The Art of Virtual Trust: A qualitative case study on how leaders establish trust in their geographically dispersed virtual teams.

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The Art of Virtual Trust

- A qualitative case study on how leaders establish trust in their geographically dispersed virtual teams.

Wilma Andreasson and Nikki Christianson

Stockholm Business School

Bachelor’s Degree Thesis 15 HE Credits Subject: Business Administration

Spring Semester 2020

Supervisor: Krishna Venkitachalam

Stockholm Business School

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Abstract

The advancements in technology have enabled contemporary organisations to work remotely, and this work structure is increasingly being adopted by more industries. This forces organisations to

implement global virtual teams, that despite differences in geographic locations, time zones and cultures, are obligated to work towards organisational goals. It is possible to identify both opportunities and challenges for leaders within organisations. These can be viewed from various organisational perspectives, although one of the most recurring topics for leaders to consider when managing global virtual teams, is the notion of trust. Trust is argued to be one of the fundamental constituents for teams to work effectively. Even though the use of global virtual teams is becoming more prevalent, research on trust in regard to virtual teams is limited. Prior research argues that leadership is the key success factor for determining the level of trust in global virtual teams.

  However, there is a research gap on specifically how leaders work in terms of the specific actions that are taken in order to facilitate for establishing trust. This case study therefore investigates how leaders establish trust in their geographically dispersed virtual teams.   In order to answer this research question, nine leaders were interviewed through qualitative in-depth semi-structured interviews.

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Acknowledgements

First of all, we would like to kindly thank our supervisor Krishna Venkitachalam for his support and guidance throughout the construction of this case study. Needless to say, his vast professionalism and competence have saturated throughout the seminars and feedback-sessions from start to finish, and it is thanks to his helping hand that we are now able to proudly present our finalised work.

Furthermore, we would like to direct a sincere thank you to our respondents who have all taken the time to participate in our interviews and made our case study possible to complete. The respondents have provided us with valuable insights and perspectives that no prior literature would have been able to do.

We would also like to take this moment to thank the great support system that has surrounded us throughout our writing process, mainly our fellow classmates but also our family and friends. Many discussions regarding the progress of our thesis and other important questions have been brought up in- and outside of school (mainly virtually, with a sarcastic thank you to covid-19). The peer-review sessions have been particularly helpful in leading us forward and provided us with objective/valuable viewpoints throughout the semester.

Finally, we would like to thank each other for the incredible teamwork and collaboration from day one, that has allowed us to not only support but also to be constructive with one another. This thesis has undeniably deepened our friendship further.

Stockholm University, June 2020

Wilma Andreasson & Nikki Christianson

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1. Introduction

“In the future, the source of human achievement will not be extraordinary individuals, but

extraordinary combinations of people,” said Robert Hargrove in 1998 (Fisher, 2001, p.12). Hargrove is an author who has helped organisations reach step into the future by combining talented individuals worldwide (Fisher, 2001). Now the year is 2020 and extraordinary professionals all over the globe can be combined with the technological solutions that allow us all to stay connected virtually.

Few would have predicted that the numerous transformations leading to this current technological world would be the result of what is referred to as the industrial revolution (Chichilnisky, 1998).

Broadly, the industrial revolution could be viewed as a shift of know-how in reference to the technologies used to produce goods, services, and information divided into four stages (Marginean, 2009). The first stage is the development of textiles, the second stage involves steel and railway, the third chemicals and electricity and finally, the fourth and most important stage for this case study is the evolution of information and communication technologies (ICT) (Marginean, 2009). Every aspect related to the industrial revolution has come to shape the entire global economy as we know it today.

Marginean (2009) further claims that the world is undergoing a new revolution - the “knowledge revolution”, fuelled by the recent advancements in technology and the production of knowledge and information, also known as the knowledge economy. The knowledge economy refers to the

applications of ICT, in alignment with increased dependency on human knowledge (Godin, 2006).

The combination of the ICT revolution and the current pace of technological change are powerful drivers of improved productivity and growth (Marginean, 2009). However, it is vastly difficult to estimate how rapidly and in what direction new technologies will evolve and be absorbed by different industries. Past experience has shown that technological advancements develop much more quickly than our capability to incorporate them deliberately into managerial practices

Subsequently, the utilization of advanced computer-driven technologies accelerates for modern organisations to explore the use of virtual teams ^(VTs). Technology has allowed for a shift from working exclusively with those you can physically see and meet, to working with people around the world in VTs, which helps to overcome geographical separations and reduce costs for organisations (Ale Ebrahim, Ahmed & Taha, 2011). Since VTs are not bound to time or space, this provides the opportunity for organisations to seize talent from all over the world and increase flexibility (Fulton, 2015). Therefore it is essential for leaders to react quickly to a changing business landscape and implement VTs, in order to be positioned at the forefront of digitalisation (Olson & Olson, 2003;

Zaccaro & Bader, 2003). However, it appears as if numerous organisations set up VTs with limited

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knowledge of what is needed to be internally functional (DeRosa, 2009). The authors Avolio, Sosik, Kahai and Baker (2013) correspondingly claim how organisations increasingly use advanced information technology without fully realising the extent of the impact it has on human dynamics in the VTs. As the implementation of virtual teams keep increasing, this creates new challenges for leaders in terms of more complex barriers to build relations, promote effective communication, and above all, establishing trust in order to create efficient teams (Starnes et al. 2016).

In this current state where VTs are being implemented and many interactions are now mediated by IT, we are inclined to “dramatically alter how we study leaders” (Avolio & Kahai, 2003, p. 332). DeRosa (2009) addressed the importance of how organisations should select leaders who possess the “key characteristics” to most effectively establish trust in a virtual team. Researchers such as Avolio et al.

(2013) and Zigurs (2003) are speculating how leadership should evolve in this new IT-mediated environment, in which trust is challenging to build, team-identification difficult to experience and communication might be ambiguous. With ten years between these articles, this points to the fact that there is scant knowledge on virtual leadership, and this case study will therefore take interest in disclosing what actions are taken by leaders in virtual constellations (Starnes et al. 2016).

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1.1 Problematisation

There is an evident need for efficient virtual leadership today, specifically, it is fascinating to investigate how leaders take actions to establish trust and interpersonal relationships in this virtual context. This case study intends to highlight the work of leaders in VTs to facilitate the establishment of trust, which is difficult to accomplish virtually (Fulton, 2015). ‘Work’ in this spectrum refers to the specific measures taken by the leader in order for the team members to feel identified with their team, trust their peers, and ultimately be motivated to successfully complete tasks and meet set objectives.

The incentive for problematising this topic is because leaders of VTs face challenges that are

fundamentally different and more complex than those that are present in traditional face-to-face teams (Kayworth & Leidner, 2002). The absence of face-to-face interactions and the low social presence should be recognised by leaders as vital obstacles for VT’s performance (Zack, 1993). Hart and McLeod (2003) stress that the leader’s actions, presence, and structuring of group processes are exceptionally important in VTs.

However, according to Fulton (2015), we are only just at the beginning of figuring out how to manage human relationships in the virtual world. Prior research has focused primarily on the technological aspects of virtual work (Anawati & Craig, 2006). This implies that there is a need for a clear distinction to be made between technology and human relations within VTs, in order to be able to investigate how leaders can manage the latter (Fulton, 2015; Anawati & Craig, 2006). As VTs continue to expand, leaders need to carefully observe the arising challenges opposing those of

traditional teams and then act accordingly (DeRosa, 2009). Subsequently, since leaders are not able to physically interact in virtual settings, Starnes, Truhon, and McCarthy (2016) address that the essential factor for determining successful team performance is trust. Handy (1995) also firmly indicates how the straightforward explanation of how VTs could perform successfully is through trust, which lies within the responsibility of the leader to ensure. Numerous additional findings like that of Breuer, Hertel and Hüffmeier (2016) or Sarker (2011) similarly confirm that trust is the fundamental building stone in VTs. Additionally, the key variable for creating a trust-based team is proficient leaders, since trust is directly related to organisational commitment (Starnes et al. 2016; DeRosa, 2009). However, although these scholars have addressed that trust is the key variable in a VT, there is no clarification on specifically how trust is established by the leader. Starnes (2016) also stress how findings on the correlation between VTs and trust are limited to the theoretical level.

A clear research gap has thus been noticed in identifying the many actions, strategies, and adaptations that leaders of VTs take on an everyday basis to facilitate for trust-building. In a confirming manner,

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Henttonen and Blomqvist (2005) conclude their study by acknowledging a need for further research on how or whether trust can be established in VTs. This case study thus intends to fill the void of this addressed research gap by exploring the actions taken by virtual leaders and conclude the specific requirements for building trust in VTs.

In addition, since virtuality causes physical separation between team members, this means that the identities within the team are more ambiguous, and it is consequently argued that the likeliness to trust is strongly linked to the members’ identification to the team (Han & Harms, 2010). VTs inevitably entails work, communication, and collaboration between members who operate across national borders, over time-zones and in different cultures (Olson & Olson, 2003; Anawati & Craig, 2006).

The ability to use dispersed members around the world appears to be the main difference that separates a VTs from a traditional team. The inclusion of members of different countries is also seen as the main benefit with VTs, however, it could as well be viewed as an oxymoron due to cultural differences (Shin, 2005). Altogether this thesis will place focus on what actions are taken by leaders to establish trust, in this virtual environment.

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1.2 Research Question

- How do leaders establish trust in their geographically dispersed virtual teams?

1.3 Purpose and Contribution to Knowledge

The main purpose of conducting this research is based on the reported research gap. This

problematisation revolves around what measurement leaders use to establish trust within a VT in order to reach its full potential. Furthermore, we specifically study VTs in which members are geographically dispersed since dispersion might also impede on their sense of identification with the team, and consequently harm the trust (Han & Harms, 2010). It is additionally stated that challenges in communication, keeping a commitment, and building trust only intensify if the VT members are geographically dispersed (Henttonen & Blomqvist, 2005). Such research serves to outline what specific strategies and techniques some of these leaders take, and how they are modified from those of traditional teams to effective the virtual work and initiate trust-building (Cascio, 2000). The purpose is to investigate what actions are carried out by leaders to establish trust within their geographically dispersed VT. This case study intends to disclose the fundamental aspects that leaders have to consider in this virtual environment, in order to establish trust that could promote high performance and well-functioning relationships remotely. Such disclosure will help outline the potential leadership actions taken to tackle the issues or any aspect interfering on the establishing of trust. Furthermore, the findings could help formulate suggestions for subsequent academic research.

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2. Literature Review

In order to gain understanding of the selected topic, the literature review illustrates how prior research on trust, geographically dispersed virtual teams and leadership in virtual teams are interrelating to the research question on what actions are taken by the leaders to establish trust in a virtual context.

Denney and Tewksbury (2013) acknowledge how scientific knowledge is constantly being updated and thus stress the need for fellow authors to closely observe these changes in order to construct their research accordingly. This is essential for this case study since the topic of VTs include dimensions that undergo rapid transformations and should not be assumed as static (Dixon & Panteli, 2010). The review will start by defining the concept of VTs as well as introducing the term global virtual teams (GVTs) as a substitute for the former. In addition to this, the concept of trust and its function in VTs as a key variable for organisational performance will be described. Particularly how the process of establishing trust in virtual teams is a more complex task compared to establishing trust within traditional teams. Also, as this study investigates the establishment of trust from a leadership perspective, the review will end with a description of virtual leadership as well as indications from previous research on how leaders should appear in virtual contexts.

2.1 Global Virtual Teams

The replacement of traditional teams with VTs presents opportunities as well as challenges for the leaders who possess the main responsibility for establishing trust (Handy, 1995). VTs is defined as a team independent from geographic locations or time zones, consisting of dispersed members and in which the predominant source for communication is through ICT (Crandall & Wallace, 2002; Bell and Kozlowski, 2002). As an extension of the concept, this case study has adapted the term GVTs to clarify the intention to constantly refer to geographically dispersed teams (Wildman & Griffith, 2014).

Since traditional interactions now occur through ICT, there is an urge for extensive research on GVTs and how they are managed by leaders (Liao, 2016). The main advantage of GVTs is argued to be reduction of costs as well as the possibility to work from different locations and time zones, thus allowing for a larger talent-pool (Zaccaro & Bader, 2003; Fulton, 2015). This includes individuals of various qualities, that could essentially promote increased diversity (Zaccaro & Bader, 2003). Other advantages include reduced travel, increased flexibility, optimised time efficiency, and an expanded network (Zaccaro & Bader, 2003; Fulton, 2015). Nonetheless, Bell and Kozlowski (2002) argue that the geographic distance presents challenges for leaders of GVTs, to establish trust. Shin (2005) implies that the dispersion could impede on the ability to provide feedback and guidance on work processes, which may be the source of internal conflicts. Another challenge is the ability to

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communicate effectively, as ICT could generate increased misunderstandings (Watkins, 2007). The lack of social interactions may generate difficulties in solving those misunderstandings or other issues more easily adjusted in physical settings. In GVT settings, nonverbal impressions are likely to be removed and emotions more difficult to display and interpret (Fan, Chen, Wang & Chen, 2014). This lack of emotional substance in GVTs further serves the purpose of this case study of increasing the understanding of the actions taken by leaders to overcome the barriers to establishing trust.

Additionally, one challenging task for leaders of GVTs is to have their members feel motivated (Ramage, 2017). It is relevant for this case study to investigate the actions leaders take to motivate virtually, and if the leaders consider that this is possible to accomplish in virtual contexts. Finally, Shin (2005) points out that geographic dispersion can lay foundation for conflicts since individuals from different cultures tend to vary in values, communication styles and working methods, which might be difficult for leaders to solve virtually. Therefore, researchers are united in the belief that the main obstacle with GVTs is how leaders are able to overcome the issues that impede the

establishment of trust (Bell & Kozlowski, 2002; Henttonen & Blomqvist, 2005; Järvenpää & Leidner, 1998).

2.2 Trust

It is noteworthy to realise how the concept of trust has been of theoretical interest for sociologists, theologists, philosophers, economists, and management theorists since the beginning of the 20th century (Weltecke, 2008). A common definition of trust is traced back to Mayer, Davis and Schoorman (1995), who explains it as “the willingness of a party to be vulnerable to the actions of another party, based on the expectations that the other will perform a particular action important to the trustor, irrespective of the ability to monitor or control that other party” (p. 712). Järvenpää, Knoll and Leidner (1998) suggest that trust is based on the assumption that others will behave as they are

expected to and deliver agreed-upon commitments. Cummings and Bromiley (1996) similarly argue trust in a collective setting to be the agreement between group members that fellow members will act in accordance with objectives, that they will be honest and transparent in the process and will avoid taking unfair advantage of others. Trust rather requires a sense of reciprocal loyalty and mutuality between the members (Handy, 1995). Finally, Chang, Hung and Hsieh (2014) promote trust as the fundamental factor for determining the levels of productivity within a team.

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2.2.1 Organisational Trust in GVTs

According to Handy (1995), organisational trust is the essence of virtual teams and that modern organisations have to find ways to manage them based on trust rather than control. Breuer et al. (2016) further explain organisational trust as the reciprocal loyalty between team members and the reliance on fellow members to follow through agreed-upon commitments, and act in accordance with expectations (Breuer et al. 2016; Järvenpää et al. 1998; Cummings & Bromiley, 1996; Zaccaro &

Bader, 2003). Organisational trust is furthermore described as the reliance on the “integrity and ability of the leader”, which denotes further the reliance on the leader in the modern workplace (Saunders, Lewis & Thornhill, 2016, p. 2).

Although, factors that could interfere with the organisational trust include members acting in dissension with their role and display unprofessionalism, selfishness, or possessing a hidden agenda (Starnes et al. 2016; Henttonen & Blomqvist, 2005). Nonetheless, it is still argued that these

hindrances to organisational trust could indeed be overcome with strong and influential leadership (Starnes et al. 2016). However, the establishment of trust may not be the most effortless

accomplishment, but is rather considered a severe challenge under conditions of high virtuality (Breuer et al. 2016).

While GVTs face several issues similar to those of traditional teams, the conventional practice is co-located teams is not applicable in GVTs, since there are inevitable key factors present in the physical world that remain absent in virtual contexts (Henttonen & Blomqvist, 2005). It is claimed that whereas trust-building in traditional teams take time to enforce, this might not be equally possible in virtual contexts since the levels of trust and performance in GVTs is dependent on what occurs early on in the initial orientation (Järvenpää et al. 1998; Avolio et al. 2013). Establishing trust and managing conflict in GVTs also requires more effort from leaders compared to traditional teams (Liao, 2016 ). Henttonen and Blomqvist (2005) denote that whereas traditional teams require a lot of social communication to evolve trust, GVTs may presumably work on pressured time schedules and neglect creating strong relations from early incorporation. Furthermore, it is argued that trust is more easily established through face-to-face interaction than in virtual contexts, since leaders experience greater difficulty in facilitating basic team processes (Lyons, Priest, Wildman, Salas and Carnegie, 2009). Although, Zaccaro and Bader (2003) suggest that members of GVTs will be more adaptable to changes in business due to a familiarisation with rotation and flexibility. Evidently, the presented research once again strengthens the purpose of this case study to analyse what actions are taken by leaders to establish trust in GVTs.

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2.3 Leadership in Global Virtual Teams

As mentioned, research on the complex topic of leadership in GVTs has been limited to a theoretical level (Saunders et al. 2016). Zaccaro and Bader (2003) suggest that leaders of GVTs have similar characteristics as traditional teams, both compromising roles, tasks and goals. However, the authors indicate that the playing field for leaders has transformed due to the increased use of GVTs. This means that simply applying the techniques used in traditional teams onto virtual ones will not generate trust due to the lack of physical interactions (Zigurs, 2003; Ramage, 2017). The concept of leadership in this case study relies on the idea that leaders hold the responsibility to outline goals and objectives, clarify expectations on the members, define the roles of each team member as well as executing strategies in order to meet the objectives in a GVT (Lyon et al. 2009) .

So far addressed, trust needs to be established much more quickly in GVTs than in traditional teams which pose a challenge for leaders, partly due to the lack of physical interaction (Ale Ebrahim et al.

2011; Cascio, 2000). As clarified in 2.2.1, trust in GVTs implies the reassurance that fellow team members will complete their tasks and obligations, and act in a consistent manner (Kayworth &

Leidner, 2000; Cascio, 2000). However, the difficult aspect for leaders is to ensure that everyone is doing what they are supposed to in GVTs (Zaccaro & Bader, 2003). They are thus increasingly pressured into contemplating what actions are most probable to enhance the trust within their GVT (Cascio and Shurygailo 2003).

2.3.1 Team-building

There is research indicating that some kind of face-to-face interaction during the initiation period in a team is required in order to determine the levels of trust within the GVT (Zigurs, 2003; Avolio et al.

2013). Although building close relationships during the initiation period does not necessarily have to take place face-to-face (Avolio et al. 2013). The authors concluded that whereas physical interactions at an early stage might be beneficial for several reasons, this is not a must for leaders of GVTs.

Leaders should make sure that the first few occasions of interaction will be spent identifying each member in the team, clarifying expectations, and how they wish to work together (Avolio et al. 2013;

Cascio, 2000). Teams that began their interactions by introducing themselves and providing some background with one another before focusing on the task, showed higher levels of trust later on (Cascio, 2000).

Additionally, in a study made by Kayworth and Leidner (2000), several members highlighted that one

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favored leadership action taken was the use of humour. With the help of an online platform, the leader connected all the members and allowed them to get to know one another while occasionally sending out jokes. The idea of joking, causing laughter, and foster something relatable turned out to be appreciated by the members who felt that they belonged in a unique working relationship fuelled by trust (Kayworth & Leidner, 2000). Lastly, Henttonen and Blomqvist (2005) conducted a case study to investigate what members of one specific GVT considered the general foundations to establishing trust. The results showed that valued leadership actions included knowledge about others,

initiative-taking, information-sharing, personalised communication, openness, clear goals, standing behind the team, and a sense of humour (Henttonen & Blomqvist, 2005).

2.3.2 Socialisation

The scarcity of social context in GVTs pressures leaders to dedicate time for virtual socialisation, in order to foster team building, promote efficient communication and establish trust (Kayworth &

Leidner, 2000; Crawford-Mathis, 2009; Chang et al. 2014). One challenge for these leaders is that members of GVTs may only focus on their tasks, rather than spending time to socialise with their peers (Zigurs, 2003). However, this extends further the importance for leaders of GVTs to invest more effort on relationship-building than in traditional teams (Hart and McLeod, 2003; Crawford-Mathis, 2009; Liao, 2016). Crawford-Mathis (2009) continues by explaining that this is accomplished when the leaders get to know the nature of their team and become fully aware of each participant. In order to get to know their team on a deeper level, the leader has to be attentive to behaviours and the type of communication that occurs between the members (Hart & McLeod, 2003). Specifically pairing up members who appear to have weak virtual relationships and have them interact more frequently could strengthen team trust (Hart & McLeod, 2003). If the leader promotes socialisation, it could foster closer personal relationships in GVTs (Chang et al. 2014). Finally, what could be considered the most important aspect for building strong relationships in GVTs are so-called “socio-emotional” types of interaction, which indicates the sharing of personal information with fellow members (Hart &

McLeod, 2003, p. 358). Although, in the study on GVTs by Henttonen and Blomqvist (2005) it was found that care and concern for close relationships were only relevant to some of the members.

2.3.3 Communication

Arterberry (2014) describes that abilities for proficient communication include clear articulation, expressing empathy, being present, and attentiveness. Within GVTs, most communication is transferred through ICT, which questions how leaders are able to channel these abilities remotely.

GVTs are dependent on well-functioning technology to facilitate efficient communication (Arterberry, 2014). Although, Neufeld, Wan, and Fang (2008) imply that geographic dispersion does not

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necessarily have a negative impact on communication when individuals become comfortable with communicating virtually.

Morgan et al. (2014) highlight the importance that both leaders and employees within any

organisation have the possibility to provide instant and frequent feedback. The authors imply that this sort of feedback tend to be transferable via physical interactions since both tone and body language can be important in delivering the message. Since leadership is expressed through technology in a virtual context, leaders have to learn how to make the right use of media and communication tools to have their presence experienced positively by the members (Zigurs, 2003; Cascio & Shurygailo, 2003). Above all, innovative technologies are beneficial in supplying virtual channels that have to be adopted by organisations to facilitate effective communication between dispersed members

(Kayworth & Leidner, 2000).

Altogether this suggests that leaders of GVTs face the challenge of developing strategies to replace face-to-face interactions with virtual communication, since communication within GVTs is argued to be a key factor to increase the levels of trust (Chang, et al. 2014). However, Morgan et al. (2014) argue that communication in GVTs cannot reach the same level of socialisation as in traditional teams. Subsequently, the authors denote that communication obstacles in GVTs can be overcome by the variation of virtual work combined with occasional physical encounters (Morgan et al. 2014).

2.3.4 Motivation and Performance

Ramage (2017) claims that one challenge for leaders of GVTs is to have their members stay motivated and encouraged to deliver. Zaccaro and Bader (2003) furthermore argue that trust and cohesion within GVTs will inevitably be dependent on the members’ motivation for performing and the leaders’

ability to ensure that (Schaffer, 2008). In this regard the leaders should clearly outline objectives as well as the expectations they have on their members, to remove uncertainties and ensure performance (Schaffer, 2008). This is additionally important since it might be more difficult for members to fully comprehend the efforts that are required from them virtually (Zaccaro & Bader, 2003; Schaffer, 2008). The authors state that what is required is engagement from the leader and the effort to

implement activities for teambuilding. Zaccaro and Bader (2003) imply that the dispersion also affects the member’s ability to take part in feedback on completed tasks and achievements. If the recognition, frequent feedback and advice to the members would increase then hopefully the motivation would, in turn, develop as well (Ramage, 2017; Zigurs, 2003)

Leaders of GVTs are required to coordinate logistics and activities, create fewer conflicts and assure

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effective team response to maximize performance (Shachaf, 2008). In order to encourage

performance, Cascio (2000) states that a leader should ask their members what they believe to be most important and fair, for instance rewarding them after accomplishments since one team may value benefits over leisure, whereas other teams might prefer the opportunity for professional advancement over salary. This is, in turn, something that has to stay consistent over time and across members in order to enhance the validity as a leader (Cascio, 2000). When including the members in

decision-making processes, leaders could tailor their strategies accordingly (Cascio, 2000). Similarly, in the study made by Henttonen and Blomqvist (2005), it was pointed out that the participants appreciated when the leader asked for feedback from the team and then took actions based on those suggestions. Allowing the members to participate in the decision-making processes was considered a favourable team-leader action for establishing trust (Cascio, 2000).

2.3.5 Culture

Culture is a complex phenomenon and can be defined as jointly developed norms within a group that controls how members are expected to behave (Cascio and Shurygailo, 2003). In GVTs leaders and members are distanced, which makes it possible to investigate how leaders are able to enforce an organisational culture virtually. Warrick (2017) argues that organisational culture and knowledge,is of importance for a leader to consider, as the culture can affect trust and member productivity. If the leader manages to create a common organisational culture within the team, the members will collaborate more efficiently (Warrick, 2017).

The geographic dispersion may impede on building a solid organisational culture and the varying nationalities within the GVT may result in arising cultural differences (Shin, 2005). Cultural

differences within GVTs can pose a challenge for leaders as individuals may have preconceived ideas on different procedures and approaches in an organisation (Shin, 2005). This stresses the importance for leaders to take cultural differences into account in their work with members who are dispersed (Warrick, 2017). The author believes that the key to success in this regard is that the leader engages in each team member's own culture to enhance the knowledge and understanding of the members (Warrick, 2017).

Furthermore, Anawati and Craig (2006) conducted a study by investigating behavioural adaptations in cross-cultural GVTs. The findings showed how the members who had undertaken virtual training on cultural differences had managed to adapt and conduct themselves to a larger extent, in comparison to those not receiving the training. The results proved how teams with broader cultural awareness also

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had more effective communication within the GVT (Anawati & Craig, 2006). These results are supported by the case study of Chang, Hung and Hsieh (2014), stating that there is a positive correlation between cultural adaptation and trust as well as team performance in GVTs.

Understanding of different cultures through cultural training could work to eliminate the cultural gap (Chang et al. 2014). Finally, the authors denote that GVTs lack of cultural understanding run a greater risk for mistrust (Chang et al. 2014).

2.4 Theoretical Model

Chenwei Liao, a professor at Michigan University presented a model of virtual leadership in regard to relationships, behaviours, and processes in GVTs to reach team effectiveness and the essential role leaders possess (Liao, 2016). The model was developed as a result of the scant literature and the unanswered questions about leadership in GVTs, since leaders of GVTs are expected to put in more effort in building effective teams compared to traditional ones. Therefore, this model was established to provide answers to how leadership function in the phenomenon of GVTs (Liao, 2016). The proposed framework is presented below.

Figure 1. Multi-level Model of Leadership in Virtual Teams

The model intends to describe the importance as well as the consequences of “leadership behaviours”

directed at both the individual and team level from a multilevel perspective on how leaders manage GVTs (Liao, 2016, p. 648). Two leadership behaviours are being highlighted in this model:

“task-oriented” and “relationship-oriented” (p.648). Task-oriented behaviour from leaders indicate

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outlining the roles and responsibilities of all team members, clearly specify the goals, as well as monitoring work processes. Whereas relationship-oriented behaviour emphasises leaders’ concern for members well-being, offering support, establishing relationships, and promoting team building (Liao, 2016).

Liao (2016) argue that GVTs tend to be more task-oriented and less relationship-based compared to traditional ones thus running a greater risk not to establish trust. Therefore, it is proposed that the leader should offer the opportunity for the members to meet face-to-face, since trust cannot otherwise be fully established virtually (Liao, 2016. p. 652). Although, trust can be increased by using frequent communication, establishing clear team norms, and enhance transparency. Trust is furthermore suggested as a result of actions that confirm effective interaction within the team, which in turn enhances team effectiveness. Liao (2016) expresses the importance that leaders of GVTs have to interact with each member individually to show recognition and build personal relationships in order for them to feel motivated. Furthermore, support in terms of feedback and providing budgets are other components that will increase members’ motivation. Moreover, it is necessary for the leaders to address team members’ cultural backgrounds when operating virtually and ensure that all members understand those diversities “to establish trusting relationships” (Liao, 2016, p. 651). One disclaimer of Liao’s multilevel model is that he suggests logintinual data collection to be conducted, but due to the time limit of this case study this could not be accomplished.

2.5 Conclusion

The purpose of this literature review has been to present a frame of reference that provides a general comprehension of the concepts that will be covered throughout this case study. The literature review has furthermore demonstrated how these concepts and theoretical models interact with one another, and how they are connected to the research question on what actions leaders take to establish trust in their GVTs. While research claims trust to be a key component for leaders of GVTs to consider in their practice, further research is requested because of the increased challenges for leaders to overcome in GVTs (Bell & Kozlowski, 2002; Henttonen & Blomqvist, 2005; Järvenpää & Leidner, 1998). Prior literature indicate that more efforts are required from these leaders in terms of facilitating for increased trust, closer relationships, team-building, socialisation, motivation, performance,

communication, and cultural awareness (Zigurs, 2003, Liao, 2016). It should be noted that some of the reviewed studies were conducted in the year 1995-2005, which could be considered a long time ago in terms of technology and thus outdated. However, even though the GVTs might not have had access to platforms as the ones we know today, they still held the responsibility to establish trust within their team and thus remains important for this case study.

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3. Research Design

3.1 Research Question and Purpose

The following sections outline the approach and methods used, how data was collected, and the philosophical grounding that has been taken, as it affects the study as well as the findings. By

conducting a qualitative case study that explored how virtual leaders take action to establish trust, the presented results helped answering the research question. The purpose of this study was to identify what actions leaders of GVTs take to establish trust in their teams by creating a theoretical framework that outline the concerned themes in regards to the research question. Ultimately, this case study intended to add on to existing literature on leadership in virtual environments which could thus provide deeper theoretical insights on the phenomenon of trust in GVTs.

3.2 Methodological Considerations

To proceed with the research on how leaders of GVTs take action to establish trust in their

geographically dispersed teams, this study collected empirical data through a qualitative case study that adapted the appropriate methodology chosen based on the premises of the intended research.

This qualitative research has adopted the ontological position, which is based on constructivism assuming that there is no independent reality but multiple ones, that cannot be “described free from people’s point of view” (Slevitch, 2011, p. 79). Furthermore, to identify the actions taken by leaders of GVTs to establish trust, we have departed from the post-positivist research paradigm and placed focus on the interpretive methodology, which includes the subjective experiences and interpretations by individuals (Saunders et al. 2016; Antwi & Hamza al, 2015; Alvesson & Sköldberg, 2018). In epistemology, interpretivism is commonly assimilated to qualitative studies as it focuses on subjective interpretations of reality, which was important in this case study in order to come closer to the socially constructed realities that were interpreted by the participants (Bryman & Bell, 2011; Antwi & Hamza, 2015). The themes that have been addressed are subjective beliefs and social behaviours that

constitute more than one objective truth and implies that no reality is independent of that of its participants (Slevitch, 2011; McGregor & Murnane, 2010).

Using an interpretive methodology furthermore made the inductive approach suitable for this case study since it intended to examine the study objects without preconceptions (McGregor & Murnane,

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2010; Antwi & Hamza, 2015). The inductive approach aims to develop theories or concepts when examining qualitative studies based on data collection (Antwi & Hamza, 2015; Bryman & Bell, 2011).

The inductive approach correspondingly allowed for a theoretical framework to be developed in this case study.

3.3 Object of study

The object of study for this investigation were two American multinational IT-companies, Company A and Company B. Company A has approximately 350.000 employees worldwide and an annual revenue of approximately 80.000 billion USD. Additionally, Company B has approximately 180.000 employees worldwide and an annual revenue of approximately 20.000 billion USD. The primary reason for choosing to research these companies was that they both hold decades of experience in using GVTs, and have both operated during digitalisation transformations. The use of IT-leading firms helped in generating valuable knowledge based on the fact that the organisations held extensive experience in operating virtually. The reason for choosing two cases instead of one was to avoid a scenario where all leaders of the GVTs were following the same model constructed by their organisation that could have generated circumstantial results (Thiétart, 2001).

3.4 Operationalisation

Given that this case study has taken an interest in what actions leaders of GVTs take to establish trust, operationalisation allows for identifying certain indicators. These indicators are based on what previous researchers have found to be interrelated to the subject of trust in GVTs as elaborated upon in the literature review. The indicators help distinguish the processes that might be useful for leaders to contemplate when attempting to establish trust in a virtual setting. To operationalise this case study, the research question was translated into three sub-questions to guide the empirical data collection.

Furthermore were these formulated into interview questions to help reach a adequate data collection (See Appendix A). The specific interview questions related to each sub-questions are presented below.

The sub-questions that emerge to answer the research questions were:

1. How are obstacles handled that could impede on establishing trust in GVTs?

a. Guided interview questions: 4, 8, 10, 13

2. What actions do leaders take in order to establish trust in GVTs?

a. Guided interview questions: 1, 2, 3, 9, 11, 12

3. How do leaders build relationships in GVTs with the intention to establish trust?

a. Guided interview questions: 5, 6, 7

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3.5 Case Study

We chose to conduct a case study as they allow for in-depth analysis of a particular phenomenon that captures actual meanings to be made, which in this case study includes the phenomenon how trust is established by leaders of GVTs (Tsang, 2014). What is unique about case studies is that they allow for detailed descriptions on findings for certain situations (Bryman & Bell, 2011) and can offer “concrete context-dependent knowledge”, implying that the closeness of case studies to real-life situations is important to grasp essential details (Flyvbjerg, 2006 p. 223). The use of a case-study allows for a broader understanding of the day-to-day practices and truths of the interviewees (Bryman & Bell, 2011).

It has been argued that generalisability is harder to reach when conducting qualitative research because of the smaller sample size and for being too subjective and biased (Guba et al, 1985; Bryman

& Bell, 2011; Tsang, 2014). Generalisation is the act of “interfering from specific observed instances, such as those in a case setting to general statements” (Tsang, 2014). According to Flyvbjerg (2006), it is a misunderstanding that one cannot generalise on the basis of a single case-study. Instead,

generalisation has been acknowledged as one of many ways for people to gain knowledge (Flyvbjerg, 2006). Tsang (2014) furthermore argue that results from case studies are generalisable in terms of

“generalising to theory, identifying disconfirming cases and providing useful information for assessing the imperial generalisability of results” (Tsang, 2014, p. 379). In contrast, the advantage is the in-depth focus on the phenomenon (Flyvbjerg, 2006). Therefore, this case study aims for

generalisable results through the data collection.

3.6 Methods

As mentioned, this case study adopted a qualitative methodology approach that was conducted through in-depth semi-structured interviews (Slevitch, 2011). One primary reason for choosing to conduct a qualitative case study is because we related to the notion of how qualitative research investigates how individuals interpret their own experiences and the meaning they attribute to those experiences (Merriam, 2010). The unique trait of qualitative research is that it is based on interpretive and constructivist notions, indicating that there is no single reality but multiple ones and that reality is socially constructed based on individuals interpretation (Sale, Lohfeld & Brazil 2002; Merriam, 2010).

Ultimately, researchers are not able to find knowledge in interpretive answers, but construct a truth based on how the inquirer’s statement corresponds to how individuals interpret their own realities

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(Slevitch, 2011; Merriam, 2010). The attractiveness of using a qualitative approach stems from the fact that the product of a qualitative inquiry is richly descriptive in terms of context, and answers are likely to be thoroughly described (Merriam, 2010). Stemming from this notion, the information retrieved from having used a qualitative method has allowed for this case study to assimilate the responses with the previous theoretical research on trust in GVTs.

3.6.1 Interviews

Myers (2013) implies that researchers are able to retrieve in-depth information through interviews.

The data in this study has been collected through interviews with nine GVT leaders of two

multinational corporations, with five and four interviews in the respective companies, including one pilot interview. Creswell (2009) argues that a pilot interview is conducted to ensure that the chosen method fits the quality of the interview guide as well as granting the researcher the opportunity to avoid unexpected consequences in the key interviews. The pilot interview essentially added credibility to the results, analysis, and conclusion in this case study. It further established that the interviews would last approximately 45-60 minutes. Accordingly, all interviews were carried out within this estimated time span.

The interviews have furthermore been carried out in a semi-structured manner. In structured

interviews, the questions are predetermined to quantify data to easily compare interviews (Saunders et al. 2016). Conversely, unstructured interviews mean that researchers do not prepare questions in advance, but have read in on the topic. Subsequently, the semi-structured interview method is a mixture of these two (Myers, 2013). The researcher furthermore ensures through the

operationalisation that the interviews will be sufficiently similar, and the semi-structured interviews leaves space for follow-up questions (Myers, 2013). Through this approach, the researcher

furthermore has the power to marginally step outside the parameters of the interview guide to ask subsequent questions interesting for the topic (Rubin & Rubin, 2005; Alshenqeeti, 2014). However, Myers (2013) points to the risk that the questions might block the interviewer for reading in too much on the predefined themes. On this ground, we were attentive to the respondents’ answers when asking follow-up questions. While the questions were pre-formulated, the semi-structured approach allowed the respondents to ask questions and express their own views on virtual leadership and trust, which shed a nuanced light on the content.

3.6.1.1 Selection Criteria

The selection criteria used in this case study was that the respondents should:

● Possess extensive experience of leading a GVT

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● Have predominantly managed GVTs including members operating across continents

● That collaboration in the teams is predominantly mediated by ICT

By asking control questions about their position and experience as a leader of a GVT, we ensured that all respondents were in alignment with the selection criteria (See Appendix A). Accordingly, the participants had all managed GVTs for 5-20 years, which one could argue to be considered extensive experience, in terms of their knowledge and confidence in their role. The number of respondents that should be used in a qualitative study is a recurring topic among researchers (Bryman & Bell, 2011).

According to Creswell (2009), semi-structured in-depth interviews require a minimum of between 5 and 25 participants, to which this case study has reasoned. With help from two people in our close network, who both have an extensive global network, we were able to get in contact with a number of leaders who aligned with the selection criteria which resulted in that nine interviews were carried out.

3.6.2 Document Analysis

In order to supplement the research data from the semi-structured interviews and to facilitate the validation of data, a document analysis was conducted to support triangulation (Bowen, 2009). Any internal analysis done by the companies related to our research question could be of use in order to grasp further understanding, development, and empirical knowledge on the subject (Corbin & Strauss, 2008). The use of additional documents granted this case study with a more holistic perspective on how the company operate with regard to GVTs (Bowen, 2009). This case study took part in a cultural awareness training held by one of the participants in Company B, constructed for colleagues and customers who was about to enter a culturally diverse GVT (See Excerpt 1). The participant held the cultural awareness training voluntarily for people that were interested. This case study aimed to take part in this to analyse if this type of training could be aligned with participants’ answers as well as topics brought up in this thesis. The triangulation, deriving from using a second method of collecting and cross-checking data is argued to increase the credibility of the results (Guba & Lincoln, 1985).

3.7 Trustworthiness

Trustworthiness is an important aspect when conducting qualitative research, both for the author and the reader (Morrow, 2005). To achieve trustworthiness, four fundamental criteria need to be attained (Guba & Lincoln, 1985; Antwi & Hamza, 2015):

The credibility of a study is attained through transparency and a clear examination of the

methodological selection to guide the reader through the findings and interpretations of the results shown in Appendix C (Guba & Lincoln 1985). Additionally, this study has aimed to use a logical

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structure and reasoning in order not to claim too bold assumptions (Guba & Lincoln, 1985). The interviewees were given the opportunity to partake in the results, which is another criteria to attain credibility (Guba & Lincoln, 1985).

The transferability of a study is attained by enabling transferable results to other contexts or

environments (Guba & Lincoln 1985). Assumptions can be made that trust in GVTs will continue to be relevant since it is related to human activity and could therefore be transferable to other contexts (Dixon & Panteli, 2010). This case study has therefore presented an extensive description of the subject based on the results from the data in order for fellow researchers to determine the transferability of the study.

Dependability of a study is attained by verifying that the findings are consistent with the data

collection and that it is accessible for others to criticize and audit the processes carried out in the case study (Bryman & Bell, 2011). The results should be able to replicate if the study was made by different scholars using the same data as in this study (Merriam, 1998). To attain dependability the processes throughout conducting this case study have been carefully documented, in terms of the collected data, selection of interviewees, and transcripts (Bryman & Bell, 2011).

Confirmability of a study is attained by contributing studies that can be verified by other academics by carrying out the study without biases, and that the data collected can be viewed as correctly

interpreted (Bryman & Bell, 2011). To ensure the input from the participants and not compromise on quality all interviews were recorded and carried out in pairs, to cross-check and validate the

interpretations (Bryman & Bell, 2011), as well as peer reviewed twice before finalised.

In order for this study to be as trustworthy as possible, we aimed to stay reflexive throughout the research by keeping in mind the potential biases from studying previous research (Morrow, 2005).

Alvesson and Sköldberg (2018) elaborate on the importance of reflexive studies since the answers of the respondents may be biased to benefit their organisation, regardless of their anonymity. Silverman (2011) furthermore brings up the importance of the reliability of studies and how participants might be affected by the surrounding environment during an interview. Since we could not physically meet the participants due to both geographic dispersion and Covid-19 circumstances, all interviews were conducted via Skype or Zoom in which the use of video was encouraged. It is argued to be important to use video online interviews to maintain visual cues (Mirick and Wladkowski, 2019).

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3.8 Research Ethics

When carrying out the interviews it was important to respect the respondents’ privacy as well as the confidentiality of the organisations to avoid generating any damage (Alshenqeeti, 2014). As suggested by Saunders et al (2016), using fictive names for companies and respondents is recommended since the respondents might take risks by answering certain questions, which became the reason behind the terms Company A and B and pseudonyms instead of the real names. Alshenqeeti (2014) and Tracy (2010) further elaborate upon ethical considerations by stating that participants should inform their consent before participating and fully understand their voluntary participation, which was clearly confirmed by all participants in this case study. The data collection was handled discreetly and

anonymously to avoid any information to be traced back to the participants. A final version of the case study was sent to each participant as agreed upon.

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4. Findings and Analysis

4.1 Data Analysis

As this case study applied an epistemological inductive approach to answering the research question, a thematic analysis has been applied to analyse the transcribed interviews. Thematic analysis is a method for qualitative data analysis, carried out to structure the data collection by identifying,

interpreting and organising the information into themes and subthemes (Bryman, 2016). The thematic analysis offers structure and flexibility when analysing the dataset and allows for a complex set of qualitative data (Braun & Clarke, 2006). As this case study adopted an inductive approach to answer the research question, the thematic analysis suggested by Braun and Clarke (2006) allows this case study to perform an inductive analysis and form latent themes of the collected data. This case study adopted the six-phase thematic analysis to identify themes (Braun and Clarke, 2006). Worth mentioning is that the data collected from Company A and Company B have been combined in the analysis and formation of themes in order to attain a richer set of data.

The first phase suggested by Braun and Clarke (2006), to familiarise oneself with all aspects of the data, implies to become acquainted with the substance of the data and form ideas. This was accomplished through the gathered data collection and transcribed interviews, on which one could note initial ideas. The second and third phase involved the organising of data to generate specific codes that collate into themes by systematically review the entire data set (Braun & Clarke, 2006).

151 codes were identified from the interviews which derived from excel tables that categorised each participant and their respective response. The 151 generated codes were coordinated by colour and narrowed down into potential themes based on repetition, similarities, differences, missed data, keywords in the context, and aspects the participants expressed as vital (Bernard & Ryan, 2003).

Phase four involved focusing the themes by ensuring that sufficient data supported the emerged themes and analysing whether the themes accurately reflected the context and that the codes formed a consistent arrangement (Braun & Clarke, 2006). Phase five involved defining and identifying each theme, which resulted in the finalised theoretical framework (Braun & Clarke, 2006). The final and sixth phase consisted of reporting the findings, meaning the construction of the final analysis in which the themes were related back to previous research.

The intention of the complete data collection was to reveal the specific actions taken to establish trust by leaders in Company A and Company B that participated in this case study. From the sixth phase of the thematic analysis, two main themes were outlined and accompanied by six sub-themes that are presented below.

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The themes that were identified in the thematic analysis were communication and

relationship-building (See Figure B). The themes derived from the 151 codes that were generated in the organising of the data collection, based on repetition, keywords and aspects the participants expressed as crucial to establish trust in GVTs. Communicating clear targets and expectations are vital to rely on team members’ performance and commitment to the team as well as reaching the

objectives. Relationship-building is more related to personal connections in which the leaders must take initiative and be interested in the members. Furthermore, recognition was considered an important factor to engage and motivate the members, with the intention of strengthening

relationships. Cultural awareness is closely related to relationship-building as well, as it counts for acknowledging each individual, adjust leadership techniques and spread understanding on cultural diversity among the members to facilitate trust. After presenting the collected data in 4.2 and 4.3 the themes and subthemes will be further discussed in section 5.

4.2 Theme 1: Communication

The first overarching theme from the thematic analysis was communication, based on the fact that the participants agreed that they held the main responsibility to provide frequent and effective

communication to their members. Communication was allegedly one of the biggest challenges for leaders when members were not in front of them, and furthermore an important facilitator for establishing trust. The theme focused on the actions taken by the leaders to ensure that goals and

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expectations were clearly outlined, to ensure that members were held accountable and answerable for their actions while delivering what had been promised. The different ways the participants

communicated and used their position to resolve conflicts or other issues ultimately demonstrated the communicative actions that were taken in favour of establishing trust.

4.2.1 Subtheme: Clear Targets

The participants agreed that if they were clear on the objectives, responsibilities and expectations, they could rely on the members to meet commitments. It was important for the participants to outline clear goals and targets, and all participants agreed that they possess the responsibility to make sure that strategic objectives are achieved, by for instance motivating the team and track progress:

“It is gonna be depending on the individual, generally if you want the deadlines to be met you have to make sure that the deadlines are clear, crisp, documented with appropriate dashboards.” (P5)

“If you establish the goals and objectives upfront to that individual, then you have something to hold them accountable to. (...) I would look for somebody who is accountable and has a track record of delivering exactly what they say, and on time(...) I require my team to give me a weekly status report (...) such as the top 3 things you did this week and 3 challenges that you face. I do the same so that my team sees the message across through transparency and feel that they can be honest towards me.” (P7)

“Again, that’s one weakness with VTs, I don’t know when people come in and out during the day. If they are skilled enough to do the task, they don't need monitoring” (P9).

“and of course everyone needs to send status reports internally to me on a weekly basis or something, but it is more important to sort of follow up the people that are not on track through checkpoints (...) that could be one-to-one meetings, it could also be a team project” (P2)

To be able to track progress it was considered important for the leaders to engage in the team members, become familiarised with their projects in detail, and moreover ensure frequent communication by offering help and guidance:

“...making the time as a manager to have one-to-one conversations with your resources, maybe once a week. Ensure frequent communication to touch base and ask “what do you plan to accomplish and what are your top challenges?” (P7)

“Further I am asking my team members how their business is going; proposing any help, the person's priorities, how is that fitting with his partners and fit into his objectives and what I can do to help to make this moving forward.” (P8)

“I probably don’t realise how I monitor my teams. But I use regular feedback and discussions, with one feedback session every week at least, go down to a detail level on the team members’ activities and during the one-to-one sessions I make sure that the members agree with, and align with, the feedback.” (P4)

In order to have the team members aligned with the goals and expectation, the participants stressed the importance of communicating the value and purpose of carrying out the projects in order for the

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members to feel identified with the team:

“I try to paint the bigger picture in order for them to understand that they are part of something bigger and that they have a key role. When that is well communicated, and furthermore understood, then you get the commitment from the members more easily.” (P4)

“I think it is very important that everyone receive the goals, objectives and the why’s to why we are doing this (...) So that you can feel proud of the work that the customer is having success, and I think it is really important that we make our customers satisfied and measure customer feedback. Then people grow and commit to the team, I believe.” (P2)

In terms of overcoming internal challenges, the participants outlined some problem-solving actions used to facilitate for trust-building. In order to prevent issues and communication breakdowns from arising in the first place, the participants had techniques for detecting emerging issues early on:

“We also have a lot of workbooks, how can we ensure backup-plans. It is important to ensure that we have a backup for every team member because if something happens to someone in a virtual scenario I really don’t know what to do.” (P4)

The participants explained what techniques they use in GVTs to ensure that the goals are articulated and accurately mediated, by carrying out effective and well-prepared meetings:

“Also very important are the stand-up calls, we follow an agile methodology and as part of that, we have daily stand-up video calls. Since we are in this virtual situation, those have become a mandate for everyone to join to provide status and tell how everyone is feeling. I really like that model for continuous tracking.” (P4)

“What I always do in a virtual meeting is that I directly type my meeting minutes and notes on the screen. So people see what I am typing so that I do not hear afterwards “that is not what you said”, it saves me a lot of time later on.” (P6)

“In order to explain more complex things in virtual meetings, I bought myself draw-board and it works really well.” (P9)

“If I am in the office, we used to have Halo-Rooms when running larger meetings. Where you are basically sitting by a desk, you have the cameras pointing at you, so it looks like all of you are sitting at the same conference table, even though we aren't. Then you can see everyone and read everyone's body language when reacting to suggestions.” (P6)

4.2.2 Subtheme: Expectations

In order to ensure that members are aligned with the objectives, one common denominator for the participants was to early on establish clear expectations to hold the members accountable for. They furthermore argued that if expectations are expressed clearly, and ensuring that there is a reciprocal understanding on what the expectations are, this would facilitate for the establishing of trust:

“I am also trying to be clear that I will give them space as long as they meet the targets” (P2)

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“I think setting expectations, getting a group call together with every key person who’s a part of the project. We identify and agree on what the goal is. We identify and agree on the timeline to reach that goal.” (P7)

“I try to be very clear at the beginning of the projects on what the members’ roles are, and my expectations on them.”

(P4)

Several participants expressed that setting expectations opened up for honesty from all parties in the GVT, and they argued that honesty was one of the most critical factors for establishing trust:

“Before I start the project I will explain to them that I am Dutch and my quite direct and I expect that from them as well.

And what I am saying as well is that; do not lie to me. If you are being honest with me I will back you up all the time, if you are not I will not be honest either.” (P6)

“What I do is that I demonstrate that I am available at all time to everyone, I do not distinguish if it is a contact or a team member (...) do not assume that everyone is trying to cheat you if that is your assumption that is rather reflecting what you are doing it yourself (...) if you are not able to meet a deadline tell me upfront.” (P5)

Honesty was used interchangeably with the word transparency among the participants, and they furthermore claimed that transparency is reciprocal. Transparency from the leader includes showing confidence and openness, as well as standing up for the team and involve them in decisions. The participants argue that this will allow for the members to be upfront and ask for direction, which makes the leaders more accepting of smaller failures and mistakes:

“I tell my team members that I rather want bad news than no news. For example, if you are my engineer and you are telling me “I screwed up” - I will not tell the customer that you screwed up. You made a mistake, we will put a plan in place not for that to happen again (...) it is very important to give the people the empowerment and the trust that they can take on more than what’s originally on their plate, for them to do that so they understand that they should not be scared of being blamed. And if they would fail you should not blame them, because that is what they are scared of.” (P6)

“I always do an over-evaluation before gathering the team. And then I ask them in turn: What are the challenges that we are facing? What do we do to overcome these? And I am then very open to listening to their opinion on what the challenge is, and their suggestions for improvement. And then formulate a response based on that.” (P7)

One of the participants implied that for instance in times of crisis, one’s leadership techniques might have to become more democratic:

“Now with Corona - everyone is doing the best they can. It may be burnout issues so I have to withstand the view that every individual is trying their best to contribute their best. So in crisis, I feel that we have to to be more democratic. The moment I am able to do that, the team members are reacting better.” (P5)

The Art of Virtual Trust: A qualitative case study on how leaders establish trust in their geographically dispersed virtual teams.