will the concept of vulnerability be explained, together with its different characteristics evaluated as important for this study. Lastly, will the selection of the variables used as tools for this research be presented and justified.

3.1 Policy implementation process framework

The policy implementation process framework(PIF) was developed in the mid 70's by Van Meter and Van Horn. They recognised a lack of focus in the field of policy research, on what they saw as a central aspect of intergovernmental policy research. Through this framework and its focus on implementation, they sought to bring an instrument for analysing the process of how a policy is transformed into action, including the various actors involved. They argued that this framework on policy implementation is appropriate as a guide to analyse that particular process, especially for those who seek to draw a generalised conclusion from findings of case studies, hence well suitable for this research (1977:98-99).

Throughout their explanation of the framework, they use a top-down approach together with federalism as a premise for their observations. However, the cases used in this thesis are constitutional monarchies and not federal states, but the

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framework and the variables are still proven applicable since both systems of government imply division of power at multiple levels.

The authors define the concept of policy implementation in the following way;

“Policy implementation encompasses those actions by public and private individuals(or groups) that affect the achievement of objectives set forth in prior policy decision”(1977: 103).

These actions can be both single happenings and continuous efforts of

influence. Further, Meter and Horn(1977) explains that the focus and aim with the study of policy implementation is to explain the performance of policy programs, meaning whether the policy implemented actually delivered the services it was expected to do for the intended target, in this case the IDP´s. The model is constituted by eight different, as they call “variable clusters”, which in differing ways affects the implementation process and its performance.

3.1.1 Policy resource and standards

In the first phase of policy construction, there are two main factors that pose as important: the resources and the policy standards. Meter and Horn(1977) argues that the policy program in itself determines what resources will be provided, in the forms of financial and practical measures for the administrative and the enforcement procedures of the program. They further claim that funds and incentives decided at this early stage often are proven insufficient and therefore pose as a major contributor to why implementation may later fail.

The objective of the policy program and how it shall be reached is set out in the standards of the policy. The standards are usually found in the legislation, but they may exceed what is written in the legislation and can instead be found in policy makers statements, technical guidelines or other sources concerning the policy program. Policy standards are tools to guide the state and the local actors on what their role in the processes are and what expectations they are supposed to achieve within that role. If the standards are formulated badly and

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therefore perceived as unclear among actors, this will create imminent problems in the process.

Well formulated standards are additionally valuable for actors supervising the policy process, since it aids in specifying the minimum acceptable limit of defaults and appropriate sanctions in response of those (Horn, Meter, 1977:107-108).

3.1.2 Communication

The policy standards are merely messages of encouragement. If the message is not communicated to the implementing actors, the standards fail to be complied with. Drawing on the previous paragraph, the importance of clarity on standards cannot be emphasised enough. Trough clearly communicating the standards and expectations on the implementing actors, this will leave less room for confusion on the expected results. If not done so, the standards can be freely interpreted in various ways and this tends to become an issue when communication is

transmitted between government and other actors. The clarity, consistency and timeline are all important influencing factors that needs to be clearly

communicated to the executing actors. It is as well important whether what is communicated, is equivalent with the national standards. The degree on what to be accounted for as an acceptable performance of an implemented policy at the local level, is also an important matter to be communicated. This, in order to ensure that the standards are communicated properly throughout the whole process of its implementation. Faults in the communication as a potential problem may arise at any time given throughout the implementation process (Horn, Meter, 1977:108-110).

3.1.3 Enforcement

To ensure that the actions of implementing actors are consistent with the

communicated policy standards, this requires mechanisms and procedures by the government. Since specified plans and standards of the program alone are not sufficient for ensuring compliance, three different means of enforcement is

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presented by Meter and Horn(1977:110) ; norms, incentives and actions. The choice of which should be applied depends on the agency characteristics, e.g.

the level of competent staff and leadership, the extent of political support and resources of the agency.

3.1.4 Disposition of implementers

The implementing agency´s understanding of, and support for the policy can be determinant for the implementation, with the argument that actors with no real belief or motivation for their actions have difficulties performing them in an effective manners. This relates back to the communication variable; despite clear and successful communication on policy standards, there is a risk for lack of comprehension and non-support among implementing actors. They thus fail to agree with the policy or the required actions of implementation. Reasons behind this opposition against the objective may be; personal values, self-interest and, or organisation loyalties (Horn, Meter, 1977:113).

3.1.5 Characteristics of implementing agencies

The attributes and features of the agency responsible for implementation will most likely influence whether the implementation will be effective or not. The staff, structure and relations to other agencies and officials will affect the prospects of effectiveness. The staff is the centre of an agency, and if they are competent and experienced it will most probably facilitate into an effective implementation process. If in contrast, the staff is poorly led, unexperienced or lacking in numbers, this will create problems of performing the work needed in order to implement the policy program (Horn, Meter, 1977:113-114).

The status of the agency or agencies in the government is stated to affect their capacity. Minimum or lacking political and financial support will cause

challenging consequences in the implementation process, in areas such as

independent decision making, available resources and sufficient staff(1977:114).

Here the status in international relations could be argued to also play a part, as complementing Van Horn and Van Meyers factors.

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3.1.6 Political environment

The support or non-support in the political arena of the government, among different agencies and public and private actors may heavily affect whether the policy program is implemented well or not. This despite whether the

implementing agencies are competent, well led and supportive of the program.

Van Meter and Van Horn states that several scholars have found the political environment to be determinant, the public and “elite” opinions and their subjective view on the significance of the policy program matter

extensively(1977:114-115). The political environment can therefore determine the significance the policy is ascribed with, both from governance and other intervening actors and stakeholders.

3.1.7 Economic and social conditions

One of the most determinant factors of all would be the economic conditions, as it is an influencing matter at both the community and governmental level. The needs of the community that are supposed to be met through the program implementation, demands certain economical resources depending on the particular demands that the needs pose. At the other end of the aspect is available economic resources of implementing agencies in order to meet those needs. When analysing the process and looking at the economic conditions, the authors argues that there is need to evaluate the jurisdiction, in other words the authority of the implementing agency to allocate the economic resources to meet the needs the policy program aims for (Horn, Meter, 1977:115-116). The

economics are interconnected with the social conditions at place, the

communities where the needs are meant to be met are as mentioned dependent on the resources available, and not only the financial. Some actions of the program may require differential capacities from the community. In relation to this study, this could be e.g. skills, knowledge, economic security. This might prove to be determining if a policy is applicable in that community without

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additional resources and capacities, which may not be attainable through the policy program.

3.2 Cross-sectional view

The authors emphasise that the implementation process may follow a certain pattern where some of these variable clusters are more determinant in the beginning of the process while some at the end. Since a policy program often requires change, in contrast to previous practices and situations, Van Meter and Van Horn(1977:116-117) argues that communication, enforcement and the implementing agencies disposition is most probable to influence the early stages of the process. At the later stage, the characteristics is argued to be more

important, while the variables regarding the political environment, and the social and economic conditions may have constant influence throughout the process.

3.3 Economic and social factors

The framework of the policy implementation process does as previously

presented, encompassing social and economical conditions. It his however, little written or explained in the framework regarding the range and dimensions these two spectrums often pose, especially in context to environmental IDP´s.

Therefore these two factors will be further explained by relating them to the concept of vulnerability, in order to ensure the focus of this study towards the relevant concepts and factors that influences disaster IDP´s.

3.3.1 Vulnerability

The concept of vulnerability is commonly used in a range of different fields and disciplines of studies, with various approaches on how to measure it, and the assessment of the term. It can therefore with certainty be stated that there is no common universal definition of the term vulnerability (Birkman, 2006). It can thus cause great misunderstanding when one definition is not fitting within the specific context it is used. Therefore the definition found most fitting for the

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context of vulnerability in relation to environmental disasters, will be presented below.

Vulnerability as a concept does as previously mentioned, encompass various factors, depending on the definition ascribed to it and in what context it is used.

In the field of disaster and risk reduction research, the use of the concept can be divided into those that distinguish between the biophysical aspect and the social aspects of vulnerability. The biophysical definition is more concerned with the vulnerability and the adaptation ability of an environmental system in relation to effects of climate change. The social vulnerability is more aimed towards

humans and their conditions of adaptation and exposure to disaster (Birkman, 2006:12).

The social aspects will mainly be considered in this research, however the environmental aspects can neither be completely neglected since they influence some of the social variables.

Birkmann brings forth in his discussion on vulnerability one definition which he proclaims as one of the most well-known;

“The conditions determined by physical, social, economic and environmental factors or processes, which increase the susceptibility of a community to the impact of hazards.” (UN/ISDR, 2004, see Birkman, 2006:12)

Since this definition offers variables that determine and influence the extent of vulnerability, and place it in relation to the impacts of hazard and disasters, this will be the definition used for this research. In addition to this definition, Canon(et al.,2003) extends the social vulnerability concept to include several factors argued to be determining the level of vulnerability, hence making it more nuanced and useful for the analysis;

“-initial well-being (nutritional status, physical and mental health) -livelihood and resilience (assets and capitals, income and qualifications) -self-protection (capability and willingness to build a safe home, use a safe site) -social protection (preparedness and mitigation measures)

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- social and political networks and institutions (social capital, institutional environment and the like).”(Cannon et al.,2003: 5, See Birkman, 2006:13)

Birkman further states that there is a need to comprehend vulnerability as a very broad term, and therefore it can additionally include the extent of coping

capacities and level of resilience of the affected people. This, since vulnerability is not limited to be determined by the direct impact of disaster. Thus in order to estimate and assess the level of vulnerability it is of importance to view the environment, physical and social circumstances all together(2006:13).

3.4 Use of framework

Out of the eight variable clusters presented in the PIF, six of those will be used for the analysis in this study. The Disposition of implementers and Enforcement will thus be disregarded with the argument that these are factors found to be not accessible through policy documents, since they are dealing with subjective interpretations and direct actions of the actors. Remaining variables may also to some extent be hard to access considering the quite limited sources that are available to be used to gather the data. With this in mind, the variables are slightly changed, thus only using their most essential characteristics to guide the data collection and analysis. These characteristics are the following; the policy itself and its formulation; the standards of the policies; how the standards are communicated; the actors involved, both implementers and other influencing actors, their relations and their characteristics, together with the political

environment that the actors operate within; and lastly, the social and economical conditions, both among the communities and the implementing agencies.

4. Methodological framework

In this chapter the choice of methodological framework will be presented, together with the reasoning and justification behind those choices. First will the qualitative case study approach be explained, together with the abductive

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reasoning. Following will be the justification, and a descriptive explanation of the chosen method of structured focused comparison of case studies. The reasoning behind the chosen cases will then be reviewed, and a

background of them will be presented last. A section of the sources will be presented, and then follows a section of the delimitations and limitations of this research.

4.1 Qualitative case study

The research approach taken in this thesis is a qualitative case study. A qualitative study is appropriate when entering the study with an open-ended research question, in contrast to a fixed hypothesis. It is hard to define

qualitative research, but Creswell and Poth uses one particular aspect of defining the qualitative research approach as by “..addressing the meaning individuals or groups ascribe to social or human problem”(Creswell & Poth, 2018:8). It is therefore justified to use the qualitative approach for this research problem, as it will address the social problem of functioning policies for disaster IDP´s. They further argue that when there is a need of a detailed understanding of the issue presented, qualitative research is best suited(2018:46).

Following the argument of appropriate method to reach a detailed understanding of an issue, a case study do further pose as reasonable to use when trying to explain a present social phenomenon in-depth. According to Yin, a case study is appropriate to “investigate a contemporary phenomenon(the “case”) in-depth and within its real world context, especially when the boundaries between the phenomenon and context may not be clearly evident”(Yin, 2018:15). Through the use of this method it will thus allow for an in-depth analysis on the policies dealing with environmental IDP´s and the process of policy and its

implementation, in order to identify potential influencing factors.

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4.2 Abductive reasoning

An abductive approach will be taken throughout this research. According to Danermark(2001), the central process of abductive reasoning is always to look at a phenomenon through a certain frame or theory to interpret the phenomenon, in order to conduct a new insight. The used frame is only one of many possible, it is therefore argued that conclusions made from abductive reasoning can not be strictly determined as false or true. However it stills offer additional knowledge and insight of the social world. In contrast to an inductive approach which aims at validating a pre-set theory, or a deductive approach where the theory is the outcome of the research findings, an abductive reasoning will instead imply to use an analytical framework based on theories and concepts to analyse and understand the research findings. Based on abductive reasoning, using the analytical framework presented, of policy implementation process is thus justified in order to find the most suitable explanations to the observed cases.

Hence, allowing to view the phenomenon through another perspective.

4.3 Multi case study-Structured focused comparison

When using case study as a method, one needs to make a decision whether to use one or multi-case studies. This research will be conducted using two cases, with the argument that using multiple cases will enable the researcher to

improve the theory building and offers a greater context to the issue, in order to see if the theory holds in comparative cases (Bryman, 2016: 67).

According to George and Bennett(2005), there are certain requirements needed when using multiple case-studies, in order to avoid limitations that are common to arise in single-case studies. They argue that the research objective and the strategy to achieve that objective throughout the research, are supposed to act as a guiding tool for choosing the cases. The cases needs to fit in the “class”, as the authors refers to it, this meaning that the cases chosen must be accounted for as a valid example regarding the issue the study are suppose to cover, as in this

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research, the IDPs protection in policies. Hence, in that manner avoiding the possible limitation of case-selection bias.

The authors also argue for the need of the theory, or in this case the analytical framework, to throughout the case studies be employed as theoretical variables and assist in explaining and drawing conclusions at all times. This to avoid limitations recognised within single case studies. Limitations in the form of lacking basis for systematic comparison, which argued by the authors would be accounted for as faulting scientific research (George and Bennett, 2005).

An additional method used for this research is structured focused comparison.

The centre tool for this method is the use of standardized, generalised questions throughout the research (George and Bennett, 2005:69). These shall be used for each of the cases, in order to ensure that the data collected from them are comparable on the same variables. The general questions must be grounded in the theoretical perspective and in that manner focused, otherwise it is not valuable and will not contribute to theoretical development, nor knowledge about the phenomenon. This must be complemented that the questions also have been based, and are reflective of the theoretical focus and research objective of the study, otherwise they will not be accounted for as valuable (George and Bennett, 2005:70-71).

4.5 Choice of cases

The reasoning behind why the countries are chosen as the cases for comparison and analysis in this research, is based on various factors. Firstly, it relates to the estimated low level of development in each of them. Through focusing on countries with low socio-economic development, this research aims to look at the cases where resources in forms of economic, social and technology amongst others, are lacking. Since less developed countries and areas stand a harder challenge of dealing with the issues of disasters and recovery, they are therefore accounted for as being in a more vulnerable situation, thus the label of less

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developed countries was considered (O'Brien et al., 2006). The status of less developed countries issued by the UN encompasses criteria based on the following indexes; GNI per capita, human assets index(HAI) and economic vulnerability index(EVI). In the EVI, the rate of victims of natural disasters are incorporated, thus a valuable indicator for this research (UN, 2018). This creates a clear understanding of the vulnerability and lack of resources these countries have in order to deal with disasters and recovery. One of the cases, Papua new Guinea(PNG) of which will later be presented in the background, do initially meet the criteria´s of being a country labeled as LDC, however the government refused the label. The label per say will therefore not be the main criteria since PNG will be used as a case in this research. Instead it will be taken into account that the countries are considered to have low levels of socio-economic

development. This will serve as guiding when using the method of structured focused comparison, based on the analytical framework variables concerning policy resources, economic and social factors.

The second factor was the extent of exposure and vulnerability to environmental and climate change related disasters. There would be no reason for this study to use countries where these problems are not existing, hence there would be no issue of internally displaced person´s in relation to environmental disasters.

Following that argument, the number of cases on disaster IDP´s was accounted for through the IDMC(2019), in order to ensure that this was an extensive issue facing the chosen countries, further justifying to look into their policies on the matter. This relating back to previous discussion and use of the method of choosing cases in the relevant “class”.

4.6 Sources

This research will be executed as a desk-study. The data will thus be gathered and based on reviewing and analysing available official documents,

peer-reviewed articles and academic literature. The primary source used will be the available official national documents on policies that are dealing with either

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climate change or disaster risk reduction, since these are most likely to cover the aspect of environmental IDP´s. Secondary sources to be analysed in order to get a more comprehensive picture on the implementation and current situation, will be mainly status reports issued by UNDRR on disaster risk reduction in the chosen countries. If it is found needed, other reports will be used from organisations that operates in dealing with disaster management and disaster IDP´s in the countries, this to enhance the scope of relevant data. Through using these documents from NGO sources, it is important to keep in mind that some aspects of bias might be found, but since it aids in complementing the total picture, it is valuable to additionally get the viewpoint on how policies may or may not be put into action. When using secondary sources, validity may be hard to completely determine, therefore through using several sources in this study, the aim is to see how different sources with different perspectives and biases deals with the same problem. This, in order to create a complete picture of the problem and in that manner minimise the potential problem of lack of validity through using one source.

4.7 Limitation and delimitation

A possible limitation with this study can be seen as only using the national official documents available as the core for the analysis. However, since the research objective is targeted towards national policies, this will be the most appropriate method. Other limitations encountered throughout the research has been the lack of access to official documents that are additional to the national plans. Some parts of the policy programs are recognised to have additional parts with detailed plans of actions for the implementation process. These documents has been hard to get access to and has thus proven as an additional limitation.

The research is delimited to only use two cases, presented more thoroughly in the Background section. This is justified due to the time frame and the aim to get an in-depth analysis of each case in the limited time given. If the choice would have been to delimit the cases to one, this could have caused difficulties in identifying variables that could be useful in a more generalized context and

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thus serve as an addition to the field of research. Therefore, using a comparative study is more justified and reduces that possible limitation. The study is further delimited regarding the time-aspect of the documents that will be used. The official strategy and policies will only be the most recently published.

Documents retrieved from other sources will be delimited to the time range of no later than one year since the relevant official policy or strategies was issued, this to ensure that there has been an appropriate amount of time to start

implementing the measures based on the policy program.

4.8 Background

4.8.1 Cambodia

The country of Cambodia is situated in the southeast of Asia, with a population of 16.2 million people and a landmass area on 181,035 km2. Almost half of that area is covered by tropical forests, which is the home to a great amount of endangered species and plants, as well as the biggest freshwater lake in the southeastern part of Asia. The country is considered to be a least developed country according to the criteria´s set by the UN, this in spite of steady growths in the economy the past years, however as previously explained, the LDC label does include more than simply economical measure. Increased rainfall,

temperatures and sea level rise are projections for the near future. Together with the country's heavy exposure to varying kinds of hazards, such as floods, storms and typhoons, this makes Cambodia very vulnerable to disasters and climate change impacts (UNDRR, 2019a). A number of 37,000 people were estimated to have been newly displaced due to environmental disasters in the year of 2018 (IMDC, 2019a).

4.8.2 Papua New guinea

Papua New Guinea(PNG) is situated in Oceania and is one of the Pacific island countries. The country is constituted by hundreds of islands, which covers a landmass area of 462,840 km2, and it has a population on 8,6 million people.

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The country has a large ecological variety as well as great amounts of varying natural resources. Despite this, large parts of its industry relies on agriculture and forestry (UNDRR,2019b). The country would have been accounted for as least developed by the standards of UN, but the government refused that label (UN, 2008). They are however accounted for as a lower-middle income country and low human development country. This implies that vulnerability amongst the population and the country is prevalent.

The geographical position of the country, for instance the weather related effects caused due to the El-Niño southern oscillation, makes it one of the most disaster vulnerable countries in the world. It is continuously exposed to

flooding, earthquakes, cyclones, landslides, amongst others. These severe hazards are estimated to continue to grow in density and frequency because of climate change. In the year of 2018, 61,000 people were estimated to have been newly displaced due to these kinds of disaster related events (IDMC, 2019b).

5. Findings

In this chapter the findings of the research will be presented. Each of the cases will be presented separately, reviewing disaster exposure, past disasters, and the responses and measurements taken by the actors. Further presented are the most recent strategies and policies that may be including of disaster IDP´s.

Influencing elements in the policies implementation will then be presented in the following variable clusters: actors and stakeholders, time frame, the finances and lastly, the recognised challenges for the case.

5.1 Cambodia

5.1.1 Disaster profile and background

As a consequence of its geography, Cambodia has had to endure disasters in various forms on an annual basis. The Mekong river and the Tonle sap river basins constitute together almost 80 percent of the country's land area, and with recurring flooding during the wet season, the damaging effects alone of that is

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estimated to cost between 100 to 170 million US dollars annually. Flooding may be beneficial in creating improved soil fertility and moisture, however, it also causes great damage to many people's livelihoods. Flash floods are especially dangerous to low-lying areas.

The periodic changes in weather patterns caused by the El-Niño, generates severe recurring droughts, land degradations and water shortages; this causes damage to the agriculture, of which the majority of the population relies its livelihood upon (UNDRR, 2019a:8). Several severe disaster events can be distinguished throughout the years, some of these are Ketsana in 2009, Mirinae in 2009, Usagi in 2013 and Rammasum in 2014 (Lavell, Ginnetti, 2014: 30).

The most recent large weather related disaster was in 2018, when a Southwest typhon together with the Tropical cyclone Henry caused 32,000 people to be displaced in Cambodia (IMDC, 2019).

An example on how much damage a disaster can cause is the Ketsana typhoon in 2009. It single-handedly destroyed the livelihoods of 180,000 people, 43 people died and the damage costs was estimated to 132 million US dollars. The reconstruction expenditures after the disaster was extremely damaging to the nation's economic growth and additional financing was needed to be provided from abroad in order to manage the costs. The households in the provinces that were hit hardest form Ketsana, had severe drops in their incomes. This, because the majority of those households were dependent on rice farming, fish and other agricultural activities for their livelihoods, sectors which suffered great damage (UNDRR, 2019a:8).

In a report issued by the IOM(2014: 30), an estimation of 500,000 people in Cambodia was stated to in various ways be affected negatively each year by disasters. The extent of the negative effects it has on people depends on their level of vulnerability. The most likely determining factors in Cambodia for vulnerability is the level of poverty, and high dependence on sensitive sectors, such as agriculture, and the exposure to the disasters (UNDRR,2019a). The level of exposure to disasters is determined by multiple factors, one especially

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prevalent in Cambodia is the high number of people who are situated and lives in flood plains. This, for instance, contributed to that 6,000 people became displaced in 2018, by extreme floods when a dam in the neighbor country Lao PDR, collapsed (UNDRR, 2019a:11).

The country has in the past recent years seen promising positive numbers of social and health indicators together with reduced gender gaps. However, social divisions and inequalities are prevalent, especially considering those living in poverty. Limits to safe housing, harsh living conditions, lack of health facilities, high numbers of malnutrition, lack of education, public services and lacking access to proper infrastructure are all issues that most poor people face. These factors further creates increased vulnerability in relation to disasters, explaining why the level of poverty determines how vulnerable people are against disasters.

Poverty is seen in Cambodia to be related to living in its rural regions, as 90 percent of the amount of people who falls below the poverty live in those areas.

Rural regions are at the same time estimated to be more exposed to hazards and disasters than others. An estimated 80 percent of the population are residing in rural areas and a majority of those are dependent on subsistence agriculture, this placing them in a very vulnerable situation where there are great risks of losing their livelihoods in the events of a disaster (UNDRR, 2019a:7-8,12).

It is estimated further that climate change will have devastating impacts for Cambodia in the future, in spite of efforts from the government on climate change adaptation. Increased rainfalls, submersion and saline intrusions caused by sea-level rise will all cause damage to food security and safety of the people.

Despite that in the recent years, economic growth has been looking promising, it is likely to face downfall in the future because of these disasters and climate change. The estimation is that due to climate change effects, the GDP will have suffered a loss of 10 percent by 2050; this will mostly affect the garment and agricultural sectors, two sectors that are extremely vulnerable to climate change disasters, and are at present two main contributors to GDP (UNDRR, 2019a:14).

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5.1.2 Governmental Incentives

Cambodia's government has for several years been faced with these recurring disasters that are expected to continue to grow in intensity and frequency. There has been strong commitment from the government to incorporate Disaster Risk Management into plans of development, in order to stand a chance in dealing with these matters, and so in 1995 the National committee for disaster

management(NCDM) became established. In 2015 the law on disaster

management(DM) was passed. This changed the previous legislation into now incorporating a more authoritative mandate of the NDMC, declaring the agency as the responsible leading actor of ensuring the administration and coordination of national disaster management activities (UNDRR, 2019a:16). The DM law also encompasses the demand for the NCDM to establish sub committees at all levels in the country, including sub-national, city, provincial, towns, districts and communes committees for Disaster Management. The law further includes a set of goals, aiming to achieve sufficient activities in the three phases of natural or human-made disaster, pre-disaster period, emergency response and recovery in post-disaster (IFRC, 2017).

Resources provided for the NCDM and their work with the national Disaster risk management, is further declared in this law. It states that the economical resources for the NCDM and the DM work are guaranteed to be allocated from the national budget, which is decided through the budget plan from the Council of Ministers. The law additionally allows for the NCDM to have authority in controlling, coordinating and appeal for international assistance and funds (IFRC, 2017). In spite of this, it is said in the report issued by

UNDRR(2019a:17), that the amount is not specified and hence there is great uncertainty on how much of the national budget that is allocated to the NCDM.

To this it should be added that the resources ascribed do neither encompass long-time recovery finances, and that there is lack of any strategy in order to deal with the financial impacts and damages that disasters cause. The report

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further states that in past disaster events, the issue of lacking finances has proven persistent. Donor assistance has been needed in order to manage the costs of disasters, while other funds have been insufficient to cover the cost of the affected populations needs, which have created problems of debts and increased poverty for the distressed people.

National plans and frameworks on disaster management and climate change adaptation has been developed throughout the years and the main ones are the following: The strategic National Action Plan for Disaster Risk Reduction for 2008-2013 (SNAP), this was later replaced in order for the new National Action Plan for Disaster Risk Reduction (NAP-DRR) for 2014-2018. Both of these put much effort in encompassing the importance of poverty reduction as a priority in order to successfully achieve development. The Climate Change Action Plan was issued for 2016-2018 and was mainly targeted towards the environmental spectrum of climate change and was aligned with the ongoing and most recent plan, The Cambodia Climate Change Strategic Plan for 2014–2023. This plan is stated to be the first national policy document that is truly comprehensive in relation to climate change and the adaptation activities needed (UNDRR, 2019a:18).

5.1.3 The Cambodia Climate Change Strategic Plan for 2014 – 2023 The CCCSP is the most recent and ongoing national strategic plan that is dealing with climate change, disasters and their consequences. It was developed to provide a framework of guidance and assistance for national and NGO actors to develop and coordinate actions for climate change adaptation. The plan was constructed through the CCCA, with aid and funding from several international agencies, the EU, SIDA, DANIDA and the UNDP. The NCDM is set to be the responsible authority and supervisor of the strategic plan and its implementation (NCCC, 2014:ix). In complement to the plan, the line of ministries has

developed their own sectoral plan, SCCSP, in order to properly guide a more sector-specific incorporation of the climate change plan(:53).

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The plan declares three main goals to be achieved, the most relevant for this study to present is the following;

“Reducing vulnerability to climate change impacts of people, in particular the most vulnerable, and critical systems(natural and societal)”(NCCC, 2014: p3)

Eight strategic objectives are presented to attain the stated goals and vision of the plan, these are as following;

1. Promote climate resilience through improving food, water and energy security;

2. Reduce sectoral, regional, gender vulnerability and health risks to climate change impacts;

3. Ensure climate resilience of critical ecosystems (Tonle Sap Lake, Mekong River, coastal ecosystems, highlands, etc.), biodiversity, protected areas and cultural heritage sites;

4. Promote low-carbon planning and technologies to support sustainable development;

5. Improve capacities, knowledge and awareness for climate change responses;

6. Promote adaptive social protection and participatory approaches in reducing loss and damage due to climate change;

7. Strengthen institutions and coordination frameworks for national climate change responses;

8. Strengthen collaboration and active participation in regional and global climate change processes.

(NCCC, 2014: xvii)

Incorporated in all strategic objectives lie some or several strategies that will have to be met in order to accomplish the objective, as well as activities that are needed for the implementation and to achieve the strategies. In examining these eight strategic objectives, the conclusion is drawn that some of them are more relevant to the subject of this research than others and those will therefore be more thoroughly presented below.

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Number 2, to “Reduce sectoral, regional, gender vulnerability and health risks to climate change impacts”

This includes; to promote community based adaptation approaches; improve quality of infrastructure; prioritise women needs, since women are assessed to be a more vulnerable group; prioritise key regions e.g. the coasts, highlands, rural and urban areas; and to promote the use of better technologies for a more sustainable crops production and efficiency of fishery (NCCC, 2014:14-15).

Number 6, “Promote adaptive social protection and participatory approaches in reducing loss and damage due to climate change”

This encompasses; to promote better financial security in forms of

micro-finances and insurance schemes for local communities; to strengthen the financial and institutional local adaptations through decentralisation; promote corporate social responsibility and promoting multiple stakeholders involvement in engagement, participation and consultation (NCCC, 2014:17-18).

Number 7, Strengthen institutions and coordination frameworks for national climate change responses

To promote and ensure that climate change is mainstreamed at all levels of governance, and incorporated in all development plans. To engage all ministries into the CCCSP and to strengthen the role and capacity of the NCCC as regards coordination of the DRR finances (NCCC, 2014, 18).

5.1.4 Actors and stakeholders

The policy document makes clear that the principal actor is the government and that the CCCSP´s program applies mainly towards public resources. It is

however also acknowledged that non-state actors play a significant part in strengthening the work of climate change activities, for instance by the use of government provided public resources. Thus playing a different but yet important part in the process of implementation. Other kinds of actors

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acknowledged are for instance; development partners, the private sectors, local communities, local organisations and NGO´s at all levels (NCCC, 2014:23).

In the status report issued by the UNDRR(2019a), additional actors are recognised in forms of stakeholders. One example is the AADMER, a pact among countries in the ASEAN region, created in order to support the member countries with more efficient and coordinated assistance in their work with DRR and CAA. The status report additionally lifts non-state actors that are more involved with humanitarian assistance and are instrumental in emergency management. The Provincial-Municipal Committee for Disaster Management (PCDM) has authority to locally pledge for assistance by such non-state actors.

Additional to this is the Humanitarian Response Forum (HRF), which is a network encompassing the UN, NGOs, and IOs. The HRF assists in emergency response and recovery together with disaster situation monitoring. Recognised by local NGO´s is the yet insufficient coordinated work between the NGO and local IGO´s, which is needed in order to ensure a better capacity to respond to emergencies (2019a:23-24). In the aftermath of the flooding in 2018,

collaboration between the NCDM and several partners of the HRF, was seen to provide aid and basic services to those that were affected, amongst those

partners were “Plan International, UNICEF, Save the Children, Cambodia Red Cross and WFP”(UNDRR, 2019a:24).

5.1.5 Timeframe

The activities needed in order to achieve the frameworks objective is divided into three time phases, these are; the immediate term, from 2013 to 2014; the medium term 2014 to 2018 and the long term 2019 to 2023. Different activities are planned to be achieved and prioritised within those phases. The first phase encompasses for instance, to ensure that institutional and financial arrangements are in place and to ensure the development of detailed action plans for each ministry and agencies. The second phase includes to maintain the actions of phase one, but with more focus targeted towards the Adoption Fund and Green Climate Fund, together with the management and budgeting of finances for

National policies on internally displaced persons

Bachelor thesis