Degree Project with Specialization in English Studies and Education

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Degree Project with Specialization in

English Studies and Education

15 Credits, First Cycle

Effects of Teachers’ Knowledge of formative assessment on

teachers’ practices & students’ metacognition

A Literature Review

Effekter av lärarnas kunskap om formativ bedömning på lärarens praktik:

inverkan av formativ bedömning på elevernas metakognition.

Abeer Wannus

Nidal Sulieman

Course: ULV (LL235C)

Due 6 June 2021

Examiner: Maria Graziano

Supervisor: Eric Pudney

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Abstract

This literature review examines two major areas: firstly, the impact of teachers’ knowledge about formative assessment on teachers' practices in the classroom; secondly, the role of formative assessment in raising students’ metacognition and how formative activities lead to raising students’ self-awareness and self-regulation. This paper also aims to shed light on the interdependence relation between formative assessment and teaching in general. Ten different primary studies relevant to formative assessment and its effects on teaching/learning have been chosen to investigate the formative assessment in relation with the school subjects and particularly with English as a Foreign Language. The data was collected by exploring different electronic websites. The results of this literature review show that teachers' knowledge of the formative assessment has significant influencing factors on their practices and on supporting students’ metacognition; however, the implementation of formative assessment continues to be hazy.

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Individual contributions

We hereby certify that all parts of this essay reflect the equal participation of both signatories below:

The parts we refer to are as follows:

• Planning

• Research question selection

• Article searches and decisions pertaining to the outline of the essay

• Presentation of findings, discussion, and conclusion Authenticated by:

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1.Introduction

The concept of formative assessment is quite new, and was defined only in the 1960s; however, teachers have been using “formative assessments” in their teaching long before. Scriven (1967) indicates that formative assessment is a phrase generated from the term ‘formative evaluation concerning the evaluation of educational programs including curricula, instructional material and the overall teaching methods (cited in Braund & DeLuca, 2018). Thus, formative assessment is an ongoing process where teachers use the learning evidence to provide the student with a feedforward in order to improve the student’s performance. The main purpose of providing a feedforward is to give insight into what should be done to provide a future orientation so that the student can use feedforward as a pattern in other assignments to enhance his/her performance. According to Black & William (1998), the assessment is considered formative assessment when the evidence is used to adjust the teaching method to meet learning needs. Therefore, by using the learning evidence teachers can help students identify their strengths and weaknesses to plan for the next steps.

In general, formative assessments are mainly low stakes, which means that they have little impact on students' grades: for instance, students can make mistakes, dare to fail, and repeat the assignment because the focus is on the learning process rather than the grades. Peer assessment and self-assessment are formative assessments in nature but can be summative as well. Unlike formative assessments, summative assessments are high stakes because the goal of the summative assessment is to evaluate a student's achievement over a certain period: a midterm, a final exam, or any graded paper is an example of a summative assessment. In short, the formative assessment is an ongoing assessment that gives feedforward to improve learning/teaching, while summative assessment tests are originally designed to decide the boundaries of students’ learning of the given material for grading and certification (Skolverket, 2018). The primary distinction between formative and summative assessment relates to purpose and effect, not to timing, according to Black & William (1998).

In addition, some activities can be formative or summative such as a peer assessment that describes different activities in which students practice giving feedback and receiving feedback from their peers. In other words, formative peer assessment and self-assessment are formative activities that improve and develop students’ performances through engaging students in

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regulated learning (SRL) skills where students can steer and direct their learning process by being able to select, combine, and effectively coordinate cognitive strategies. Williams, Aguilar-Roca, Tsai, Wong, Beaupr´e & O’Dowd, (2011, p.10) explain that “Assessment for learning is any assessment for which the priority in its design and practice is to serve the purpose of promoting learning”. In addition, formative assessment helps students identify their strengths and weaknesses, and develop their metacognition that is a part of thinking ability to continuously retain and develop.

To illustrate more, metacognition refers to the process of considering and regulating one’s own learning (thinking about one’s thinking). This means that the learners can analyze their own understanding and become aware of their own cognitive experience. When the learner becomes aware of the knowledge of his/her own cognition, the regulation of cognition participates in expanding the learning. Generally, metacognition means a deep understanding of one's way of thinking and using one's competencies and abilities to understand the surroundings to acquire self-regulated learning skills.

Furthermore, self-regulated learning (SRL) refers to learning that is guided by activating one's metacognition and motivation to learn. A self-regulated learner is an active and constructive learning process where students monitor, direct, and regulate their actions toward goals of information acquisition, expanding expertise, and self-improvement. Throughout the learning process, the learner is expected to consider the information being taught and construct an interpretation based on past experiences, personal views, and cultural background that contribute to raising students’ metacognition and Self-Regulation Learning (SRL). Generally, raising metacognition and enhancing self-regulated learning are essential goals of the learning theories such as Behaviorism, Sociocultural Theory, Pragmatism, and Constructivism. In fact, Behaviorism, Sociocultural Theory, Pragmatism, and Constructivism, are learning theories while formative assessment is an integral part of the learning process where raising students’

metacognition and self-regulated learning are primary goals of formative assessment.

Therefore, a strong relevance binds formative assessment with the goals of the following learning theories:

Firstly, Behaviors are learned through interaction with the environment. According to B.F

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stresses how students react and behave in the classroom and suggests that teachers directly influence their students’ behaviors. Thus, a behavior is simply a response to environmental stimuli. Behaviorism indicates that a teacher can engage students in an instructional sequence of questioning, peer interaction, and class-wide discussion to help the group understand the material (Säljö, 2015). This clarifies that learners are motivated to reflect on their unique knowledge and allows them to recognize their abilities and support other learners in their environment (Säljö, 2015). Therefore, the meeting point between Behaviorism and formative assessment focuses on the role of the teacher as a model to engage the student in activities where the student can realize his/her weakness and strength which enhances students’ self- awareness.

Secondly, Sociocultural Theory claims that one learns best through interacting with others.

According to Vygotsky, the learning occurs during social interactions between individuals where learning happens first through social interaction and second through individual internalization of social behaviors (cited in Säljö, 2015). In Sociocultural Theory, students and teachers' relationships in the classroom encourage students to engage more in the learning process which enhances students' learning outcomes. This means that such relationships help to facilitate social interaction and active participation in the learning tasks. Students learn through observation, listening, and talking through their tasks. The binding connection between Sociocultural Theory and formative assessment manifests in teacher-student and student- student interaction in activities such as peer assessment which helps students learn more difficult content. Vygotsky believed that learners could achieve a greater level of learning through the help of a More Knowledgeable Other; for instance, a teacher or a peer (cited in Säljö, 2015).

Thirdly, the core idea of Pragmatism is that beliefs are guides to actions and should be judged against the outcomes rather than abstract principles. The purpose of Pragmatism is to create new values and stresses that the main task of the teacher is to create an environment where the learner can develop values for himself. Learning activities must be created out of learners' existing knowledge and experience of real education. According to Dewey, supporting learner development helps learners develop new skills, gain a deep understanding of the world, and prepares the learners to become democratic citizens (cited in Säljö, 2015). Pragmatism focuses on creating active learners and the implementation of formative assessment aims to actively

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formative peer assessment aims to help students develop lifelong skills through assessing and providing feedback to their peers to improve their own work.

Additionally, Constructivism stresses that students acquire new experiences based on their prior knowledge. In other words, learners build new knowledge starting from their previous experiences. A clear vision is a demand in Constructivism where the learner can connect his/her own experiences to new knowledge, according to Säljö (2015). Similarly, formative assessment reinforces students' learning and gives continual enhancement in student's achievement in the classroom. By eliciting, recognizing, and using the information, self-regulated learning (SRL), students play an active personal role during learning and recall. According to Piaget, the main purpose of Constructivism is to improve the quality of student learning rather than providing evidence for evaluating or grading students (cited in Säljö, 2015). This means that formative assessment is an integral part of this theory.

Furthermore, the Swedish education system states that assessments should be in alignment with the purpose of the syllabus, core content, and knowledge requirements. The assessment should be done in conformity with the knowledge requirements when assessing, for example, written assessments which means that formative assessment should be incorporated into the design of the lesson planning. This allows students to take responsibility and influence their work as well as to participate in the evaluation and reflect on their performance, according to Skolverket (2018). Therefore, assessments should be closely related to teaching and aim to identify and evaluate students’ knowledge to provide feedback and feedforward to guarantee a continual learning process. Thus, summative and/or formative assessment for instance formal, or informal, general, or specific tasks as well as holistic or analytical should be included in the learning process (Skolverket, 2011). This emphasizes the importance of teachers' knowledge of formative assessment and skills that help to personalize the teaching to help students achieve their learning goals.

As a result of a dramatic change in the perspective of the assessment, the focus of the assessment has shifted from how much a student achieved over a certain period to how much learning has happened and how students are progressing. In addition, adaptation of teaching English in classrooms demands awareness of the impact of formative assessment on students' learning outcomes (Skolverket, 2018). Through our search for studies related to formative

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formative assessment in EFL classes in Sweden. Therefore, this paper is going to examine two aspects: the relationship between teachers' knowledge of formative assessment and its effects on teachers’ practices in the classroom regarding EFL; what contribution formative assessment provides in developing students’ metacognition.

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2- Aims and research questions

This paper examines formative assessment in practice, effects on teachers' practices in the classroom, results of integrating formative assessment, and the function of formative assessment in raising students’ metacognition. The research questions are:

1-How does teachers' knowledge about formative assessment contribute to improving teachers’

practices in the classroom?

2- What role does formative assessment play in developing students’ metacognition?

3- Method

The design of this paper is based on a qualitative systematic review where the findings and part of the methods of the studies are brought together to support the topic. This research is organized on primary qualitative studies and our data is based on the data of the ten incorporated studies which is derived from observations, interviews, verbal interaction, or a questionnaire and other different methods that will be explained later in the result and discussion section.

Thus, almost fifty studies were browsed, twenty-four studies were examined and only ten studies have been incorporated into this paper that are most relevant to our research questions.

3.1 Electronic Method

Three electronic databases have been used in searching for the data: such as Libsearch (Malmö University’s Library Database) ERIC (Education Resources Information Center), SwePub (National Library of Sweden).We browsed another website called Google Scholar.

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3.2 Inclusion criteria

1- Geography: The research is narrowed down to studies that were conducted mainly in Europe or in the USA.

2- Age: The target age group is between 13 and 18 years old for instance elementary schools up to upper secondary schools.

3- Language & Content: The topic is formative assessment regarding English in EFL classes, (English as a Foreign Language) and formative assessment in practice.

4- Studies that refer explicitly or implicitly to Behaviorism or Constructivism as well as sociocultural learning and Pragmatism are highly regarded. Because these theories explain how the learning happens while formative assessment guide the teacher to how to execute the assessment in the classroom; for example, implementation of a peer assessment and how to effectively use the evidence of learning to design for the next step.

3.2.1 Subordinate Inclusion

One study which was conducted in Australia is also included because the study focuses on the connection between formative assessment practices (self-assessment and peer-assessment) and metacognition. A retrospective study on first university students is included because the study examined the frequency of formative assessment in the foreign language (FL) classroom when the students were at high schools in Poland.

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3.3 Exclusion criteria

Asian, Indian, Pakistan, African studies as well as Mediterranean are excluded as they are less relevant to the Swedish teaching method. Studies that were conducted on university students or textbooks, e-books, literature review articles were excluded too.

3.4 A numerical summary of the Inclusion and Exclusion

Area of interest Total number of references Number of references used

Teacher’s role in implementation of

formative assessment

12 6

Peer assessment and students as active agents

7 2

Students’ metacognition and

self-regulated

5 2

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4- Results and discussion

The result/discussion section will be divided into three equal parts, and each will be exploring the selected ten empirical studies from a different point of view to carry out this literature review. In the first part, the articles will be briefly summarized according to the research questions to give the reader a thorough idea of how the articles are related to our study. The second part is the synthesis, where we will draw a comparison between these ten studies and conclude to answer our research questions and to find a common pattern among the selected studies. In the synthesis, the paper will also shed light on some positive and non-positive aspects to give our study some objectivity. The third part is the discussion, and this section will be mainly discussed based on what we have already mentioned in the summary and synthesis sections to connect the findings back to the theoretical approaches that have been presented in the introduction and how it is relevant to the curriculum, and the specific context of the communicative English classroom in Sweden as well as to the theories and reform movement that are mentioned in the introduction. Moreover, the discussion will highlight some of the challenges that encounter teachers in the process of implementing formative assessment.

4.1 Summary of Chosen Studies

Correia & Harrison (2020) examine teachers’ espoused beliefs about inquiry-based learning and its impact on their actual formative assessment practice in the classroom. Inquiry-based science is a model used to provide students with opportunities to investigate a problem, search for possible solutions, make observations, ask questions, test out ideas, and think creatively and activate their metacognitive skills where teachers can create opportunities for promoting learning autonomy and self-regulation in students. A semi-structured interview with two experienced science teachers, recordings of teacher-student conversations in inquiry lessons, and field notes of classroom observations were all combined to develop practices to help teachers to shift to a student-centered inquiry approach. The teachers participating observed that inquiry can improve students’ learning autonomy.

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Łucarz (2019) investigates the outcomes of students’ opinions on the frequency, type, and impacts of assessment they had been provided with during secondary school education.

Students were provided with a questionnaire based on a Likert scale complemented with a few open-ended questions in secondary education at EFL classes during English lessons. Responses of 106 students who graduated from various high schools in the years 2014-2017 were considered. Thus, the learning skills were categorized as the following: different FL skills and subskills. The outcomes in the case of FL subskills are, for example, grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation. The results show that formative assessment was only provided to the students twice or three times a semester while in the case of pronunciation 34% to 36% of the students did not remember having ever been provided any assessment upon during their secondary school education. Moreover, twenty-five percent of the students admitted that they have never received formative assessment regarding pronunciation, receptive and productive skills.

Vattøy & Gamlem (2020) focus on the quality of teacher-student interactions and feedback in teaching English as a foreign language (EFL). The study involved nine EFL teachers at two lower secondary schools with 24 students averaged classes. The results reveal an interconnection aspect between the quality of feedback and instructional discourse and suggests coherence between the dialogue and questions asked as this plays an essential role in practicing feedback which helps students trust their foreign language abilities. The study calls for further research to understand teachers’ aims and beliefs and their effects on teachers’ feedback practice and choice of language in foreign language teaching lessons.

Dmoshinskaia, Gijlers & Jong (2020) examine which kind of feedback adds more to reviewers’

learning: comments or grades. Also, the study aims to figure out if students’ different levels of prior knowledge have different effects on students’ performance. The peer assessment is defined into two components – giving feedback to and receiving feedback from peers. The participants from a secondary school student from Russia (n = 51) and the Netherlands (n = 42) were asked to provide feedback with a formative and not a summative purpose. The results indicate that only giving cognitive feedback contributed to the reviewers’ learning outcomes.

Also, students’ prior knowledge has shown impacts on reviewers learning through giving feedback. This study suggests carrying out a similar study with a larger pattern in different countries may involve socio-cultural aspects that were not central in the present study.

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Fuller & Dawson (2017) investigate how professional development that depends on literature- based best practices helps teachers to effectively implement Student Response System (SRS) for formative assessment and promotes student engagement. The teachers participating were from two middle schools and had different content areas. The SRS for formative assessment was based on Desimone’s (2009) and Danielson’s Observation Cycle (2007). This means that the SRS included four domains: planning and preparation, the classroom environment, instruction, and professional responsibilities are main elements in such models. The results of this study indicate that the teachers learned how to use the SRS technology and related strategies to gather formative data and properly adjust instruction to meet learners’ needs.

Berggren (2014) examines the function of peer assessment and its role in improving a student’s writing capacity. Feedback practicing, group peer-assessment, and the production of first and final drafts of the written task were examined too. The number of participants was almost 26, the students' age was 14–15 years old. The English teacher who participated in the study had 19 years’ experience of teaching English. Besides, the results show that the application of the activity peer-assessment in the classroom granted the students to live the reader's role by swapping the places which gave them the chance to judge their writing from different perceptions. The study calls for more implementation of peer assessment and involving the students in the learning process.

Granberg, Palm & Palmberg (2021) explore the significance of daily classroom practice of formative assessment and its influence on student's self-regulation. The study stresses the benefits of a classroom practice that is not only engaged in one single phase of formative assessment, such as self-assessment. The study also clarifies several aspects of formative assessment which focuses on teacher-centered aspects as well as the importance of the engagement of the students in the formative assessment processes. Mixed methods were used such as qualitative data, empirical, questionnaires, classroom observations, and interviews with students. The formative assessment practices in the study reveal great impacts on students' motivational beliefs and their behaviors where teachers and students were proactive agents in the formative assessment processes when gathering and acting on information regarding the students’ learning of both subject matter knowledge and SRL skills.

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Kearney, Smith, & Maika (2016) focus on three aspects of classroom climate: student collegial support; the engagement of the students in classroom activities; and the behavior of the supportive teacher. The study examines aspects leading to the development of students’ levels while participating in different classroom activities. The Classroom Climate Index was pilot tested with a group of 105 elementary students 8-12 years old who completed the CCI.

Following the pilot test, the refined instrument was next administered to a larger sample of 2340 elementary students. A pilot test is a small-scale, short-term effort designed to provide data about the practicality of the program before it is executed on a large scale—a type of educational simulation. The results show also that different practices of formative assessment in the classroom such as student-to-student interactions, peer to peer relations have an impact on student’s engagement in the classroom.

Braund & DeLuca (2018) explore the connections between assessment practices and student metacognition. The study investigates how the teachers structure student engagement in formative assessment to reinforce student’s self-regulation and metacognition. The study aims to enhance students’ metacognition and SRL abilities in elementary science contexts. Seven open survey questions and semi-structured teachers’ interviews were incorporated in the study while the participants were 44 elementary teachers. Based on semi-structured interviews, five participants were selected to describe their own experiences in developing students’

metacognition and self-regulatory abilities. The study suggests more research on how teachers can develop their practices of formative assessment to fortify metacognition and SRL, (Braund

& DeLuca, 2018)

Burner (2016) argues that a successful implementation of formative assessment demands the teacher and student's understanding. The study examines from a historical and a situational point of view the impact of the formative assessment on teachers' and students’ perception and experience in writing in EFL. The participants were four English teachers and four English classes which included 100 students. The study clarifies different ways of responding to the new emphasis of formative assessment (Assessment for Learning) AfL by the students and the teachers of English foreign language (EFL) writing. This difference appears to be more related to the nature of the school’s assessment and the practices of teachers’ assessment. The study also indicates that the students complained of some ambiguity regarding the instructions

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4.2 Synthesis

4.2.1 How does teachers' knowledge of formative assessment contribute to

improving teachers’ practices in the classroom?

The teacher’s practice in the classroom stems from the teacher’s knowledge about formative assessment. Studies by Łucarz, (2019) & Correia & Harrison, (2020) emphasize that teachers’

knowledge of formative assessment shapes teachers’ practices in the classroom. Likewise, Bryan (2003) confirms that a teacher’s practice is best recognized by combining self-reported accounts of beliefs and practice with field observations of actual practice (cited in Correia &

Harrison, 2020). Comparably, Correia &Harrison (2020) point out that a teacher’ self-reported accounts of practice are a rebuilding of an individual’s experiences perceived through an individual’s knowledge, perceptions, beliefs, and reflections. It is noticeable that the students’

learning outcomes have an intrinsic relationship with their teacher practices in the classroom.

According to Smith et al. (2016) the teacher, as a significant other, plays a crucial role through providing students with feedback and support, (cited in Vattøy & Gamlem, 2020). Correia &

Harrison (2020) believe that a teacher's role is seen in teaching as making sure that all students are involved and can make progress; moreover, the teacher participant claim that without the teacher's support, students will not be able to find and sustain promising tracks of thought (cited in Correia & Harrison, 2020).

Furthermore, Correia & Harrison (2020) assert that teachers’ beliefs about inquiry in addition to their role as teachers in inquiry lessons are accordant with the approach in teaching and assessing inquiry in the classroom. Also, the results confirmed that both teacher’s perceptions and teacher’s role in inquiry shape the way teachers guide their students in inquiry science lessons besides the chances created by teachers to help students improve learning autonomy and self-regulation (Correia & Harrison, 2020). Similarly, Vattøy & Gamlem (2020) find that teachers’ espoused beliefs about inquiry and their role as teachers in inquiry lessons are consistent with the way they teach and assess inquiry in the classroom. These studies agree that teachers’ practices are reflections of their perspectives.

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Importantly, the teacher’s way of giving feedback is another aspect related to the teacher's perception of the assessment. Vattøy & Gamlem (2020) confirm a strong alliance between the quality of feedback and instructional dialogue. Gamlem & Smith (2013, p.385) observe that

“the challenge lies in providing a feedback as ‘constructing achievement–dialogic feedback interaction–constructing a way forward’ which may support students’ self-regulatory capacities as well as building self-efficacy beliefs” (cited in Vattøy & Gamlem, 2020). Therefore, teachers’ abilities in conducting informal assessments are vital in the classroom. According to Vattøy & Gamlem (2020), the way the teacher asks questions and gives feedback in informal assessment conversations leads to either a creation of a learning environment that builds up or retards students’ self-determination and self-regulation. Vattøy & Gamlem (2020) confirm also that there should be a coherence between the dialogue and questions asked as this plays a major role in practicing feedback which results in students trusting their foreign language abilities.

Vattøy & Gamlem (2020) affirm that teachers’ goals and beliefs about their feedback practice and choice of language in foreign language teaching lessons should be examined more to see how this approach can support students’ learning and wellbeing.

Undoubtedly, teachers' attitudes determine the quality of interactions between the teacher and the student during the lessons. In teaching EFL, the language of feedback is the most important characteristic of teacher-student interactions. For instance, feedback practice in EFL classrooms, perceived as responsive pedagogy that presents itself through learning dialogues with a focus on student learning and L2 use, according to Vattøy & Gamlem (2020).

Additionally, the results in Vattøy & Gamlem (2020) show that the characteristics of the dialogue and the questions asked in the classroom are important elements to perform a feedback practice that make students trust their foreign language competencies. Black and William (2009; 2015) argue that formative assessment is a way of conceptualizing the advancement of learning through responsive teaching practices, where feedback loops between learners with their teacher for guiding future thinking and action (cited in Correia & Harrison, 2020). In the same manner, Braund & DeLuca (2018) believe that teachers can also provide students with success criteria or expectations of feedback to prepare them to be able to reflect on their work.

Likewise, Stiggins (2005) states that feedback can be defined as specific comments directed towards helping students achieve the desired learning goal (cited in Braund & DeLuca, 2018).

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in the use of assessment information which supports student’s growth and development towards learning standards. According to Black and William (2009), a fundamental element of formative assessment is embedding feedback to help students develop their learning and support the active participation of the student in the construction along with the use of the assessment information to enhance the student own learning (cited in Braund & DeLuca, 2018).

As a result, these changes may encompass how to use a different learning strategy and seek alignment between planning and pre-determined goals. According to Black and William (2009), students can generate decisive changes through blending feedback from the teacher, peers, and their self-evaluations (cited in Braund & DeLuca, 2018).

The present comprehension of formative assessment is often presented through the dual aims of Assessment for Learning (AfL) and Assessment as Learning (AaL), according to Braund &

DeLuca (2018). To illustrate more, AfL is the continuous process of collecting evidence on student learning that aims to enhance student learning while AaL is the process in which students evaluate and reflect upon their learning with the primary purpose of supporting metacognition and SRL development (Braund & DeLuca, 2018). Therefore, AaL can be understood as a sub-element of the AFL process. Additionally, according to Assessment Reform Group (2002), AfL this is the most beneficial for students where they must be actively involved. In this way students will be given the chance to participate and reflect on their work.

Moreover, Ehrlinger, Mitchum & Dweck (2016) argue that students should be able to define and minimize the gaps between what they know and what they need to expand learning and achieve the learning goal (cited in Braund & DeLuca, 2018). Based on the results of the ten primary studies, dual impacts, (positive or non-positive) have emerged during the practice of the assessment.

4.2.1.1 Noticeable positive results

Some positive impacts have been noted throughout our study. According to Black & William (1998); Crooks (1988), direct and indirect positive effects and various learning outcomes have been noticed throughout the process of the use of the formative assessment which captured the attention of most educational researchers (cited in Łucarz, 2019). Vattøy & Gamlem (2020) emphasize the association between positive climate and teacher sensitivity which suggests that teachers’ social and academic responsiveness and sensitivity flourish from a positive climate distinguished by the close relationship between teachers and students. Comparably, Wilson,

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support and evaluative feedback from their teachers had fewer discipline problems by the end of the year, positive interactions with other students and were more willing to involve in classroom activities (cited in Kearney et al. 2016).

Furthermore, Fontana & Fernandes (1994) reported that the teachers participants acknowledged that inquiry could enhance students’ learning independence, and it is important to step back and let students have the driving seat (cited in Vattøy & Gamlem, 2020). Besides, participants debated about how they recorded student learning that stimulated them to reflect upon how they to adjust their practices and reinforce students learning in a better way. Some other participants discussed how they documented student learning which prompted them to reflect upon how they can modify their practices to better support students, according to Vattøy & Gamlem (2020). Comparably, Braund & DeLuca (2018) reported that a respondent explained that through knowing their learning processes, students can share this information with their teachers who can ensure that they remodel their lessons to include these processes. Hence, through observation, teachers can shape students’ metacognitive abilities and SRL behaviors.

According to Braund & DeLuca (2018), students are provided with opportunities to demonstrate learning behaviors that are based on self-regulation like using learning strategies effectively and assessing the extent to which they achieve pre-defined learning objectives through their understanding of their learning processes. Therefore, the interaction between students and teachers has great impacts on students' metacognition and outcomes.

Interestingly, some teachers participating in some of the examined studies showed willingness to practise receiving and giving feedback. They needed to learn more about their students' learning situation and adjust various learning styles to help students. Some teachers were just thrilled to receive comments (learning evidence) from their students where they had to give feedback as they conceptualize feedback as a two-way process (Braund & DeLuca, 2018). This two-way feedback process can help teachers adjust their instruction to meet student's needs to help students to defend their needs through knowledge of their thinking (Braund & DeLuca, 2018). One of the most important functions of integrating formative assessment is the necessity to differentiate teaching to meet student’s needs. According to Braund & DeLuca (2018), the participating teachers believe that various strategies are mandatory based on the complex nature of the construct in the development of metacognition. Because feedback was seen as one of the

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direct feedback to students, since it contributes towards the development of students’

metacognitive abilities.

4.2.1.2 Common challenges while applying formative assessment

Throughout our literature review, we noticed that not only novice teachers are encountering troubles while implementing formative assessment, but it seems that even experienced teachers still have some issues to work out while implementing formative assessments. According to Kearney et al. (2016), most of the studies were simply conducted by observing teachers and students during a classroom visit where the evaluation was concluded based on those observations. Therefore, it is hard to decide how precise the judgment is when conducting an assessment to check teachers ‘practices in the classroom or to gauge a student's genuine motive.

According to Vattøy & Gamlem (2020), there is a risk that students become passive recipients instead of active participants if the feedback is given by teachers as being ‘approving, controlling and disapproving’. While Vattøy & Gamlem (2020) reported that focusing on higher-order thinking and metacognition in teacher-student interactions reveal an aspect of struggle, as it was often ignored in the teacher-student interactions while exploitation of pedagogical moments was wasted too. Likewise, Łucarz (2019) reported that twenty-five percent of the students in his study demonstrated that they have never received formative assessment regarding pronunciation, receptive and productive skills while they were in the secondary schools. Harrison (2015) points out that “it seemed that teachers struggled whether to give self-regulation to students to learn by trial and error or to offer orientation so that students continue on productive learning tracks” (cited in Correia & Harrison, 2020, p.374).

Moreover, Łucarz (2019) reported that the open responses gathered from the semi-interviews clarify students’ awareness of the importance of feedback and detect several negative effects resulting from the shortage of delivering of the assessment.

In fact, difficulties did not only appear while supporting students’ internal feedback and self- regulation but also when involving students in protracted feedback dialogues in the L2 which appeared to be a more fundamental challenge confronting EFL teachers. Kearney et al. (2016) warns that much of the existing research on classroom climate has been conducted from the

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themselves not teachers or outside researcher should be assessing their level of engagement (cited in Maika & Smith, 2016). Importantly, Patrick et al. (2003) indicate that poor teacher- student interaction is more powerful than positive teacher-student interaction. Specifically, when teachers create environments in which students feel psychologically uncomfortable, those students are more likely to stay away from engaging in schoolwork (cited in Maika & Smith, 2016).

Additionally, the results of the ten primary studies report that teachers have been facing some major challenges while implementing formative assessment such as the pressure of time and curriculum in addition to the class size. According to Vattøy & Gamlem (2020), the teachers participants experienced tensions that seem to be rooted in conflicts between espoused beliefs and external pressures (p. 373). Wallace and Kang (2004) indicate that “Time and curriculum pressures were pointed out as hindering the adoption of more inquiry-based learning in science lessons,” (cited in Correia & Harrison, 2020, p. 374). According to Correia & Harrison (2020), the time pressure was mainly associated with a tension between knowing that students need time to make sense of ideas and concepts and that at the same time the lesson aims to impose a certain rhythm that must be maintained (p.374). Likewise, Braund & Deluca (2018) identified that limitations reported by teachers were lack of time to provide feedback, time to plan and integrate metacognition while meeting all curricular expectations, and issues with class sizes as it was difficult to observe all students regularly.

The complex development of classroom climate and teacher-student and student-student interactions are requirements for a successful formative assessment, according to Harrison (2009; 2013) and neither can be developed quickly or evolve independently (cited in Correia &

Harrison, 2020). Granberg et al. (2021) suggest that collecting information about students’

learning needs and to be able to provide individual feedback must be adapted to the group size and the age of the students; however, larger classes will add complexity to the formative classroom practice.

4.2.2 What role does formative assessment play in developing students’ metacognition?

There is a direct relationship between formative assessment and self-regulated learning (SRL).

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students with a range of cognitive and metacognitive abilities (cited in Braund & DeLuca, 2018). Clearly, teachers' use of formative assessment can raise students’ metacognition which leads to students’ self-regulation.

Bryk (2010) believes that having a classroom in which the teacher created a student-centered learning environment was one of the strongest predictors of student success (cited in Kearney et al. 2016). Similarly, in a study of 594 students from 55 separate classes, Van Petegem et al.

(2008) state that positive interpersonal relationships between teachers and students were highly correlated with both the students' sense of well-being and academic achievement (cited in Kearney et al. 2016). Also, Conroy et al. (2008) affirm that teachers' implementation of effective class-wide discipline policies, allows them to focus on instruction and student support which contribute to creating higher levels of student engagement (cited in Kearney et al. 2016).

One of the main purposes of the formative assessment is to help students to develop their self- regulation. In the same manner, Connell & Wellborn (1994) state that the primary option to involve in a classroom activity largely depends on emotional motives such as enthusiasm, optimism, and curiosity (cited in Kearney et al. 2016). Additionally, energy, interest, and effort all support the level of cognitive engagement of students. Thus, Self-regulated learning relates to the capacity to control one’s learning and develop knowledge surrounding one learning environment. By comparison, Bandura (1989) emphasizes students’ beliefs in their abilities to exercise influence over events that affect their lives are crucial to their sense of agency (cited in Vattøy & Gamlem, 2020). Furthermore, Kearney et al. (2016) indicate that the capacity to put goals, choose suitable arrangements to reach goals and control learning progress are examples of self-regulated learning behaviors. Braund & DeLuca (2018) assert that self- assessments are inherently metacognitive and can help students to recognize their strengths and needs. Similarly, Sadler (1989) presents the use of formative assessment as tools that enable teachers to identify the strengths and weaknesses of their students and to personalize their teaching methods accordingly.

Additionally, Zimmerman (2008) emphasizes that self-regulated learning includes metacognitive, motivational, and behavioral processes and principles in a proactive regulation of the learning process, (cited in Granberg et al. 2021). Also, Sadler (1989) indicates that self- assessments with a formative nature helps students to address their gaps and develop a better understanding of where their learning is in relation to the learning goal (cited in Braund &

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practice that has been represented to support students become self-regulated learners is to put the formative assessment into practice where the teacher collects evidence of the students’

learning and based on the specific learning needs, conforms instruction or feedback to match these needs. Likewise, Braund & DeLuca (2018) believe that students need formative assessment to receive feedback which helps them improve students’ metacognitive abilities and SRL behaviors; thus, students will be able to use the feedback to clarify their next steps and focus on their goals.

In addition, Braund & DeLuca (2018) and Granberg et al. (2021) present the relationship between feedback and self-regulation through engaging a model used by Zimmerman (2000) in their studies. Braund & DeLuca (2018) argue that SRL processes and accompanying beliefs go through three stages: forethought, performance or volitional control, and self-reflection. This model focuses on the three major phases of the SRL: forethought, performance control, and self-reflection.

· The forethought phase consists of all processes that work towards executing planned actions for instance (planning goals).

· The performance control includes any actions throughout the learning process such as self-control and the use of strategies.

The self-reflection phase consists of any reflective and evaluative thoughts that an individual has about their performance at the end of a learning period.

In comparison, Zimmerman (2000) identifies the development of SRL skills in a series of four developmental levels: observation, emulation, self-control, and self-regulation (cited in Granberg et al. 2021)

· Observation: through observing a teacher, a student can induce the basic characteristics of the skill. Therefore, the teacher should show the students how the skill can be performed and clarify why, when, and how to use the skill to support student development of SRL skills. This way of teaching aligns with Behaviorism, according to Säljö (2015).

· Emulation: in this level the student practices the skill, reflects over this practice, and receives guidance, feedback, and social reinforcement from the teacher.

· In Self-control, for example (Level 3) occurs when the students master the use of a skill in structured settings outside the presence of a model.

· Self-regulation: the teacher can structure such a practice and then reflect over the

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· Finally, the self-regulation level of an SRL skill (Level 4) can be achieved when the student gains the ability to systematically adjust their use of the task strategies to shift personal and contextual conditions and adjust based on outcomes. Then the teacher can reinforce the progress of such competencies by giving students opportunities and expectations to practice these skills and assist their self-assessment of the practices.

4.2.2.1 Influence of peer-assessment on students’ metacognition

Peer assessment motivates the student to become more responsible for the improvement of their performances and learning which results in active learning that leads to raising student’s awareness of metacognition and cognitive abilities. The curriculum for compulsory school (2018) emphasizes the importance of student participation and influence as follows: The democratic principles of being able to influence, take responsibility and be involved should cover all students where students are given influence over their education and continuously encouraged to take an active part in the work of further developing education and kept informed of issues that concern them. Peer assessment is helpful tool for students because it encourages them to focus on specific criteria and consider their peers’ achievement with the same standards that they are working toward, according to Braund & DeLuca (2018).

Dmoshinskaia et al. (2021) affirm that peer assessment is one of the fundamental strategies which has two characteristics– giving feedback to peers and receiving feedback from peers.

Pintrich & Zusho (2002) argue that the student will be able to self-regulate when s/he can control and monitor her/his learning through metacognitive abilities (cited in Braund &

DeLuca, 2018). This emphasizes the interrelation between the student’s performance and the student’s awareness of the assessment objectives. Wilson and Bai (2010) claim that students with considerable metacognitive abilities are successful because they comprehend approaches of effective learning (cited in Braund & DeLuca, 2018).

Correspondingly, Granberg et al. (2020) observed that scholars have realized that formative assessment techniques can help the student become an active agent of his/her learning and boost SRL and metacognition. According to Black and William (2009); Clark (2012), especially assessment-based activities, such as self-assessment and peer-assessment, goal setting, and reflection are thought to expand students’ metacognition (cited in Braund & DeLuca, 2018).

Dmoshinskaia et al. (2020) confirm that the associate students improved contemplation and self-assessment competencies through peer assessment, and they achieved more self-

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learned about writing from giving feedback while the peer assessment expanded their knowledge of audience and genre; besides, the content of the reviewed reply letters stimulated successive revision changes affecting writing at the macro-level in particular (structure). The peer-assessment activity offered a chance to shift roles where the student writers acted as readers which granted an opportunity to see their writing from a different perspective, according to Berggren (2014).

One should realize that the classroom climate influences peer assessment outcomes. On the one hand, Kearney et al. (2016) emphasize that the teacher has a major role in creating a classroom environment in which a few students may struggle with their competencies to overcome classroom difficulties, such as self-control in social situations, time-on-task assignments, and peer pressure. Such problems often induce peer exclusion and labelling, which decrease chances for authentic student-to-student interactions, hinder opportunities for favorable peer recognition, and negatively influence the perceptions of the teachers. On the other hand, Granberg et al. (2021) believe that students may also be the agents of these formative assessment practices through peer assessment and self-assessment, including feedback to their peers or themselves.

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4.3 Discussion

Despite the increasing focus on the central role that formative assessment plays in teaching and learning, our research shows that training program that aims to prepare the teacher to implement formative assessment is still uncommon especially in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) class. The results of the ten studies selected show also that teachers who have received sufficient training on how to implement formative assessment are more likely to have better practices in the classroom, which leads to better student performance, according to Fuller & Dawson (2017). Vygotsky states that cognitive skills develop through social interaction that includes collaboration and collaborative dialogue with someone more skilled at the tasks (cited in Säljö, 2015). Therefore, the effectiveness of the teacher-student and the student-student interactions are the driving force in the learning process.

Accordingly, this literature review confirms an interdependence between teachers’ perspectives and teachers’ practices of formative assessment and clarifies the gains that both teachers and students obtain from implementing the formative assessment in the classroom. It follows that formative assessment contributes to raising teachers' awareness of the effective use of the learning evidence which results in a better implementation of the assessment and leads to better student performance. Dewey emphasizes that learning activities must grow out of learners' existing knowledge and experience real education (Säljö, 2015). However, to accomplish a successful and meaningful formative assessment, teachers’ practices need to be checked regularly by drawing an analogy between formative assessment concept and teachers’ practices.

In addition, formative activities should be designed accordingly to activate students’

metacognition. Admittedly, some challenges encounter teachers while implementing formative assessment: the pressure of time and curricula in addition to the size of the classroom.

4.3.1 Teachers' knowledge about formative assessment regarding teachers' practices in the classroom

Teachers’ perspective of the importance of formative assessment, which is the product of teachers’ knowledge about formative assessment effectiveness in teaching/ learning, helps to bridge the gap between teachers’ perspective and the students’ perspective of formative

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classroom and to create active students. According to Bandura (1989), students’ beliefs in their capabilities to exercise influence over events that affect their lives are central to their sense of agency (cited in Vattøy & Gamlem, 2020). Similarly, Pragmatism advocates supporting students' development, helping students to develop new skills, adding to learners' understanding of the world, and preparing the students to become democratic citizens (cited in Säljö, 2015).

We conclude that teaching should aim to encourage students to improve interest in languages and culture and convey the benefits of language skills and knowledge to prepare the students to become active citizens, being able to adapt to different situations and communicate where all can be achieved by integrating formative assessment in the learning process. Besides, visualizing the student’s role is one of the basic aims of using the formative assessment that demands teachers’ knowledge of the function of the formative assessment. According to Skolverket (2018), students should also be prepared to be able to use different strategies for learning, understanding, being creative, and communicating. In fact, teachers’ knowledge about formative assessment affects teachers’ skills in implementing the formative assessment that enable the students to achieve the desired goals.

Importantly, based on the data of this review, some teachers’ attitudes toward formative assessment have improved which enhanced their practices in the classroom. Consequently, their students showed better results at the end of the year and even the teachers’ competencies in implementing the assessments have developed during the studies processes. This shows that teachers' knowledge of formative assessment directly influences teachers’ practices and students' performance and outcomes. Furthermore, some of the teachers discussed how they documented student learning which prompted them to reflect upon how they can modify their practices and debated how they can adjust their teaching to reinforce students' learning, according to Vattøy & Gamlem (2020). Furthermore, Braund & Deluca (2018) present that formative assessment helps teachers to develop the suitable tools of learning to assist in fostering students' learning and helping students become active agents. Similarly, Pragmatism suggests that teaching must be conducted in democratic working methods and prepare the students to actively participate in society (Säljö, 2015).

Moreover, through incorporating formative assessment into the teaching process and recycling process, the teacher can give the student new opportunities to exhibit his/her ability and

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to formative assessments so that they can strengthen students’ metacognition and self-regulated skills. Then, the student will be able to apply their new knowledge, enhance his/her ability, and use strategies to provide the teacher with new students' learning evidence. According to Granberg et al. (2021), the core of formative assessment is to enable teachers to support the student to become an active agent, motivated, and proficient in carrying out these processes.

Likewise, Skolverket (2018) recommends that the aim of teaching is to create the best conditions for the student's all-round development, thinking, and acquisition of knowledge where every student has the right to improve in school, to feel the joy of growth and experience the satisfaction that comes from making progress and overcoming difficulties.

In addition, creating a positive classroom environment is crucial to improve students' performances which is originally based on teachers' knowledge about how the implementation of formative assessment contributes to creating a learning atmosphere. Consequently, this leads to creating social interaction between student-teacher and student-to-student which leads to better students’ learning outcomes. According to Sociocultural Theory, learning happens during social interactions between individuals (cited in Säljö, 2015). Likewise, Vattøy & Gamlem (2020) emphasize that the relation between positive classroom climate and teacher sensitivity suggests that teacher’s social and academic responsiveness and sensitivity prosper from a positive climate characterized by a close relationship between teachers and students.

Furthermore, Kearney et al. (2016) assert that the essential/ dynamic role of the teacher is to participate in creating a classroom milieu and encouraging student’s behavior that is positively reflected in CCI (Classroom Climate Index). Because learning happens as a response to environmental stimuli, the student's act can be shaped through the process of operant conditioning, according to Säljö (2015). Thus, there should be consistency between the assessment and the area to be assessed. Vattøy & Gamlem, (2020) point out that the teacher’s practice of the assessment such as asking questions and giving feedback in informal assessment determines whether the students’ self-determination and self-regulation will be pushed forward or backward.

Nevertheless, several negative effects resulted from teachers' poor knowledge of formative

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formative assessment, several negative effects have emerged which indicate that these results are the outcomes of unconstructive, unclear, and unfair feedback which signals those teachers had no respect for students (cited in Lucarz, 2019). Also, Vattøy and Gamlem (2020) indicate that some difficulties showed up in supporting students’ internal feedback (new knowledge) and self-regulation while engaging students in prolonged feedback dialogues in the L2 which appeared to be a more basic challenge confronting EFL teachers. Contrary to the recommendation of Skolverket (2018) which emphasizes that teaching English should aim at helping the students to develop knowledge of the English language and have confidence in their capacity to communicate in different situations.

Moreover, establishing higher-order thinking (not only memorizing or restating facts), and metacognition in teacher-student interactions was another element that was very often neglected in the teacher-student interactions, according to Vattøy & Gamlem (2020). Therefore, teachers’

skills in executing formative assessment are necessary to define weaknesses the learners may not be able to identify through employing students' intuition so that the learner becomes aware of these deficiencies and fortifies them which leads to enhancing students’ metacognition.

4.3.2 The role of formative assessment in developing students’ metacognition

This literature review confirms the considerable benefits of incorporating formative assessment in supporting students’ metacognition through engaging students in different formative activities such as peer assessment and other formative activities. This literature review also clarifies the importance of formative assessment role in involving the students in the learning process which stimulates students’ metacognition and students earn self-regulated learning skills and become active learners. Braund & DeLuca (2018) confirm that the assessment is one of the teacher’s most important assignments; however, the implementation of the formative assessment depends not only on the teacher's perception but also on the student's understanding and this is in alignment with Skolverket (2018). This is largely manifested in the peer assessment activity and its role in stimulating student’s cognition and metacognition when interacting with peers. According to Sociocultural Theory, learners play an active role during learning and interacting with their teachers and their peers when engaging in activities such as

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Additionally, the coherence between the dialogue and questions asked is a demand as this has a major role in practicing the feedback that results in students trusting their foreign language abilities. Vattøy and Gamlem (2020) observe an interconnection aspect between the quality of feedback and instructional discourse. Therefore, the teacher must help the student to gain a broader knowledge and boost his/her metacognitive competence to enable the student to provide valid and meaningful feedback. This asserts that cognitive feedback has a clear influence on the reviewers' learning outcomes. Dmoshinskaia et al. (2021) point out that giving cognitive feedback is the only contribution to the reviewers’ learning outcomes. No doubt that students’ prior knowledge helps them learn through giving feedback. However, students’

metacognition needs to be strengthened by employing formative activities such as peer assessment to enable students to practice giving meaningful feedback.

Moreover, students' prior knowledge plays a fundamental role in learning through exchanging feedback with the peer which participates in raising students' metacognition level; secondly, by enhancing students' role in the classroom through engaging students in the learning process, and helping students develop analysis /judgment which leads to develop Self-regulation skills.

Similarly, Skolverket (2018) emphasizes that students should be given the ability to discuss and comment on content and details, as well as to learn strategies to solve problems and improve their interaction. Therefore, formative assessment aims to draw the teacher's attention to students' prior knowledge and to provide strategies to bring this knowledge to light. In addition, formative assessment helps eliciting the learning evidence by activating students' prior knowledge and promotes taking into consideration involving students in designing lesson planning which also stimulates students' metacognition and activates students’ self-regulated learning.

Thus, integrating formative assessment reinforces raising students’ metacognition through activating students' role. Likewise, Constructivism confirms the importance of a student's prior knowledge as a resource to build new experiences. According to Skolverket (2018), teachers should consider students' previous experience as an enriching resource; while Constructivism confirms that a student's prior knowledge is the focal point to build new knowledge (Säljö, 2019). In fact, through incorporating formative assessment practices in the teaching/learning process, student’s prior knowledge will be utilized and employed to reinforce student learning and provide continuous improvement to student's achievement in the classroom.

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Throughout this literature review, different training programs and educational tools such as CCI (Classroom Climate Index), Inquiry based-science, questionnaire based on a Likert scale, SRS (Student Response System) were incorporated to facilitate the implementation of formative assessment to help teachers engage students in formative classroom activities. This enabled teachers to help students control their learning environment by directing and regulating their actions towards their own learning goals which lead to improve students’ metacognition and obtain higher self-regulated learning. Fuller & Dawson (2017) indicate that the teachers learned how to use the SRS technology and related strategies to gather formative data and appropriately modify instruction to meet learners’ needs. Comparably, Kearney et al. (2016) clarify that to assess the elementary students' perceptions of climate in the classrooms, the CCI (Classroom Climate Index) can be used as a logical or valid tool. One can deduce that integrating similar opportunities.

Correspondingly, the European Commission (2007) emphasizes that “SRL skills are identified as necessary for personal fulfilment, active citizenship, social cohesion, and employability”

(cited in Kearney et al. 2016, p. 3). Williams, Aguilar-Roca, Tsai, Wong, Beaupr´e & O’Dowd (2011) claim that students’ SRL skills are considered essential to making high-quality teaching in large student groups possible (cited in Granberg et al. 2021). A common aim for incorporating such educational models is to establish student practice, student collegial support, (peer assessment) in addition to allow engagement of the students in classroom activities and to highlight the behavior of the supportive teacher in practice which all contribute to activating students’ metacognition and boost students’ self-regulated learning.

4.3.3 Challenges of the implementation of formative assessment

The use of formative assessment should enable teachers to give instant and ongoing feedback to improve student learning. Nevertheless, some teachers have been facing challenges such as the pressure of time and curriculum as well as the class size while implementing formative assessment.

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intervention while she was trying to involve students with the investigation without her intervention. In fact, students need time to test different things and discover new ideas. The adaptability of time and curriculum requirements appears to be a prevalent challenge among teachers in integrating formative assessment. According to Braund & Deluca (2018), many teachers confirm the benefits of giving students feedback; however, the need for specific, descriptive, and timely feedback was also discussed since this represents a challenge for most of the teachers. Also, the limitations reported by many teachers, who are participants in some of the ten incorporated studies, were lack of time to provide feedback, time to plan and enhance metacognition while maintaining all curricular expectations (Braund & Deluca, 2018).

Furthermore, Correia &Harrison (2020) identify that the time pressure is mainly associated with a tension between knowing that students need time to comprehend ideas and concepts and that at the same time the lesson has a certain rhythm that must be maintained. Moreover, Wallace and Kang (2004) assert that time and curriculum pressures are referred to as blocking the incorporation of more inquiry-based learning in science lessons (cited in Correia & Harrison, 2020). An embedded indication of time and curricula as pressures facing teachers while implementing formative assessment was mentioned too. Berggren (2014) suggests that peer review can be implemented effectively in school, despite the challenges in terms of demanding curricula and limited time. Despite the positive indication to the possibility of implementation of the assessment, the reference to time and curriculum as challenges to the teacher still exist.

Correia & Harrison (2020) also present time and curriculum pressures as factors challenging the implementation of inquiry and assessment conversations.

Obviously, as successful implementation of formative assessment requires time, teachers need to be given support and space to be able to implement the assessment. According to Harrison (2013); Harrison (2009), effective formative practice requires a complex development of classroom climate and teacher-student and student-student interactions and neither of these can be developed quickly nor evolve independently (cited in Correia & Harrison, 2020).

Additionally, to give away old routines and embrace new practices teachers need time and support to blend in and enclose new ideas into their existing practice, according to Correia &

Harrison (2020).

In Addition, formative assessment should include giving feedback after the assessment.

Degree Project with Specialization in English Studies and Education