Leaders Perception of Virtual communication

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Leaders Perception of Virtual

communication

-leadership and communication mediated through technology.

Master Thesis

Author: Adelina Zilkiqi, Panagiotis Tsolias Supervisor: Marianna Strzelecka

Examiner: Mikael Lundgren Term: VT 2020

Subject: Degree Project Level: Master

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Abstract

Technological developments have brought at the forefront the virtual communication in the business world. In our day and age it is difficult to find teams in organizations that do not rely in long distance communication even partially. Leaders bear the responsibility to secure quick and smooth transition of information among the members of their teams as well as to foster an environment that promotes trust and fuels motivation.

We conducted this exploratory case study using the abductive approach and the qualitative method. Our aim was to gain a better understanding on how the leaders perceive trust and motivation in a virtual communication setting. Therefore, we send out questionnaires to leaders that volunteered to participate in our study and we adopted the pragmatist philosophy in an attempt to provide valuable insights and practical recommendations to leaders that are managing teams in an electronic environment.

The results of our study suggest that leaders perceive the long distance communication mediated through technology to be something positive to the success of their teams as they consider it to actually increase efficiency, provide a more straightforward style of communication that enables their followers to take on more responsibility for the results of their work as well as an increase in productivity.

Key words

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Acknowledgments

We would like to express our gratitude to our supervisor Marianna Strzelecka who contributed with valuable opinions and guided us through this study.

We would like to express our gratitude to the participant who contributed to this master thesis by answering our questionnaire.

We would like to thank our program coordinator and our examiner Mikael Lundgren for his advice and guidance throughout the whole year.

At last, we would like to thank our student

colleagues and opponents who have taken the time to read and analyze our thesis and contributed with valuable opinions

Yours sincerely,

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1 Introduction

Archaic forms of long distance communication relied on various methods such as: runners, riders on horseback and homing pigeons. (Green, 2014). Although these methods proved to be practical and effective, to a certain extent, they lacked the speed and the consistency that is required for fast and reliable communication. Messengers faced dangers that sometimes prevented or delayed them from carrying out their missions as they would often have to travel long distances alone and through dangerous areas (Cybulskie, 2014). Important messages during war time would also fail to be delivered on time when war pigeons were shot down by enemy fire (Alter, 2018). Failure to delivering a message is obviously detrimental but a delay can also prove to be problematic especially in times of war as the recipient of the message would have to consider how much time had passed from the writing of the message to having it delivered as a significant time delay due to transportation difficulties could have already rendered the context of the massage inaccurate or irrelevant.

The invention of the telegraph overcame the problems that previous forms of communication had by providing almost instantaneous delivery of information. However, this revolutionary technology did suffer from other limitations such as the need for people to know the Morse code, the limited access to operators as some places did not have wires installed and the length and quality of the messages since the messages needed to be short and precise which meant that the nuance of verbal queues was missing (Johnson, 2017). Fortunately with the invention of the telephone and later on with its gradual spread over the world it became the primary tool for long distance communication while other forms of communication that were widely accepted and considered reliable including its predecessor, the telegraph, started to become obsolete (Rowley, 2013).

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2(59) the widespread of the smartphones has really made it possible for anyone and from anywhere to send messages with extraordinary audio and video quality. We leave in an unprecedented era where the sender and the receiver can exchange tremendous amounts of information from anywhere in the world within a few seconds.

1.1 Background

The electronic communication is about to undergo massive changes for the entire world in the coming years with the introduction of internet-beaming satellites. Companies such as SpaceX, OneWeb and Telesat have already satellites orbiting our planet providing high speed internet to select areas around the world. SpaceX, led by Elon Musk, an ambitious pioneer is already planning to expand the number of satellites to include the entire globe and it is estimated that the project will be complete as early as 2021 (Edwards, 2020). Amazon, with project Kuiper, a more recent addition to the race for global internet, is also planning to launch its low orbiting satellites in an attempt to provide internet to every corner of the world (Caleb, 2019).

High-speed internet improves communications and connects people that were previously unable to do so due to the poor transfer of this technology to less economically developed regions of the world. For the business world, a better infrastructure for internet-based communication provides businesses with the value of being able to access the most skilled and competent employees around the world and expand their options beyond the local job market, or just being able to hire those that have the ability to relocate or commute (Kawashima, 2019). “Businesses frequently view workers as possessing distinct

functionalities in the organization. These „human resources‟ are increasingly deployed on a global scale, differentiated by their expertise, physical and career mobility‟‟ (ibid:488).

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3(59) time to perform managerial tasks, take on more assignments to boost their carriers and save expenses for the companies

The emergence of the virtual environment has progressively enabled businesses and organizations to access skilled employees around the globe. In virtual communication „‟knowledge-sharing platforms have become ubiquitous within organizations, and have

become central to problem-solving in multi-location, geographically dispersed office‟‟

(Colbert et al., 2016:735). Scholars of leadership and management refer to members of the virtual working environment as the digital workforce. Within the context of the digital workforce the younger generation of individuals are referred to as „‟digital natives‟‟ whereas older generation of individuals as „‟digital immigrants (ibid). This distinction of digital workers refers to the habits and usage of technology in society. Colbert et al (2016:731) argue that digital natives „‟cannot remember the first time they accessed the

Internet. They are completely at home in the world of digital devices and rely heavily on technology for learning, communicating, and entertainment‟‟, while the digital immigrants

are seen as individuals ‟‟ who have rapidly adopted technology as it has become available

- are increasingly comfortable with and reliant on technology‟‟ (ibid: 731). Digital fluency

is referred to as the abilities, competencies and qualities one develops using and interacting with technology „' those who are digitally fluent have achieved a level of

proficiency that allows them to manipulate information, construct ides, and use technology to achieve strategic goals‟(ibid, 2016:732).

Individuals with high level of digital fluency may develop skills that can be of value within the context of digital workforce. To illustrate, it is discussed that individuals who play online videogames may develop leadership skills such as strategic thinking, managing limited resources, resolving conflicts and organizing teams for task accomplishments:

“Managing conflict in the context of high diversity and limited resources is as difficult in an online games it is in the world of work” (Colbert et al., 2016:731). Digital natives are

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1.1.1 Contemporary challenges of virtual communication

2020 is the pandemic of the coronavirus (Covid-19) or severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS-CoV-2) that has made working from a distance mandatory for millions of people around the world that are able to do so (Banjo et al., 2020). This is likely to further increase the rate in which people work from home as the number of teleworkers can remain high on a permanent basis, meaning the results can be retained even after the virus has regressed as companies and the employees themselves get used to working under those conditions and eventually see the benefits that can be reaped under those circumstances (Brenan, 2020). Given the current context of evolving pandemic, virtual communication has become nearly a mandatory for businesses to survive these difficult time (Craven et al., 2020).

One of the components for good virtual communication is trust; trust is considered to be “the glue of the global workplace” (Marlow et al., 2017:580). When trust exists, colleagues rely on each other; they rely on that everyone will complete their responsibilities and do their tasks to achieve the common goals (ibid). Reduced trust within team members affects the quality of virtual communication (Greenberg et al., 2007). Communication affects trust, which in turn affects the quality of communication. The presence of trust will thereafter lead to desired collective outcomes within the virtual context (Marlow et al. 2017).

Marlow et al., (2017) argue that the process of establishing trust is not simple. They argue that face to face communication is necessary if the prevalence of trust is to take place within the virtual context. Thereafter, once trust is established virtual teams may reach a level of good communication (ibid). Communication is paramount for trust, and vice versa, i.e. communication helps establish trust, and trust enhances and preserves the quality of communication within the virtual context (ibid).

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5(59) other team processes and activities happen. Communication between highly virtual and collocated teams differs; highly virtual teams may primarily rely on technology-mediated communication, while collocated teams can utilize face to face communication and technology mediated communication (ibid).

1.2 Knowledge gap

In virtual leadership both experiences and perceptions are important to understand. As for instance Kelley and Kelloway (2012:437) have in their study investigated “the relationship

between leadership factors/behaviors and perception of leadership and the relationship of these to individual outcomes in an environment characterized by physical distance”. In

their study they focus on the perception of the behavior of leadership and the effect on individual outcomes in a virtual working environment. We in our research focus on the leaders‟ perception of the quality of the virtual communication process. Since leadership and the leader is described as vital components of the virtual context, it is not only interesting but necessary to study the leaders perception of communication in the virtual context.

Leadership is often defined as the art of influencing, building relationships, developing and uplifting others through communication (De Pree, 2014; Bennis, 2009; Gardner, 2011). Hence, in a traditional perspective, leaders should be able to influence, inspire, practice integrity and build trust (ibid). Contemporary literature stemming from this traditional approach stresses that leadership involves a change in values and attitudes (Bennis, 2009). Building trust and good work relationships is essential for efficiency and performance. De Pree says (2004:116) “we must trust one another to be accountable for

our assignments”. He attaches great importance in trust-based relationships, diversity

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6(59) achieving particular goals and outcomes (ibid). At its core, being a leader involves development of relationships through communication. (Avolio & Kahai, 2003). In the present time communication mediated through technology is increasingly used by companies to enable work at a distance. Leaders that are separated through physical distance from their followers are required to lead individuals that they have never met (ibid). Research has shown that leadership is an important predictor of both individual and team outcomes, and much of this research assumes that individuals interact with their leaders and group members on a face to face basis (ibid). Due to that assumption, most of the leadership research still focuses on face-to-face interaction settings (Kelley & Kelloway, 2012). Thus, attention is steadily shifting to a more distant style of interaction between leaders and followers and there has not been a great amount of research focusing in uncovering the problems that derive from such situations (ibid). Whether connected via information technology or not, leaders have to build relationships in order to lead effectively (Avolio & Kahai, 2003).

Advantages and disadvantages of digitalization and virtual leadership have not been clearly determined, leaving this area open for different interpretations. Neufeld et al (2010:231) investigated whether “distant leaders in comparison to proximal leaders may have greater

difficulty in achieving high levels of communication effectiveness”. In conclusion their

results revealed that “distance” between leaders‟ and followers‟ is not necessarily affecting efficiency of virtual communication or leadership. Thus, the authors have speculated whether findings of their study are influenced because of the fact that the leaders and followers were familiar already established relationships with each other long before they started to work together virtually (ibid). In regards to this study, one cannot deny nor neglect the complexity of conceptualizing virtual leadership.

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7(59) Kuscu (2016) draws attention to the challenges faced in a virtual working environment. Initially, he refers to the potential resistance of managers that may occur e.g. reluctance to adjust under the new and more flexible working environment, increased suspicion towards employees and doubtfulness about whether they will perform their work task correctly. Another demonstrated problem with virtual leadership is insufficient communication;

”working across organizational boundaries introduces communication and motivational problems” (Kuscu, 2016: 140). When the leader experiences doubts and suspicion,

concerns for greater supervision of the employees occur. Lack of confidence in virtual leadership affects the quality of the virtual working environment. This, in turn, can contribute to lower levels of motivation and trust (ibid). In addition, Khan (2016) stress that the use of technology communication can, due to the absence of physical face-to-face

interactions, have negative effects on leadership creating a sense

of disconnectedness among leaders and followers.

What can be the reason for lower quality communication in the workplace? According to Kuscu (2016:138) the problem stems from the fact that ”managers have recently

encountered a mode of management to which they are not accustomed”. The reason for

this is that virtual leadership is considered to be a new environment where existing pieces of advice, concepts, and recommendations on leadership might be insufficient (ibid). This is predicated on the assumption that ”leaders cannot simply lead virtually the same as

they do in face-to-face situations” (Kelley & Kelloway, 2012:437). Despite this,

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8(59) Consequently, as the use of digitalization has no turning point ”changing, enabling and

creating new ways of communication, leading, working and existing as individuals, organizations, and societies, further research in this area is highly recommended” (Khan,

2016:41).

We would like to point out that a recommendation for further investigation has not passed us by, whether or not this is the reality for all business across the globe, one can agree that digitalization has a tremendous impact and is a vital component for business and organizations within all sectors (Khan, 2016). Due to the nature of this social phenomenon coherent formulation of this area is required but, at the time of writing, it is still non-existing. (Beckerman, 2015). In the context of virtual workforce, it has been argued that quality of communication is reduced when people are physically apart, creating incorrect perception between the people who are working together (Kelley & Kelloway, 2012). Studying the virtual environment and the quality of the virtual communication is important, since today's perception is that virtual environment may create a sense of ambiguity, and decreased face-to-face communication between leaders and followers, and team members may lead to feelings of uncertainty (Kelley & Kelloway 2012; Antonakis & Atwater 2002). Secondly, given the current global situation of Covid-19, business and organizations around the globe are in need of practical understanding and knowledge that can help improve communication, redefine current working norms and make virtual communication and work practical whenever possible (Craven et al., 2020).

1.3 Significance of the study

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1.4 Research aim

The authors aim is to clarify which factors affect the leader‟s perceptions of quality in a virtual communication setting as well as to provide practical suggestions on what leaders can do to improve the aforesaid quality.

1.5 Research Questions

RQ: How do leaders perceive the quality of virtual communication?

Sub question: Which are the factors that affect the leader‟s perceptions of quality in virtual

communication?

1.6 Delimitations

In our research we decided to focus on leaders and study their perception of virtual communication. We chose to include individuals who have some form of leading position i.e. directors, managers or team leaders. We were not searching for any specific industries or sectors. We chose to include leaders from both the private and public sector. The only requirement we had was that they were conducting some level of virtual management/leadership.

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2 Literature review

2.1 Leadership

Vast amounts of literature on leadership offers a plethora of leadership definitions or as Stogdill (1974:7) noted: ”There are almost as many different definitions of leadership as

there are persons who have attempted to define the concept”. However, given leadership is

a complex and ever evolving phenomenon it is still examined and researched by practitioners and scholars today. McGregor (1978:2) saw ”leadership is one of the most

observed and least understood phenomena on earth”. Today, leadership can be viewed as

a social phenomenon of interpersonal influence of meanings, ideas, understandings and beliefs (Alvesson et. al., 2017; Smircich & Morgan, 1982), where leaders exercise their influence through communication and traits that they embody (Gardner, 2011). Smircich & Morgan (1982:258) claim that ”leadership is realized in the process whereby one or more

individuals succeed in attempting to frame and define the reality of others”.

To understand this subject, we adopt the following definition: ”Leadership is the process

of influencing others to understand and agree about what needs to be done and how to do it, and the process of facilitating individual and collective efforts to accomplish shared objectives.” (Yukl, 2010:8). It is clear by now that communication plays a vital role in

successful leadership.

According to Max De Pree (2004) the leader‟s social aptitudes and behavioral qualities that are expressed through communication are of paramount importance when it comes to leading in a constantly dynamic environment where relationship plays a key role to success. He argues that: ”There may be no single thing more important in our efforts to

achieve meaningful work and fulfilling relationships than to learn and practice the art of communication” (ibid: 108). The author brings at the forefront the idea of the ”servant

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11(59) responsibilities and ownership of their actions and decisions as it enhances the intimacy with their work and enables them to become more committed as well as increase their motivation for further initiative. Another important factor that he mentions is the idea of creating a diverse environment where ideals such as respect, civility, rationality and trust can flourish. The sense of trust among the members of a team can be greatly increased when the leader acknowledges the fact that the followers are volunteers that have formed covenantal relationships (ibid). The meaning behind that point of view is that leaders should function under the assumption that people have a desire and a need to work and perform their tasks without supervision.

2.2 The role of a leader in a company

The role of a leader is to provide and maintain good standards by e.g. influencing meaning, ideas, values and emotions that will secure a better future (Alvesson et al., 2017). There are various types of leadership and the role that the leader adopts depends to a large extent on his or her strengths and weaknesses, the followers, and what the organization actually needs. The role of the leader, however, blends with that of the manager when it comes to the daily activities (ibid). ”When the focus is less on meaning and more on behavior, rules,

output and other issues, leadership is not a productive term to use. This is broadly in line with most of the literature which tries to distinguish leadership from management”

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12(59) A manager's success in leadership is subject to and greatly influenced by his or her ability to support, inspire and motivate the people in an organization to work together (Nordengren & Olsen, 2006). Leaders influence how followers interact with each other, leaders have the ability to engender and increase interaction among team members. Increased team confidence leads to a greater exchange of knowledge between the team members (Lee et al., 2010). The role of the leader is to help followers reach a common ground where they can both learn with and from each other (ibid). Furthermore motivating employees is always important, if not even more important in a virtual working environment (Nordengren & Olsen 2006). Thus, it is also imperative that leaders thrive to inspire and motivate themselves as well. One cannot lead if one does not find joy in it (ibid). ”Long-distance leaders must lead by example. It may sound trivial, but it is just like

with child-rearing, - people do what you do and not what you say” (ibid:71). Focusing on

the ”soft aspects” of the communication spectrum is important. A leader should be prestigious, responsive, and open with the employees. (ibid).

2.3 Communication skills in virtual leadership

Without communication there is no relationship, virtual team must therefore establish good relationship with their teams (Kuscu, 2014). He/she must be aware of their differences, e.g. cultural features and personal characteristics and not assume that can be approached in the same way (ibid). Communication and interactions in a virtual setting vary to a greater extent compared to the face-to-face work setting. Leaders and members of the virtual environment cannot make use of non-verbal cues, such as body language, gestures, and mimics (Kuscu, 2016). ”An e-leader must possess such skills, features, and behaviors

different from conventional leaders so that he may catch the hearts and brains of those who follow him” (Kuscu 2016:138). The virtual working environment is described as more

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13(59) Additionally, Nordengren & Olsen (2006) argue that success in virtual environments is based and dependent on mutual trust. Trust among leaders and followers can be established through good communication. Establishing trust through virtual communication involves ”checking in on the employees” through mail, phone, or video calls (ibid). Reaching a quality level of communication with employees is one of the most important tasks in virtual leadership (ibid). There is no ”one size fits all” solution as not everyone could or should be approached in the same way and the leader is the one that has to find the optimal way of reaching out to someone (ibid).

Implementing frequent and constructive interactions must be a priority on a leader‟s agenda in the virtual working environment (Nordengren & Olsen, 2006). Leaders are pivotal for building trust and enabling good communication. Strong communication encourages open discussions and allows room for diverse opinions, making employees comfortable expressing their thoughts. Leaders create a framework for effective and strong communication. This type of communication is important for any team structure, especially, if not more important, for virtual teams (ibid). The leader‟s communication skills are viewed as a determining factor for encouraging open virtual communication

”managers can help team members build trusting relationships by encouraging non-work related communication by team members” (Daim et al., 2012:207).

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2.4 Motivating followers through leadership

Motivation generates job satisfaction, enables more independence in work and is the driving force for the followers‟ self-responsibility in the virtual context. (Nordengren & Olsen, 2006). Hence, Nordengren & Olsen (2016) mention that there is however existing critique claiming that motivating leaders are not necessary, and that followers working in a virtual environment are expected to work independently. Given the fact that they can work flexibly, it is considered that motivation from the leader is not needed since self-responsibility is their driving force (ibid). Critics assume that leadership is not necessary for motivation and that a leader‟s ability to motivate people is not important (ibid). Nordengren & Olsen (2006) address these assumptions by taking a stand and claiming that motivation is one of the cornerstones for virtual communication. Motivation is the unifying force, where the virtual leader is the one who bears the responsibility for motivating followers.

Gilley et al., (2009) found that leaders ability to motivate is one of the key factors for organizational change as it improves productivity. Motivation is seen as a catalyst that points us towards a certain direction (ibid). The leader‟s ability to motivate followers is important in the virtual context. His or her ability to influence others towards a common goal shows signs of his or her skills to motivate (ibid). Motivation engenders effective communication and generates greater commitment to work. Predictors of motivation include job satisfaction, flexibility, and overall perceived satisfaction with both the leader and the working environment (Gilley et al., 2009).

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2.5 Global virtual teams and virtual communication

Existing virtual leadership literature emphasizes global teams that are dispersed in different countries and time zones. The existing framework of global virtual teams (GVT) has been of importance for our study, helping us conceptualize the context of virtual leadership and increase the understanding of the study.

Global Virtual Teams (GVT) refers to members of a virtual environment, geographically dispersed in different countries (Blomqvist & Nordstrand, 2018). ”GVTs are dependent on

a functioning and reliable IT-infrastructure and how without functioning technology, GVTs will have a hard time being successful in global operations” (ibid: 30). Moreover, it has

been argued that virtual leadership can engender stress among both followers and leaders (Blomqvist & Nordstrand 2018; Beckerman 2015). Leaving followers with emotional distress and performance anxiety as they believe they must impress constantly since their leader cannot see them (ibid). Findings of the data collected by Blomqvist & Nordstrand (2018) show that ”distance” between leaders and followers causes challenges for interpersonal interactions ”such as not having the opportunity to receive direct feedback or

have a daily dialogue with one‟s supervisor” (Blomqvist & Nordstrand, 2018:52). Issues

related to virtual leadership are considered to be challenging. It is often a more complex working environment than what leaders are used to (Blomqvist & Nordstrand 2018; Beckerman 2015). A leader‟s lack of commitment will sequentially lead to a lack of motivation and encouragement; this in turn will have an impact on the follower‟s performance. A leader‟s lack of commitment and bleak perception of virtual communication is likely to impact and affect the followers negatively. (Blomqvist & Nordstrand, 2018).

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16(59) Nevertheless, communication within the organizational context is described as a process that helps people who work together achieve desirable outcomes (ibid). A common feature in contemporary research is the attention on the frequency, measuring the volume of communication taking place among teams in a virtual setting. Increased or higher volume of communication does not necessarily transform the quality of communication (ibid). Nevertheless, arguments for and against differ; hence one shall not condemn frequency as a negative factor of communication (ibid).

How often, or how much people communicate is still determined, if anything it is important for the initial phase of team formation ”communication frequency is recognized

to serve an integral role in team development and functioning, especially in the beginning of a team's life cycle” (Marlow et al., 2017:577). Thus, one must discern between the

”build-up phase” of the team and the phase that comes after, when team members have reached a certain level of acquaintance (ibid). Quantity in the former phase is a determining factor for building good communication, and in the latter not so. High frequency of communication within the more ”established” teams is not always predominant for the quality of communication (ibid). Communication frequency may sometimes impede the quality of communication and performance (ibid). Increased virtual communication ”is likely to take the form of a high volume of emails or a high volume of

messages via another virtual method” (ibid:578). A balance between quantity and quality

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3 Conceptual framework

3.1 Virtual Leadership

Although research has clearly demonstrated that leadership in a virtual environment is of great importance (Zimmermann, Wit & Gill, 2008) it still remains an under-explored subject (Collinson, 2005). According to Kane et al. (2019) there is a digital disruption that leaders have to face when it comes to remote leadership. This disruption creates challenges such as an ”increased pace of doing business, the shift in organizational culture, the need

for flexible and distributed workplace, and greater expectations of productivity” (ibid,

2019: 35). Leaders need to develop additional traits that will help them overcome those problems and become more effective (ibid).

For the reason that face-to-face situations are not exactly similar with virtual communication, leaders cannot use the same tactics and strategies when leading (Hambley et al., 2007a; Zaccaro et al., 2004). Effective virtual leaders need to understand the importance of conducting regular one-on-one meetings with their followers and encourage frequent communication within the organization (Hambley et al., 2007a). Studies conducted on members for both proximal and virtual teams suggested that prior knowledge among members can have a drastic effect on trust, performance and member satisfaction (Alge et al. 2003). Therefore, in situations where the leader can actually meet with his or her followers it is recommended to do so as it has not only been proven that prior experience with a leader can have an effect on performance (Waldman et al. 2001), but also that limited face-to-face interactions can cause a leader to perceive and evaluate more negatively the long distance employees (Judge & Ferris, 1993).

3.2 Virtual Leadership and Motivation

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internal and external forces that initiate work-related behavior, and determine its form, direction, intensity and duration”.

According to Reeve (2005) it is apparent that no theory can explain all the components that are involved in motivation and, therefore, theories that explained parts of it emerged. The expectancy theory assumes that employees are motivated by personal growth ”to the extent

they believe they can do something that will result in a desired outcome” (Kroth, 2007:10).

People are motivated by rewards rather than contribution to the common goal. Not everyone is motivated in the same way; motivational research argues that employee‟s perception on how much the organization values them influences their personal motivation (ibid). Kroth (2007:11) describe that ”perceived organizational support (POS)” is a factor that determines if followers feel they are being appreciated by their leaders. When employees believe that they receive sufficient support from the leader, or believe that the leader cares for their wellbeing, employees are more likely to feel motivated and perform better (ibid).

McGregor (1960) tested two different theories based on motivation, theory X and theory Y. The underlying principle of theory X was that employees are not inherently motivated to work and therefore require constant supervision, while theory Y pointed to the opposite, that workers, under the right circumstances are motivated and willing to contribute to the success of the organization they work for. The findings of his research showed that the managers who behaved under the beliefs of theory Y were more successful leaders when it came to increasing their follower‟s performance (McGregor, 1960).

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19(59) to become social exchanges and adopt a more informal character where personal and professional information is shared (ibid). A high quality relationship includes loyalty, trust, respect and emotional obligation (Burns & Otte, 1999; Gerstner & Day, 1997; Graen & Novak, 1982). There seems to be a consensus among researchers that leading in virtual teams is harder than the traditional face-to-face teams (Bell & Kozlowski, 2002; Cohen & Gibson, 2003; Hoch & Kozlowski, 2014).

Due to the fact that distance between leaders and followers exists it is more demanding for informal communication to be established that would enhance their relationship (Bell & Kozlowski, 2002; Cohen & Gibson, 2003; Hoch & Kozlowski, 2014). Therefore it is more common for leaders to have lower quality relationships with their virtual teams. This is because leaders are demanded to expend more resources like time and effort in order to manage the various tasks of the virtual teams, build relationships and expedite the working procedures (Bell & Kozlowski, 2002; Purvanova & Bono, 2009; Tyran, & Shepherd, 2003; Zigurs, 2003).

3.3 Virtual Leadership and Trust

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20(59) Trust among the members of a team is considered to be a key component for effectiveness (McAllister, 1995). Leadership has been considered to be the most decisive component of trust building (Burke et al., 2007) as well as a facilitator of team trust (Lee, 2010). There are myriads of definitions of trust, however for the purpose of this study we adopt the definition coined by Mayer et al., (1995:712), who wrote that trust is: ”the willingness of a

party to be vulnerable to the actions of another party based on the expectation that the other party will perform a particular action important to the trustor, irrespective of the ability to monitor or control the other party”.

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3.4 Virtual Leadership and Social Capital

Social capital is defined as social relationship and source for social action (Wei et al., 2011). ”Social capital--understood roughly as the goodwill that is engendered by the

fabric of social relations and that can be mobilized to facilitate action” (Adler & Kwon,

2002:17). Goodwill refers to the trust and forgiveness offered by a closely connected group of people that we call friends or acquaintances, in organizational context goodwill is understood as good working relationships (ibid).

There are multiple definitions of social capital, the definitions that follows focus on the relationship between people in an organizational context. Social capital is defined as:

“The ability of people to work together for common purposes in groups and organizations” (Fukuyama, 1995:10).

“Features of social organization such as networks, norms, and social trust that facilitate coordination and cooperation for mutual benefit” (Putnam, 1995: 67).

“The web of cooperative relationships between citizens that facilitate the resolution of collective action problems” (Brehm & Rahn, 1997:99).

Social capital explains the relation among individuals within a community, unity, and/or organization, linking individuals and/or groups to pursue a common goal (Adler & Krown, 2002). The scientific community makes a distinction between the external and internal views of social capital; the external view focuses on relations ”outside the organization” and the internal view on relations ”inside the organization” (ibid). External relations are the ”bridging” forms of social capital whereas internal relations are the ”bonding” forms of social capital (Adler & Crown, 2002) for this study; we shed light on the internal relations among people who work together.

According to Bourdieu (1997:51) social capital is ”the aggregate of the actual or potential

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each of its members with the backing of collectively-owned capital”. The longer a leader

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4 Method

4.1 Research philosophy

”The term research philosophy refers to a system of beliefs and assumptions about the development of knowledge” (Saunders et al., 2016:124). Our research philosophy is based

on pragmatism. ”Pragmatism asserts that concepts are only relevant where they support

action” (Kelemen & Rumens 2008). When undertaking a research a pragmatist

understands that there is no single way of interpreting reality since there are multiple realities and therefore multiple points of view. The pragmatist will look for credible and reliable data that can advance his or her research, ”a pragmatist, research starts with a

problem, and aims to contribute practical solutions that inform future practice” (Saunders

et al., 2016:143).

We adopted a social constructivist approach as it ”assumes that people construct their

social realities, with both the participants and the researcher‟s interpretations being socially constructed” (Saunders et al. 2016:598). The main focus understands the

perceptions of leaders through their beliefs and behaviors. For that matter our research philosophy is based on the social constructivism approach which states that reality is constructed from both the participants end the researcher‟s interpretations and is not discovered. (Saunders et al. 2016).

Social constructivism is an interpretive framework whereby individuals seek to understand their world and develop their own particular meanings that correspond to their experience (Creswell, 2013). These meanings are not etched or innate within each individual. Rather, meanings are formed through interaction with others (Creswell, 2013).

4.2 Research design and approach

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24(59) has not been studied extensively in previous studies we found the exploratory research to be more suitable for shedding light on it as this method seeks to understand the cause and effect relationships of various aspects within a phenomenon (Cameron & Price, 2009). More specifically this study is an exploratory research in the social science.

Our research approach is a combination of the inductive and the deductive reasoning called abduction. Initially we collected data in order to explore the leaders‟ perception in a virtual environment. We identified themes and patterns. Afterwards we created a conceptual framework in order to test the data gathered by gathering more data through a questionnaire with open-ended questions. For our research we have adopted a qualitative methodology as we study leaders experience and perception of virtual communication. According to Leung (2015:324), ”the essence of qualitative research is to make sense of

an recognize patterns among words to build up a meaningful picture without compromising its richness and dimensionality”. The qualitative approach is feasible for

our research since our main aim was to study the perception of leaders when they conduct their duties using virtual communication.

4.3 Thematic Analysis

We used the Thematic Analysis to code the data we received from the questionnaires. According to Braun & Clarke (2006:78) this style of analysis is referred to as the

”foundational method for qualitative analysis” and it uses coding to create themes of the

qualitative data gathered. This style of analysis provides rich descriptions that help the researchers to theories (Braun & Clarke, 2006). Thematic Analysis assist researchers to identify patterns or themes in the data collected (Saunders et al., 2016). The thematic analysis is a flexible method and ”the reason why you may use the thematic analysis

irrespective of your position relates to its development as a standalone analytical technique or process, rather than being part of a theoretically mounted methodological approach” (ibid, 2016:579). Our research takes an abductive approach, for this reason we

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25(59) thematic analysis method commences with analyzing the theoretically-derived themes, and if needed, those themes can be modified or added while the researchers explore their data. (Saunders et al. 2016).

A ”step by step” procedure is recommended to commence with the researchers familiarizing themselves with the data, searching for patterns and themes, coding the data, and lastly redefining and reviewing the themes. This helps the researchers draw meanings of the analyzed data (Saunders et al., 2016). Considering the amount of data gathered and the time we had available for our research we concluded that coding our data manually versus using a data analysis software was the best approach. Besides, having an abductive approach gave us the flexibility to use the data gathered to re-examine our research questions and consequently the aim of our study. According to Saunders et al. (2016:582) ”The process of coding allows you to link units of data that refer to the same aspect or

meaning, or to link aspects or meanings that you want to compare and contrast” . The

codes that we used were “a priori” meaning that they derived from already existing theory found in the literature as our research started with its extensive review from which we gained insights on the issues of virtual leadership and the current concepts related to it that we found interesting. After we collected all the answers from the leaders we had sent the questionnaires to, we read their answers carefully and identified the common themes that emerged through the texts. We subsequently grouped sentences based on the patterns that we detected that corresponded to the themes that we aimed to explore thus this is how we coded the data.

4.4 Data collection and sampling

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26(59) informed them that further time would be granted if necessary. Four of the participants work within the public sector and the remaining two within the professional service sector and the telecommunications sector. The questions were constructed approaching themes from concepts within the literature review and the research questions. At the beginning we wanted to include followers and leaders but since we had not much time we decided to only go for leaders because we find that studying the leader‟s point of view would be more interesting. Since we were interested in leaders perception, we did not look for a certain industry as we also felt that this would limit the pool of potential interviewees significantly.

According to Saunders et al. (2016:297) ”many research textbooks simply recommend

continuing to collect qualitative data,[…], until data saturation is reached” and they

recommend from five to twenty five interviews for sufficient results. For our data collection we opted for a purposive sampling as we selected leaders that we considered to be rather informative. According to Neumann (2005) this style of data collection is appropriate when working with small sample sizes. Even though we managed to question six leaders and five out of six of them had a positive disposition towards virtual leadership, we cannot claim that data saturation was reached as there are more variables that can be tweaked (virtuality continuum, leader experience) and questions added or changed to provide more details and depth to the leader‟s answers. Therefore, we cannot generalize our findings and say that this sample of leaders is ”big enough” to represent leaders perception in general. With our case study we are only contributing to ”opening” the door for future researchers who also want to take this path.

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27(59) Leader 1 Team Leader/Executive officer within an organization of Public service

Leader 2 Team Leader/Executive officer within an organization of Public service

Leader 3 Team Leader/Executive Officer within the Public sector

Leader 4 Team Leader/Executive Officer within the Public sector

Leader 5 Director within the professional service sector

Leader 6 Director within the telecommunication sector.

Table 1: Participant of the self-completed questionnaire

4.5 Defining conceptual framework.

Defining and clarifying concepts used in a research is necessary. A defined conceptual framework helps the reader understand the subject of matter your study. It is important to remember that you will find more than one definitions and ”if you try to use all the

definitions in your dissertation, neither you nor the reader will ever be quite sure what you mean when you use the term” (Fisher, 2010:140). Therefore the chosen framework and

chosen definitions for our concepts are appropriate for the scope of our study, extending the definitions would as suggested by Fisher (2010) only confuse the reader.

4.6 Research Quality

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participants in a particular setting at the time it is conducted” (Saunders et al., 2016:205).

Although, the findings of our research can lead to generalizations in cases where the settings are analogous or when the information or practical implications of the research can be applicable to different settings (Buchanan 2012).

The literature that we used to provide the theoretical understandings and insights was research prior to its usage not only for its relevance to our study and answering our research question but also for its validity and legitimacy as we wanted to make certain that all the information included would promote the credibility of our research. We made sure to present our sources with transparency by including the names of the authors we used as references as well as the year of their works publications.

Additionally, by following the guidelines and the academic recommendations from our university and the literature we managed to form our research design and figure out the optimal point of view or research philosophy and conducted our study according to them. We also used the same path when we established, the data collection method, the coding and the analysis that we were going to use. Our findings and the final analysis were carefully interpreted through our conceptual framework.

Our self-completed questionnaire consisted of fifteen open questions. Saunders et al (2016: 453) state that open questions are ”useful if you are unsure of the response, such as in

exploratory research, when you require a detailed answer, when you want to find out what is uppermost in the respondent‟s mind or do not wish to list all possible answers” Since we

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29(59) reliability and validity of the data collected (ibid). In the initial stage of our study, we discussed other alternatives i.e. in-depth or semi-structured interviews.

Sequentially, because of the ongoing situation (pandemic), we experienced difficulties in arranging and finding participants that were willing to take part in in-depth interviews. We were aware that this way of collecting data might impact the reliability and validity of the data.

Next step was ensuring that essential data was collected through our questions (Saunders et al., 2016). Relevant theory and key concepts in the literature assisted us to develop questions that we thought were good enough to collect the essentials i.e. leaders perception of the virtual communication. Saunders et al., (2016) discuss this in terms of developing accurate questions. After collecting our data we were relatively satisfied with the findings. Despite the challenges described, we were able to answer our research questions. Worth mentioning is that if we had more time at our disposal, we would have sent follow up questions to some of the participants. In conclusion, our developed questions were able to help us answer our research questions and achieve the outcome of this study.

4.7 Ethical clearance

To avoid bias the research should ensure integrity and objectivity. ”The quality of research

depends in part on the integrity and objectivity of the researcher accuracy” (Saunders et

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30(59) Due to the risk of interfering and creating discomfort we decided to not contact that person in question. As a researcher you should not force or try to ”talk them in” to participate if they no longer want to participate (Saunders et al., 2016).

4.8 Limitations

We had the unfortunate circumstance of conducting our research and trying to find leaders to interview in a time were that was very hard to achieve since people in general, not only in the business world, were trying to limit the contact they had with the outside world and actively try to social distance themselves as to avoid getting infected. Subsequently, limitations with our case study on leaders‟ perceptions in a virtual environment lie in the difficulties in finding participants and accessing data due to shortages of resources.

Semi-structured interviews with the leaders that accepted to provide data for our study would have been the optimal route for us to take. Given that, this method of acquiring data would allow us, as interviewers, to adjust our questions based on the particular organizational situation or the flow of the conversation in order to ask additional and/or more ”fitting” questions (Saunders et al. 2016). Besides the adaptability of that form of data gathering, the semi-structured interviews conducted face-to-face, prompt more trust between the interviewers and the interviewees that inadvertently leads to higher response rate than questionnaires and validates more the authenticity of the answers. (Saunders et al. 2016)

Since we were not able to perform the interviews as we would like to, we opted for a self-completed questionnaire delivered via e-mail to all participants, thus avoiding any social contact, reducing the time necessary that would have been required for a face-to-face style interaction and eventually receiving the essential information to enrich and expand our results. It is important to note that ”questionnaires are usually not particularly good for

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questions” (Saunders et al. 2016: 439). Therefore we were not able to generalize

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5 Empirical Data Review

In this chapter we present the empirical data we collected through self-completed questionnaires and the analysis of the empirical data. The findings will be presented as narratives capturing the essentials of how leaders perceive virtual communication and leadership in a virtual context. All the participants are members of a previously co-located workplace that, to some extent, have become a virtual.

5.1 Leader 1 perception of virtual communication

Frequency and tools used when communicating

Leader 1 describes that she communicates with her team on a daily basis. She has, however, not elaborated whether the frequency of her communication has decreased/increased due to the virtual setting. She says that she uses Skype and phone for shorter questions and ”checkups”. ”What takes too long time to communicate on Skype by

having to write everything down we take over the phone instead” (Leader 1).

Perception of virtual communication

Leader 1 argues that ”you have to be much more on point and clear in what you want to

communicate” (Leader1). It is more demanding, it takes longer time to explain and discuss

issues related to specific cases ”because you don't have for instance the papers in front of

you at the same time as you speak” (Leader 1). Leader 1 experiences that she does more

”follow ups” and ”checkups” with the employees since they started working remotely. This new way of working challenges you as a leader, she explains. It makes you reflect of how your leadership is perceived “you question yourself from time to time wondering if

you are doing enough” and when “you are not physically present you feel that you need to show that you are still -there-” (Leader 1). Reduced face to face communication, not able

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33(59) of virtual communication according to Leader 1 is that some of the the employees enjoy this way of communication more than others, however Leader 1 explains further of how some of her team members feel more comfortable in expressing themselves “some persons

are more likely to tell you how they are really feeling/more likely to express their opinion if there are not a lot of persons in the room (during a meeting for example) or if they are uncomfortable doing so sitting face to face” (Leader 1). People feel more free/flexible to

organize their tasks and working hours ”i think most people appreciate to be given that

trust” (Leader 1).

In addition, she also describes her dissatisfaction with virtual communication. She implies that monitoring and supervision is lost when team members are not physically at work ”

you lose a bit of control over, if there is something that someone for instance would need to prioritize more or less, or if someone is actually doing their tasks” (Leader 1). In

conclusion she argues that interaction with one's co-workers is reduced, and that establishing and sustaining relationships becomes demanding

Perception of efficiency and productivity Leader 1 has not experienced any difference. Perception of trust in virtual communication

Leader 1 describes that she has not experienced any challenges or changes in regards to trust. However when she was asked if she has experienced any problems or decrease in trust she said that ”for the most part it has strengthened it I would say. The co-workers feel

that they are given more room to plan their days and duties by their own and by what works the best for them” (Leader 1).

Perception of motivation and encouragement through virtual communication

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write good morning or after lunch ask how their day are going. However, it is a challenge to make sure that the other person does not take it as you being controlling or questioning what they are up to” (Leader 1).

Frequency and tools used when communicating

Leader 2 describes that she communicates with the her team several times a day. She says that she uses Skype and video meetings. ”All of the above-mentioned technologies work

just fine most of the time even though there are disturbances sometimes with the internet connection. Instructions on tasks are no more complicated to give over a Skype-call than on a face-to-face at the office” (Leader 2). Leader 2 does not see any challenges with

virtual communication, besides mentioned technical issues. Perception of virtual communication

Leader 2 experiences virtual communication as more effective. ”It is different of course,

but only takes a few times to get used to communicating over the internet. I like it as you tend to keep to the subject and you get less small talk, so therefore also more efficient in a way. More like straight to the point” (Leader 2). Leader 2, describes it as more ”straight

forward” and ”less small talk”. Leader 2 is not concerned of how or what hear team members think of her leadership when working remotely. However she does imply that she spends time in evaluating and adjusting her way of interaction, avoiding to ”sound” or be perceived as impolite when communicating through technology. Leader 2 experiences that virtual communication puts ones leadership skills to test ” you get to know yourself, in

your role as a team leader, better, if you are comfortable with remote leadership then you probably are a good leader” (Leader 2). In general she doesn't see any disadvantages with

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35(59) Perception of efficiency and productivity

Leader 2 has not experienced and problems with productivity or efficiency in general since they started working and communicating virtually.

Perception of trust in virtual communication

Leader 2 is not suspicious, she feels that trust has not been affected by virtual communication. ”I think most of my colleagues have good intentions and doing the best

they can and I choose to trust people in general – until they prove me wrong, I guess”

(Leader 2). She says that she doesn't believe that more supervision is needed just because you work remotely. ”After all, it is the 21st century and I think most employers of today require self-sufficient staff. If you cannot trust someone who is not physically at work.., well, then they are probably not the most reliable when they are physically at work either (so there‟s a problem) – or, maybe I would have to ask myself why I can‟t trust him or her (maybe the problem lies within me and myself or a lack of communication between staff and me”. Leader 2 says that she has not experienced that working remotely has had an

impact on trust between her and her team members.

Leader 2 has not experienced that virtual communication is a hindrance for encouragement and motivation.

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36(59) find phone or Skype video calls more efficient seeing or hearing someone facilitates the communication process. However she says that written communication can work as well. Perception of virtual communication

Leader 3 says ”distance communication demands a greater clarity since you can't be sure

how the recipient receives the message. And for that same reason one has to be very careful of the tone of the message”. She experiences that virtual leadership becomes more

demanding, feels that she needs to enhance her communication skills, assuring that there are no misinterpretation. Leader 3 says that perception is that virtual communication is more demanding, but at the same more straight forward. She also says that ”distance

communication quite challenging but I find that my communication is clearer in the distance communication and since everything is logged as emails or chats, there is also a traceability of everything which is an advantage for both me and my team members”. Leaders 3, says that she is more careful with whom or how she interacts with

people. Leader 3 says that she can communicate easily and joke with some and other not which is the same as when they are co-located. Leader 3 says that there is less room for spontaneous chatting or breaks, helps you get to know your colleagues but at the same time she says: ”I also feel that the work day is slightly more efficient without the social part” . On the contrary she also says that virtual communication does not feel very „‟natural‟ when they have bigger meetings: ”Of course, you can use the phone in those situations but still.

Sometimes meetings are not as efficient since there is no natural discussion if there a many participants and the microphones are switched off when you are not speaking” (Leader 3).

Perception of efficiency and productivity

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37(59) Perception of trust in virtual communication

Leader nr 3 does not consider that more supervision is needed. Leader 3 says that it depends how much you trust your employees. But she has not experienced any problems so far. ”I think it depends. I think that if people know what they are expected to do and

have the knowledge and possibility to do what is expected of them I think most people work best without too much supervision. Of course, as an employer you have to increase the supervision if you fear rules and regulations aren‟t being followed or the goals aren‟t met”

(Leader3).

Leader 3 say that she has not made any further adjustment, and encourages her team members in the same ways as she would do it in a non-virtual setting.

Leader 4 describes that she interacts with her team on a daily basis for task related reasons.

´Instructions are primarily communicated through emails. Other supporting media is being

used to support the work – such as common Excel files and OneNote sheets”. Since they

have started to work remotely employees are expected to follow updates and information since space for spontaneous gatherings or meetings has been reduced. ”More responsibility

Leaders Perception of Virtual communication