Climate change and the housing crisis as seen by an architect

Anders Gidlund Theory & History, Spring Semester 2020

Climate change and the housing crisis as seen by an architect

A study in adaptable architecture and timber construction and how it could reverse the Swedish housing crisis and decrease carbon emissions

Abstract

The construction sector stands for up to 50 percent of all man-made carbon emissions and is at the same time the biggest single consumer of virgin materials. This in a time when the human population is believed to increase with about one billion inhabitants in the course of one decade. This will generate a need for a massive amount of new construction in forms of housing infrastructure and workplaces presenting additional carbon emissions and material depletion. Sweden, along with many other countries, are already experiencing a housing crisis. 240 of the 290 municipalities report a shortage of housing for their inhabitants. The people worst affected are low income groups. The climate change is one of the most destructive crises’ our species have ever encountered. Architects e are part of the construction sector and therefore, they have to be part of the solution. Therefore, the purpose of this thesis is to investigate alternative materials used in construction as well as designs that can accommodate adaptability in order adapt to future scenarios of usages. By using materials that have less impact on the climate and carbon emissions, together with building techniques that can adapt to future needs and stand for a long time, the hope is that an urban landscape can be created that stands for a long time. This through trapping carbon and adaptation to future needs. By succeeding with this, hopefully the emissions emitted by the construction sector could decrease and simultaneously housing can be built to facilitate low income groups.

Keywords

Architecture, Flexibility, Sustainability, Environment, Climate, CO2, Carbon, Sequestration, Materiality, Construction, Reuse, Population, Housing, Diagrid system, Housing Crisis, Sweden

1. INTRODUCTION ... 4

2. PURPOSE ... 4

2.1RESEARCH QUESTIONS ... 5

3. THEORY ... 5

3.1HOUSING SHORTAGE IN SWEDEN ... 5

3.2TIMBER AS A BUILDING MATERIAL ... 6

3.3CARBON SEQUESTRATION ... 7

3.4BUILDINGS LIFE CYCLE ... 9

3.5DIAGRID SYSTEMS ... 9

4. METHODOLOGY ... 11

4.1METHOD FOR DATA COLLECTION ... 11

4.2CHOICE OF LITERATURE ... 12

4.3INTERVIEWS ... 12

4.3.1 Martinsons ... 12

4.3.1 Umeå Municipality ... 12

5. ANALYSIS & DISCUSSION ... 13

6. CONCLUSION ... 14

7. BIBLIOGRAPHY ... 16

PAPERS/BOOKS ... 16

WEBPAGES ... 16

FIGURES ... 17

APPENDIX ... 17

1. Introduction

The global construction sector constitutes around 40 percent of all man-made carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions and consumes around 50 percent of all virgin materials produced.¹ In comparison, the aviation sector is often, and rightly so, criticised for its massive CO² emission, but the total emissions generated from the global air traffic generates around four percent of our total emissions.² It is clear that the construction sector have a responsibility to address the issue of the environmental impact it has and strive towards a more sustainable future. The appendix deals more in depth with the environmental impact of the construction sector.³

The whole construction industry is a pivotal part of every nation both in terms of financial and social values.

It creates many of the basic needs in our society such as housing, infrastructure and at the same time it generates job opportunities and economic and social growth. In the coming decade, the human population is expected to grow with about one billion inhabitants, creating the need for extensive construction in both housing, infrastructure and workplaces. ⁴ In Sweden there is already a housing crisis.

The current number of housing units missing is 160 000 according to Boverket (National Board of Housing, Building and Planning) and the population in Sweden is expected to grow with one million inhabitants by 2030.⁵

Consequently, the environmental impact from the construction sector and the housing crisis is intertwined and architects have a part in these issues. Architects must work together with the rest of the construction industry as well as with politicians to create changes towards a more sustainable way of construction, and at the same time find ways to facilitate suitable housing for the population.

2. Purpose

This thesis investigates the possibilities to design adaptable housing in a sustainable way through construction techniques. The aim is to analyse materials and decrease the carbon emissions created in the construction stage of a building. Furthermore, it will analyse how buildings can be designed to last long term both technically and in regards of usage, preventing premature demolition of structures. In relation to that, research will be conducted regarding designs that enable adaptable housing for low income groups.

1 Smith P F. Architecture in a climate of Change, Linacre House, Jordan Hill, Oxford 14, 2005.

2 IPCC, Summary for Policymakers. In: Global Warming of 1.5°C. An IPCC Special Report on the Impacts of Global Warming of 1.5°C above Pre-Industrial Levels and Related Global Greenhouse Gas Emission Pathways, in the Context of Strengthening the Global Response To, IPCC-Summary for Policymakers, 2018.

3 Gidlund, Anders. Sustainable architecture through materiality & construction. 2019

4 Ahmed, A., Othman, E. Corporate Social Responsibility of Architectural Design Firms Towards a Sustainable Built Environment in South Africa, Architectural Engineering and Design Management, 2009 5:1-2, 36-45.

5 Boverket, Läget på bostadsmarknaden, 2019, https://www.boverket.se/sv/samhallsplanering/bostadsmarknad/bostadsmarknaden/indikatorer/ 2019. (Gathered:

2020-02-12)

2.1 Research questions

§ How can architects impact the construction sector in order to decrease CO2 emission through material choices and building techniques?

§ Can adaptable buildings with flexible floorplans be part of solving the Swedish housing crisis and still be more sustainable than conventional construction techniques?

3. Theory

This following chapter summarizes previous research regarding the pertinent fields of study. This data generates the basis for the thesis and consequently the analysis and result. Further research on the subjects can be found in the appendix. The appendix is a paper with the same focus but in a broader perspective.

3.1 Housing shortage in Sweden

Sweden constructs less housing than needed. This is a result of different variables such as financials crises, politics, an increasing population and changes in the number of occupants in households. The last time the housing market were considered stable was in 2010, but since then there has been a lack of housing. In 2019 the national number of lacking housing units was 160 000. In 2019, 51 000 housing units were built but according to Boverket. Sweden has to produce 65 000 units a year until 2025 to satisfy the need in relation to the presumed population growth. Today 240 of 290 municipalities report that they have a housing shortage.⁶

Figure 1. Housing construction started including net additions through redevelopment

According to a survey made by Boverket sent to Swedish municipalities the housing form that is most requested is rental apartments. The reason being to a large extent that citizens, especially younger people, do not have the financial means to buy an apartment.⁷ One of the reasons that such a large portion of

6 Boverket, Bostadsbygget stabiliseras, 2019, https://www.boverket.se/sv/samhallsplanering/bostadsmarknad/bostadsmarknaden/indikatorer/. (Gathered:2020-03-14)

7 Boverket, Ungdomar och vuxna, 2016, https://www.boverket.se/sv/kommunernas-bostadsforsorjning/underlag-for-bostadsforsorjningen/olika-grupper-pa- bostadsmarknaden/ungdomar-och-unga-vuxna/. (Gathered: 2020-04-15)

new construction is condominiums rather than rental housing is the fact that there is less financial gain for property companies to produce rental housing. A major issue with this is the fact that it is actually cheaper do build rental apartments than condominiums in Sweden.⁸ And furthermore, rental apartments generally have more sustainable and newer building techniques. The reason for this seems to be the market pricing.

Condominiums are often built in more attractive neighbourhoods with higher land prices.⁹ According to Hem&Hyra the average price for a rental apartment is 20 000 SEK per square meter whilst the price for the condominiums are 26 000 per square meter.¹⁰

The number of younger citizens is presumed to increase in the near future leading to an even more substantial issue regarding the housing situation for young people.¹¹ There is no easy solution to the housing shortage. Building cheaper houses is no direct solution since the rent regulation in Sweden to a large extent is based on price per square meter, meaning that the tenants pay per square meter, regardless of the construction cost of the building. Therefore, a more suitable solution could partly consist of smaller apartments.¹²

In the appendix further information and alternative solutions regarding the Swedish housing crisis is presented.

3.2 Timber as a building material

Over the last decade timber has become a more common construction material. There are a number of reasons for this but the most distinguished is the assumption that it is more sustainable in regards of CO² emissions than alternatives such as steel and concrete.¹³

Today around 10 percent of multi-family housing developments in Sweden is constructed with a timber structural frame and this number is expected to grow significantly over the coming decade.¹⁴ Sweden is a major timber producer with vast quantities of forest available and an already widespread functioning forest industry. This provides a preferable situation to construct more timber buildings with locally produced material and at the same time strengthening the Swedish economy.¹⁵ Beyond the environmental aspect of timber construction, additional advantages are the working environment for the manufactures as well as the construction workers. In comparison to concrete and steel plants timber

8 Kajsa Crona, “Att Bygga Billigt Är Dyrt Finansieringens Påverkan På Boendets Kvalitet Och Hållbarhet,” 2019.

9 Coronucopia, Aktuellt, 2017, https://cornucopia.cornubot.se/2017/03/40-dyrare-att-bygga-bostadsratt.html. (Gathered:2020-04-23)

10 Jag vill ha bostad, Nyheter, 2016, http://jagvillhabostad.nu/2008/04/bostadsratt-dyrare-att-bygga-an-hyresratt/. (Gathered: 2020-04-23)

11 J Hall, Bostadsbrist och arbetsmarknad – hur får vi bostadsmarknaden I ballans?, 2014.

12 Boverket. Boverkets byggregler (2011:06) - Föreskrifter och allmänna råd, 2011.

13 S Medved, “Wood Based Products and Climate Changes,” European Wood Processing Strategy: Future Resources Matching Products and Innovations, 2008, 127- 134\r154.

14 Svenskt trä. Stadsbyggnad i trä, 2016, https://www.svenskttra.se/publikationer-start/tidningen-tra/2016-1/stadsbyggnad-i-tra/ (Gathered: 2020-04-15)

15 Skellefteå Kommun, Träbyggnadsstrategi, 2014.

factories are cleaner and emits less noise pollution. A timber construction site produces less noise pollution both for the workers and the surrounding environment.¹⁶

However, there are still issues related to timber construction. One of these are noise pollution inside the building, especially regarding housing units. Sweden has three standards of noise pollution in housing complexes, named A, B and C.¹⁷ C is the minimum of noise pollution, but it is not preferable. Cross laminated timber (CLT) floors usually generate B levels if properly isolated but there are techniques to achieve A levels. This usually requires thicker floors. Another debated issue is fire safety. Whilst there are voices raised to advocate steel and concrete rather than timber related to fire safety most new studies show that timber construction in CLT and glulam actually have equivalent or even better fire qualities than conventional materials if treated correctly.¹⁸

3.3 Carbon sequestration

Carbon dioxide (CO²) is a gas that naturally exist in our biosphere and is needed in order for life to exist.

However, a surplus of CO2 in the atmosphere leads to a rise in the earth temperature.¹⁹ Since the industrialization in the 19^th century to today human actions have exponentially increased the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere by burning fossil fuels and preform massive deforestation among other things.

This had led to an increase in the global temperature and this in turn leads to the extinction of different species and an increase in “extreme” weather such as hurricanes and drought for example. Carbon has constantly been being released into the atmosphere naturally by both animal and plant life long before humans existed, however, this was done in a manageable pace. When, for example, a tree dies and decompose it releases the carbon trapped within into the atmosphere. This carbon then once again gets absorbed in other trees or in the ocean, controlling the amount of carbon in the atmosphere.²⁰ This process is called carbon dioxide removal (CDR) or carbon sequestration and is visualized in diagram 1 bellow. The issue with human interactions originates from that we emit more carbon than the natural processes can handle, which result in the aforementioned surplus of CO² in the atmosphere. ²¹

16 Jörgen Olsson, Low Frequency Impact Sound in Timber Buildings – Simulations and Measurements, 2016.

17 Boverket, Byggkostnadsforum, Bostäder Och Nya Ljudkrav, n.d. 2017

18 Träguiden. Ljud och brand för kassettbjälklag av massivträ, 2003, https://www.traguiden.se/konstruktion/konstruktiv-utformning/stomme/kl-tra/ljud-och-brand-- kassettbjalklag/, (Gathered: 2020-04-15)

19 Smit, B. Introduction to carbon capture and sequestration. London : Imperial College Press, 2014.

20 Halldorsson, Gudmundur, et al. Soil Carbon Sequestration – for climate, food security and ecosystem services, Nordic Council of Ministers, 2015..

21 Derouin, S. Study finds that coastal wetlands excel at storing carbon, Eos, 2017, 98.

Figure 2. Carbon sequestration diagram

The situation is volatile, and action has to be taken in order to halt the increasing temperature. There is no quick fix to the problem but scientist around the world are researching potential solutions. One action that could decrease the amount of carbon in the atmosphere is planting more trees, which are able to absorb carbon.²² Reversing the deforestation is no easy task but it is crucial in order to manage the situation.

Another step is artificial sequestration processes. A lot of research is being made in an attempt to create man made sequestration plants in order to absorb CO² from the atmosphere and store it in the earth crust. Examples of these are subsurface saline aquifers, reservoirs, ocean water, micro algae.²³ So far however, these methods are inadequate both in terms of effectiveness and energy use by the plants them self. Hopefully more efficient methods will evolve in the near future and the IPCC as well as UNFCCC have publicly expressed the need for efficient man-made sequestration alternatives.²⁴

Figure 3. Carbon sequestration, earths storage capacity

22 Lackner, K. S. Climate change. A guide to CO2 sequestration. Science (New York, N.Y.), 2003, 300(5626).

23 Ballerat-Busserolles, K., Wu, Y., & Carroll, J. J., Cutting-edge technology for carbon capture, utilization, and storage. Beverly, MA : Scrivener Publishing ; Hoboken, NJ : Wiley, 2018.

24 The Times, Articles, 2009, "Carbon must be sucked from air, says IPCC chief Rajendra Pachauri". (Gathered: 2020-02-17)

3.4 Buildings life cycle

As stated above, the world’s population will grow drastically during the coming decade. Researchers believe the population will peak around 2100 with 11 billion inhabitants.²⁵ This will result in the need for large quantity of new construction. In order to build more sustainable, it is imperative that the buildings last. The longer the lifetime of a building the better for the environment. During the last decades a majority of our buildings have been built for a relative short lifetime, resulting in new developments being built earlier than necessary, putting even more strain on our climate and recourses. By altering the way, we construct to a more long-term adaptable method we could decrease the emissions generated by construction and at the same time store carbon in building material for a longer period of time, giving the planet time to absorb carbon from the atmosphere.²⁶ Circular economies have gotten more and more popular the last few years, and this might play a crucial part in the work towards a more sustainable construction sector.

By erecting buildings that last long term and prove more adaptable as well as possesses the ability to be deconstructed in a way that the material can be reused on future projects vast amounts of emissions and material depletion can be averted.²⁷

Figure 4. Cradle to grave versus cradle to cradle circular system.

3.5 Diagrid systems

Diagonal grid systems, or diagrid systems, is a construction technique based on diagonal pillars or columns generating a structural system with little to no need for internal structural elements. The system is believed to be invented by the Russian mathematician and engineer Vladimir Shukhov in the early 19^th century. ²⁸ During the last decade diagrid structures have become increasingly popular partly because of its structural integrity and diversity. In comparison to conventional techniques such as crossbeam and pillar structures, diagrid systems require less materials than comparable construction systems due to the lack of internal bearing elements, and yet provide adequate structural capacity. The system is often use

25 United Nations, Growing at a Slower Pace, World Population Is Expected to Reach 9.7 Billion in 2050 and Could Peak at Nearly 11 Billion around 2100, 2019.

26 Coulson, J., Sustainable use of wood in construction. Chichester, England : Wiley-Blackwell, 2014.

27 Kitriniaris, A., CRADLE TO CRADLE REGENERATIVE DESIGN: FROM CIRCULAR ECONOMY TO SUSTAINABLE CONSTRUCTION. WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, 2018, 217, 3–14.

28 Boake T M, Diagrid Structures, Birkhäuser, Basel, 2014

in larger structures and in roof systems, providing freedom for the architects because of the many variation in forms that can be structurally sound. ²⁹

Figure 5. Load bearing forces in a diagrid system.

Most existing diagrid structures today are made in steel or concrete, however as the number of timber construction increases worldwide so does the number of timber diagrid structures.³⁰

Figure 6. Chile Pavilion by Undurraga Devés Arquitectos

29 Kinayoglu, G., & Şenyapılı, B. Circular-Planned Diagrid Systems and an Interrelated Technique Using Planar Elements. Nexus Network Journal, 2018, 20(1), 215–

233.

30 Diagrid AE 390. Materials & Construction. https://sites.google.com/a/aucegypt.edu/diagrid-ae-390/loading (Gathered: 2020-04-21)

The Chile Pavilion by Undurraga Devés Arquitectos is one example of a timber diagrid structure.

Concluded in 2017 it is made of a double façade diagrid structure resting on a steel foundation giving the building a floating light weight appearance.³¹ The pavilion was designed for the Expo Milan 2015 and later moved to Temuco. The structure was designed to be both flexible and movable. After the Expo the building was disassembled and later reassembled at the new site. In addition, the interior lay out was made flexible enabling different usage over time.³²

Figure 7. Chile Pavilion by Undurraga Devés Arquitectos, Section and Elevation

4. Methodology

Below follows the account of how this study was designed and what approach was chosen to carry out the study.

4.1 Method for data collection

Since the purpose of this thesis is to acquire a deeper comprehension of the subject of construction in relation to environmental sustainability, a qualitative approach has been chosen. A qualitative approach requires a textual investigation together with comprehensive communication and interaction with relevant actors. In this case a qualitative methodology provides a more specific and in-depth knowledge and research, which is crucial for the research questions and outcome of the thesis. These facts were used as the foundation of the analysis and conclusions for this thesis.³³

31 Undurragadeves Arquitectos. Pabellón de chile expo milán milan, 2015, https://undurragadeves.cl/pabellon-expo-milan-2015-3/?lg=en(Gathered: 2020-04-15)

32Archdaily. Chile Pavilion at Expo Milan 2015 / Undurraga Devés Arquitectos, 2015 https://www.archdaily.com/892070/chile-pavilion-at-expo-milan-2015-undurraga- deves-arquitectos/5ac6e594f197ccbb70000576-chile-pavilion-at-expo-milan-2015-undurraga-deves-arquitectos-photo?next_project=no (Gathered: 2020-04-15)

33 Groat, L. N., Wang, David, et al, Architectural research methods (Second edition), 2013.

4.2 Choice of literature

The study is based on scientific articles that are provided by various literary databases such as Umeå University Library and Google Scholar. Some sources have been acquired through the references in these articles. Books on the subjects have been used to some degree to get knowledge on certain subjects.

Beyond these sources, some websites have been used to get specific information from relevant actors in the field, such as Governmental agencies, construction- and architectural firms. These sources often contain specific information regarding different data and projects. It has been important to evaluate the data since corporations often tries to promote their products in a positive way, risking biased information.³⁴

4.3 Interviews

The interviews were conducted to acquire a deeper understanding from different actors in the specific fields the thesis is dealing with as well as getting information about the synthesis project. The interviews were conducted with Daniel Wilded at the timber construction company Martinsons as well as with Tomas Strömberg, city architect at Umeå Municipality. Two face to face interviews were conducted with Daniel Wilded, and one interview was conducted with Tomas Strömberg over the phone. The reason for choosing said interviewees originated in a need to understand the timber sector and how they operate as well as getting an understanding of how the responsible architect in a municipality plan a new sustainable city part. The interviews had some base questions in the purpose of starting up a dialog with room for a more in-depth conversation, meaning the study was conducted with a semi structural approach. In depth interviews constitute a risk regarding objectivity since a discussion can generate leading questions and a bias approach from the interviewer. However, the pros of the knowledge acquired from the interviews was deemed necessary and surpassed the potential risks.³⁵

4.3.1 Martinsons

Martinsons is a family owned timber construction company that was founded at the end of the 1920^th. It started out as a sawmill and today it produces different timber material such as prefabricated glue laminated timber and cross laminated timber. Martinson has delivered materials for multiple timber construction both in Sweden and abroad.³⁶

4.3.1 Umeå Municipality

Umeå Municipality is currently planning a new development on the island Ön north east from the city center. The project focus on sustainability and focus on pedestrian and bicycle circulation. The area is

34 Groat, L. N., Wang, David, et al, Architectural research methods.

35 Ibid.

36 Martinsons, Om Martinsons, https://www.martinsons.se/om-martinsons/ (Gathered: 2020-04-22)

planned to be varied with a combination of rental and condominium housing with aim of creating a diverse part of the city. This is the site chosen for the synthesis project that this thesis works as a base for.³⁷

5. Analysis & Discussion

In order for vulnerable socio-economic groups, such as younger generations and immigrants, to have a chance to enter the housing market in urban areas, available low rent alternatives are required. There is a shortage of this today due to a lack in existing built environment that fulfil these criteria. From this standpoint there is a need for new development of small-scale apartments. But as history tells us, nothing is static, and this situation might change in the future. Therefore it is impermeant to construct adaptable buildings that can change to future needs, both for the tenants and the environment.

By creating buildings that could serve different functions with relatively small interactions we can build an urban environment that do not need to be torn down and rebuilt but rather adapted to future demands. It is not possible to know exactly what the future will entail but by learning of our history we can deduce potential predictions. In a scenario were urbanisation is slowing down or even start to reverse, it could leave a surplus of housing structures. In this case it would be preferable if these structures could be readapted to other functions, alternatively be deconstructed and reused in other projects or simply reconstructed on other sites. This could generate both social and environmental benefits. Another example of this is the municipality’s plans for garages on Ön. Early plans consist of parking complexes that are designed to be remade into housing in the future if or when cars become less common, according to Tomas Strömberg.

By creating good architecture with values and functions that can be adapted to future scenarios we can avoid designing buildings that only last for the foreseeable future. Daniel Wiled thinks that the role of the architect is imperative in this regard. Historically it was difficult to build, and therefore buildings were well made and made to last, but today buildings are cheap and quick to build but lack long term resilience.

“…why have many of these buildings [16^th century log cabins and timber churches] remained? They have been stated as landmarks and they may have been characterized by good architecture.”

“…we have housing developers today, but it does not lie in their interest to create a building that will last for 200 years with good architecture, no, they want easy money…”

Daniel Wilded, Martinsons

37 Umeå Kommun, Bygga, bo och miljö,

https://www.umea.se/umeakommun/byggaboochmiljo/oversiktsplanochdetaljplaner/oversiktsplan/oversiktsplanensdelarfordjupningarochtillagg/on.4.561e058815826ce b9fa11749.html (Gathered: 2020-04-22)

By using timber to a larger extent this would ensure that the carbon stored in the existing buildings would stay sequestered in the material for a longer period of time, leaving additional time to clean the air and preventing premature CO2 emissions. Daniel Wilded states that:

“…the most sustainable must be to design something that should last forever, and that’s a damn big question, but I think that the debate hasn’t really reached that point, how do we discuss materials? …”

Daniel Wilded, Martinsons

Building with timber presents many positive effects on both the environment and social well fare, but it also constitutes risks. As stated earlier in the thesis, deforestation is a big issue in regards of carbon sequestration. If timber becomes a well-used material in the construction sector there is a palpable risk that the deforestation increases on a global scale. It is therefore imperative that governments and organisations conduct a responsible and sustainable forest industry that take the environment into account.

6. Conclusion

In order to assist groups that cannot enter the housing market, housing project with low square meter apartments should be built in order to create affordable housing options. By making these apartments adaptable they will be able to house different constellations of tenants in the future as well as be readapted to other functions, preventing premature demolition of the buildings. Also, by creating apartments that the tenants can adapt to their individual needs, a social value is added to the urban landscape were the individual can impact their own living situation.

By making these buildings with timber we simultaneously provide potentials for a large carbon sequestration method in our cities. If the forest used to build the buildings is properly managed, new trees will grow, sequestering additional CO2 in addition to the CO2 already stored in the buildings. Timber diagrid structures could be one way of achieving this. With their ability for open flexible floor plans they can house a number of versatile functions. If constructed with the correct joinery, such as screws and bolts, they can relatively easily be dismantled and moved, if need be. By using long pillars in the structural facade, the material could also be reused in completely different projects, keeping the CO2 trapped in the material even if the building is torn down and used elseward.

Architects alone will of course not solve the environmental crisis, they do not possess the knowledge or technical know-how, but they can be part of a much bigger machine working towards this goal. Many actors who works towards a better climate in different fields act like if they, and they alone will be able to solve the issues we face. But it is my belief that in order to halt or reverse the climate change many different fields and sectors must work together towards this goal. By creating designs that are made to

last with focus on adaptability, architects have the opportunity to be part of creating structures that both promotes social values for its users and also have the ability to stand long term. This is not mainly a technical issue, there are still buildings hundreds of years old standing, but rather a culture issue. The view on construction and building must be revaluated, and new ways to build long term with finical incitements in the construction industry has to be found.

7. Bibliography

Papers/books

Ahmed, A., Othman, E., Corporate Social Responsibility of Architectural Design Firms Towards a Sustainable Built Environment in South Africa, Architectural Engineering and Design Management, 5:1-2, 2009, 36-45.

Ballerat-Busserolles, K., Wu, Y., & Carroll, J. J,. Cutting-edge technology for carbon capture, utilization, and storage. Beverly, MA : Scrivener Publishing ; Hoboken, NJ : Wiley, 2018.

Boake T M, Diagrid Structures, Birkhäuser, Basel, 2014.

Boverket. Boverkets byggregler (2011:06) - Föreskrifter och allmänna råd, 2011.

Coulson, J., Sustainable use of wood in construction. Chichester, England : Wiley-Blackwell, 2014.

Derouin, S., Study finds that coastal wetlands excel at storing carbon, Eos, 2017, s. 98.

Groat, L. N., Wang, David, et.al, Architectural research methods (Second edition), 2013.

Halldorsson, Gudmundur, et al. Soil Carbon Sequestration – for climate, food security and ecosystem services, Nordic Council of Ministers, 2015.

J Hall, Bostadsbrist och arbetsmarknad – hur får vi bostadsmarknaden I ballans?, 2014.

Kitriniaris, A., CRADLE TO CRADLE REGENERATIVE DESIGN: FROM CIRCULAR ECONOMY TO SUSTAINABLE CONSTRUCTION.

WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, 2018, 217, 3–14.

Kinayoglu, G., & Şenyapılı, B., Circular-Planned Diagrid Systems and an Interrelated Technique Using Planar Elements. Nexus Network Journal, 20(1), 2018, 215–233.

Lackner, K. S., Climate change. A guide to CO2 sequestration. Science (New York, N.Y.), 300(5626), 2003.

IPCC, Related Global Greenhouse Gas Emission, Pathways in the Context of Strengthening the Global Response To, IPCC-Summary for Policymakers, 2018.

South Africa”, Architectural Engineering and Design Management, 5:1-2, 2009, 36-45.

Smith P F., Architecture in a climate of Change, Linacre House, Jordan Hill, Oxford 14, 2005.

Smit, B., Introduction to carbon capture and sequestration. London: Imperial College Press, 2014.

United Nations, Growing at a Slower Pace, World Population Is Expected to Reach 9.7 Billion in 2050 and Could Peak at Nearly 11 Billion around 2100, 2019.

Webpages

Archdaily, Chile Pavilion at Expo Milan 2015 / Undurraga Devés Arquitectos, 2015, https://www.archdaily.com/892070/chile-pavilion-at- expo-milan-2015-undurraga-deves-arquitectos/5ac6e594f197ccbb70000576-chile-pavilion-at-expo-milan-2015-undurraga-deves- arquitectos-photo?next_project=no,

(Gathered: 2020-04-21)

Boverket, Bostadsbygget stabiliseras, 2019,

https://www.boverket.se/sv/samhallsplanering/bostadsmarknad/bostadsmarknaden/indikatorer/, (Gathered 2020-03-14)

Boverket, Läget på bostadsmarknaden, 2019,

https://www.boverket.se/sv/samhallsplanering/bostadsmarknad/bostadsmarknaden/indikatorer/, (Gathered: 2020-02-12)

Boverket, Ungdommar och vuxna, 2016, https://www.boverket.se/sv/kommunernas-bostadsforsorjning/underlag-for- bostadsforsorjningen/olika-grupper-pa-bostadsmarknaden/ungdomar-och-unga-vuxna/,

(Gathered: 2020-04-15)

Coronucopia, Aktuellt, 2017, https://cornucopia.cornubot.se/2017/03/40-dyrare-att-bygga-bostadsratt.html, (Gathered: 2020-04-23)

Diagrid AE 390, Materials & Construction. https://sites.google.com/a/aucegypt.edu/diagrid-ae-390/loading (Gathered: 2020-04-21)

Jag vill ha bostad, Nyheter, 2006, http://jagvillhabostad.nu/2008/04/bostadsratt-dyrare-att-bygga-an-hyresratt/, (Gathered :2020-04-23)

Martinsons, Om Martinsons. https://www.martinsons.se/om-martinsons/

(Gathered: 2020-04-22)

Svenskt trä, Stadsbyggnad i trä https://www.svenskttra.se/publikationer-start/tidningen-tra/2016-1/stadsbyggnad-i-tra/

(Gathered: 2020-04-15)

Träguiden, Ljud och brand för kassettbjälklag av massivträ, 2003, https://www.traguiden.se/konstruktion/konstruktiv- utformning/stomme/kl-tra/ljud-och-brand--kassettbjalklag/,

(Gathered: 2020-04-15)

The Times, Articles,2009, "Carbon must be sucked from air, says IPCC chief Rajendra Pachauri".

(Gathered: 2020-02-17)

Umeå Kommun, Bygga, bo och miljö.

https://www.umea.se/umeakommun/byggaboochmiljo/oversiktsplanochdetaljplaner/oversiktsplan/oversiktsplanensdelarfordjupningaroch tillagg/on.4.561e058815826ceb9fa11749.html

(Gathered: 2020-04-22)

Undurragadeves Arquitectos, Pabellón de chile expo milán milan, 2015, https://undurragadeves.cl/pabellon-expo-milan-2015-3/?lg=en (A Gathered: 2020-04-15)

Figures

Figure 1. Housing started including net additions through redevelopment -

Gathered: https://www.boverket.se/sv/samhallsplanering/bostadsmarknad/bostadsmarknaden/indikatorer/

Figure 2. Carbon sequestration diagram

Based on: https://www.britannica.com/technology/carbon-sequestration Figure 3. Carbon sequestration, earths storage capacity

Based on: Lackner, K. S., Climate change. A guide to CO2 sequestration. Science (New York, N.Y.), 300(5626), 2003.

Figure 4. Cradle to grave versus cradle to cradle circular system.

Figure 5. Load bearing forces in a Diagrid system.

Basad on: Karl Nilsson, Extern Vindstabilisering För Flervåningshus i Trä, 2018.

Figure 6. Chile Pavilion, Perspective

Gathered:https://www.archdaily.com/892070/chile-pavilion-at-expo-milan-2015-undurraga-deves-

arquitectos/5ac6e594f197ccbb70000576-chile-pavilion-at-expo-milan-2015-undurraga-deves-arquitectos-photo?next_project=no Figure 7. Chile Pavilion, Section and Elevation

Gathered:https://www.archdaily.com/892070/chile-pavilion-at-expo-milan-2015-undurraga-deves-

arquitectos/5ac6e594f197ccbb70000576-chile-pavilion-at-expo-milan-2015-undurraga-deves-arquitectos-photo?next_project=no

Appendix

Gidlund, A., Sustainable architecture through materiality & construction, 2019.