VIOLATION OF WOMEN’S RIGHTS: FEMALE GENITAL
MUTILATION
Author: Christian Powlohtee Troh Tutor: Susanne Alldén
Examiner: Manuela Nilsson Term: VT20
Subject: Peace and Development Studies III Level: Undergraduate
ABSTRACT
This study intends to analyze the causes of the high prevalence of the practice of female genital mutilations (FGM) in Sudan, Nigeria and Iraq. For the attainment of this particular objective, the researcher had used the secondary data collection and the qualitative data analysis method. The results of the study indicate that the factors of culture, religion and society are the three most important ones which had directly contributed towards the high prevalence of FGM in the different developing nations like Sudan, Nigeria and Iraq among others. More importantly, the results also indicate that the practice of is an attempt on the part of the male dominated society of these nations to not only control the sexuality of the women but of almost all the aspects of their life. Furthermore, this particular ritual while adversely affecting the wellbeing as well as the health of the women and the girls is a gross violation of the human rights or the basic fundamental rights of the girls and the women. In addition to these, it had been seen that although the different nations of the world like Sudan and Iraq in the recent years had taken the help of various measures, legislations and others but they have failed to help these nations to effectively reduce the high prevalence of FGM. However, in the relation mention needs to be made of the nation of Nigeria which in the recent years had been able to reduce the prevalence of FGM by more than half through the usage of adequate implementation and monitoring strategies for the effective usage of the different legislations, regulations and others related to FGM. This as a matter of fact has important implications for the nations like Iraq and Sudan since they also have the option to reduce the high prevalence of FGM in their territory through the usage of similar measures. Lastly, the study recommends the usage of adequate implementation, monitoring and evaluation strategies for the legislations, regulations and others related to FGM, empowerment of women and the spread of required awareness regarding the harmful effects of FGM on the health and the wellbeing of the women for reducing the high prevalence of the same.
Table of Contents
Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION ...4
1.1 Introduction ...4
1.2 Research Objective ...6
1.3 Research Questions ...6
1.4 Rationale of the Study ...6
1.5 Study Outline ...7
1.6 Summary ...9
Chapter 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ... 10
2.1 Introduction ... 10
2.2 Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) ... 10
2.3 Summary ... 13
Chapter 3: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ... 14
3.1 Introduction ... 14
3.2 Social Dominance Theory ... 14
3.3 Social Norms Theory ... 15
3.4 Summary ... 16
Chapter 4: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ... 17
4.1 Introduction ... 17
4.2 Rationale for the Selection of Sudan, Nigeria and Iraq ... 17
4.3 Qualitative Data Analysis Method ... 18
4.4 Qualitative Study ... 18
4.5 Abductive Study ... 19
4.6 Limitations and Delimitations ... 19
4.7 Ethical Considerations ... 21
Chapter 5: PRESENTATION OF RESULTS ... 22 5.1 Introduction ... 22 5.2 Presentation of Findings ... 22 5.3 Summary ... 28 Chapter 6: ANALYSIS ... 29 6.1 Introduction ... 29
6.2 Analysis of the Findings ... 29
6.3 Summary ... 32
Chapter 7: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ... 33
7.1 Conclusion ... 33
7.2 Recommendations ... 33
7.3 Future Scope ... 34
References ... 35
List of Abbreviations
FGM: Female Genital Mutilation UN: United Nations
UNICEF: United Nations Children's Fund WHO: World Health Organization
Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION 1.1 Introduction
As stated by Lurie et al. (2020), female genital mutilation (FGM) also called by the names of female circumcision, female genital cutting and others is the ritual practice of removing or cutting a part of or the entire external female genitalia of the female individuals mainly in the African, Middle Eastern and Asian nations. Shabila, Ahmed and Safari (2017) are of the viewpoint that in the majority of the cases the ritual is being executed before the girls turn five and generally involves the removal of the clitoral hood and clitoral glans, outer labia and inner labia and a small hole is being left for the passage of the urine and menstrual fluids. This as a matter of fact is a very painful process for the girls and usually entails with itself different adverse health effects like difficultly in urinating, chronic pain, recurrent infections, development of cysts, difficulty in getting pregnant, fatal bleeding, complications during childbirth and others (Ahmed, Shabu and Shabila 2019).
According to the official report of Unicef.org (2020) on female genital mutilations (FGM), every year more than 4 million girls all over the world belong the age of 15 years undergo the process of FGM and only 1 in every 3 cases are actually being handled by professional healthcare professionals. The large number of FGMs which are being executed by the unqualified professionals had significantly enhanced the health risks faced by the girls along with the health risks that they normally experience on account of the FGM that they undergo (Rouzi et al. 2019). More importantly, FGM in the nations of Sudan, Nigeria and Iraq since the traditional times had been the embodiment of the masochistic or misogynist culture which is dominated in the different nations of the world, particularly the third world nations (Klein et al. 2018). For instance, the primary idea behind the usage of this particular ritual in the nations of Sudan, Nigeria, Iraq and others is to ensure that the husband of the girl is being able to get the maximum amount of sexual pleasure while having intercourse with the girl, to prevent the girls from losing their virginity before marriage, to suppress their sexual desires, fantasies and others (Andro and Lesclingand 2017).
their marriage (Awolola and Ilupeju 2019). Although the different international bodies like UN, WHO, UNICEF and others have formulated various policies, regulations and mandates the situation had not been resolved effectively (Alosaimi et al. 2019). It is in the light of these aspects that the researcher intends to analyze the causes for the high prevalence of the practice of female genital mutilations (FGM) in Sudan, Nigeria and Iraq. The nation of Sudan had been selected since 87% of the women in the concerned nation undergo the process of FGM whereas the nation of Iraq had been selected since more than 40% of girls and women in Iraq have gone through this process. Furthermore, the Sudanese government had made amendment to the Criminal Law Article 141 on 22nd April, 2020 so as to criminalize FGM within the concerned nation (Bbc.com 2020). Lastly, Nigeria had also been selected since more than 27% girls and women in the concerned nation have undergone FGM and also on account of the fact that the nation in the recent years has been able to effectively reduce the high prevalence of FGM through the usage of different legislations and policies.
here had practically taken no measures for the effective implementation of the same and also the number of people who had been arrested related to this particular crime are very low which in turn had not contributed in any significant manner towards the resolution of this issue (Bbc.com 2020). Thus, in the absence of any effective regulation or legislation the different nations and thereby people simply refer to the international regulations and the mandates related to the same however even these are not been ardently followed.
1.2 Research Objective
The objective of this study is to analyze the causes for the high prevalence of the practice of female genital mutilations (FGM) in Sudan, Nigeria and Iraq.
1.3 Research Questions
1. What are the factors which account for the high prevalence of FGM in Sudan, Nigeria and Iraq?
2. What legislations and policy frameworks related to FGM exists in Sudan, Nigeria and Iraq?
3. What are the ways through which the issue of FGM can be resolved effectively in Sudan, Nigeria and Iraq?
1.4 Rationale of the Study
2018 40% of all the girls within the concerned nation in the age bracket of 12-24 years had to undergo the concerned process.
In the nation of Nigeria, it is seen that around 20 million women of the concerned nation or roughly about 27% of the girls and the women of the nation related to the age bracket of 15-49 years of age had undergone the process of FGM (Daly and Carson 2020). Ahmed et al. (2019) are of the viewpoint that the high prevalence of FGM had caused infertility, infections, maternal deaths, loss of sexual pleasure, cysts, issues in urinating and the passing out of menstrual fluid and others which in turn had adversely affected the health of the women. More importantly, the high prevalence of FGM in the different third world nations had reinforced the masochistic or misogynist society of these nations, deprived the women of their basic rights of equality, freedom, the right to lead their life on their own terms and others which in turn had adversely affected the quality of life led by them as well (Klein et al. 2018). Furthermore, the high prevalence of FGM in the nations under discussion here can also be seen as an attempt on the part of the male dominated society of these nations to control the sexuality of the women and thereby almost all the aspects of their life. This dominance of the male individuals over the female individuals of these nations in turn had given rise to the situation wherein it had been seen that the women of these nations have struggled to acquire the required amount of growth or development and have also been commoditized by the male members of the society as well. These aspects along with the damage that the ritual of FGM causes to the health as well as the wellbeing of the girls and the women had made it all the more important for the different nations like Sudan, Iraq and Nigeria to take the help of various measures for the resolution of the same. Lastly, the ineffectiveness of the legislative frameworks of the different nations of the world along with the failure to effectively comply with the international regulations, mandates, stipulations and others related to FGM formulated by the WHO, UN, UNICEF and others had also aggravated the issue even further (Shabila, Ahmed and Safari 2017). In the light of these aspects, it can be said that the issue selected by the researcher is a completely relevant one from the perspective of the contemporary times.
1.5 Study Outline
Figure 1: Study Outline Source: (Created by the Author)
The researcher had adhered to the academic standards of conducting research and thus the researcher had divided the entire study into seven chapters. Chapter 2 presents a review of the past literature related to female genital mutilations, the cultural and the religious connotations associated with this practice, the manner in which legislations and universal human rights have failed to address this particular issue and others. Furthermore, this particular chapter also discusses the prevalence of FGM in Sudan, Iraq and Nigeria while explaining the different facets of the same in the particular context of these nations. Chapter 3 presents the theoretical framework that had been used for the completion of this study. For instance, the two theories which had been used by the researcher for the analysis of FGM in Sudan, Nigeria and Iraq are the social dominance theory and the social norms theory. Chapter 4 discusses the research methodological framework along with its different components that had been used for the completion of this study. Chapter 5 highlights the findings obtained from the analysis of the secondary data collected for the completion of this study whereas Chapter 6 presents a discussion of the same through the usage of theoretical arguments presented in Chapter 2 and Chapter 3. Lastly, Chapter 7 summarizes the findings or the results of the study.
chapter 1: introduction chapter 2: LITERATURE REVIEW chapter 3: theoretical framework chapter 4: research methodology chapter 5: presentation of findings chapter 6: analysis
1.6 Summary
Chapter 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Introduction
This chapter presents a review of the past literature related to the research topic selected for analysis in this study. This had been done so as to facilitate an understanding of the causes of high prevalence of FGM in Sudan, Nigeria and Iraq and also the factors which have contributed towards the same.
2.2 Female Genital Mutilation (FGM)
Battle, Hennink and Yount (2017) are of the viewpoint that Female Genital mutilation (FGM) refers to all the processes or the rituals which are associated with the removal of the parts of the external genitalia of the females or any kind of injury to the genitals of the girls as well as the women for non-medical reasons. Supporting this, Berg et al. (2017) have noted that in the majority of the cases the process of FGM is being undertaken for cultural, social and religious reasons rather than any specific medical reason and it is because of the manner in which this particular process had become ingrained within the religious, cultural and the social aspects of the different nations that the authorities are finding it very difficult to resolve this particular issue experienced by the girls and the women. For instance, in the majority of the cases it is seen that the parts of the external genitals of the girls are being removed within a few days of their birth and if not undertaken immediately after the birth of the girls then it is undertaken before they reach puberty (Connor et al. 2016). However, at the same time it needs to be said that regardless of the time in the life of the girls at which this particular process is being undertaken it involves the removal of the clitoral hood and clitoral glans, outer labia and inner labia and a small hole is being left for the passage of the urine and menstrual fluids (Chang, Low and Percec 2017). This actually is a very painful process and can adversely affect the health as well as the wellbeing of the individuals undergoing the concerned process.
shock, septicaemia, infection, neurogenic shock because of the pain and the trauma that the concerned process entails and others (Darby 2016). In addition to these, it is seen that the pain of having to undergo this process does not stop after the completion of the surgery but is a lifelong process and can adversely affect the quality of the life led by the women through the menstrual problems, infertility, painful sexual intercourses and others that the women who had undergone this particular process in their childhood usually experience (Rouzi et al. 2017). Furthermore, in the majority of the cases it is seen that the process of FGM is being undertaken by unqualified individuals without having the required medical expertise or the knowledge which is required for undertaking the process under discussion here (Vogt, Efferson and Fehr 2017). The resultant effect of this is that because of the lack of expertise of the individuals the girls or the women undergoing the concerned process had to endure a substantial amount of pain along with the side effects of the same and there are numerous girls who even die due to bleeding on account of the lack of expertise of the individuals carrying out the process of FGM (Boddy 2016).
given rise to the kind of culture within the different nations within a high prevalence of FGM which influences the male members of the society to perceive the females as merely objects of their gratification and the resultant effect of this is that the women in these nations rather than being seen as human beings are seen as mere commodities or objects which can be possessed and used by the men in whichever way that suits their interests (Kandala et al. 2018).
In addition to these, in the face of the ever-increasing prevalence of FGM numerous international conventions and treaties have been signed by the international authorities and the different nations are required to follow the stipulations, mandates, regulations and others formed through the same. Some of the most important ones in this relation are International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR), the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW), and the Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) (Kandala et al. 2018). Along with these, different international bodies like CEDAW Committee, the Committee on the Rights of the Child, the Committee Against Torture, and the Human Rights Committee and others for have created in the recent years have monitoring the cases of FGM and taking measures which will help in the resolution of the same (Harari 2019). The “Plan of Action for the Elimination of Harmful Traditional Practices Affecting the Health of Women and Children” (1994) is an important one in the relation (Earp 2019). However, at the same time it needs to be said that these initiatives, measures, action plans and others formulated by the international authorities along with the national government of the third world nations or the developing nations it is seen that the prevalence of FGM had not reduced in any significant manner (Von Rège and Campion 2017). This in turn raises questions not only regarding the effectiveness of the policies, regulations, mandates, legislations and others which are being used for the reducing the high prevalence of FGM but also about the extent to which the concerned process had become a part of the social, cultural and the religious environment of the nations that it is becoming almost impossible to eradicate the same.
2.3 Summary
Chapter 3: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 3.1 Introduction
This chapter highlights the major theories which had been used for the analysis of the high prevalence of female genital mutilation within Sudan, Nigeria and Iraq and also the manner in which they have become ingrained within the cultural, social and the religious traditions followed by the people of these nations despite the presence of different international and national legislations and also the human rights. The two major theories which had been used for undertaking this analysis are Social Dominance Theory and the Social Norms Theory.
3.2 Social Dominance Theory
Stewart et al. (2016) are of the viewpoint that the social dominance theory (SDT) belongs to the category of intergroup relations theory and thereby focuses on the stability as well as the maintenance of group-based social hierarchies. Elaborating this, Kunst et al. (2017) have noted that a per this particular theory the inequality with the different groups are being maintained through the effective usage of three intergroup behaviors, namely, institutional discrimination, behavioral asymmetry and aggregated individual discrimination. More importantly, the theory under discussion here also articulates the idea that the cultural ideologies or for that matter the legitimized myths followed by a particular group offer the required moral as well as the ethical justification for the above mentioned three behavior displayed the entire group as a whole (Redhead et al. 2019). The hierarchies outlined by this particular theory, introduced by Felicia Pratto and Jim Sidanius in the year 1999, are based on three important attributes, namely, age, sex and arbitrary set. For instance, the older an individual is the greater the amount of power that individual holds within the concerned group and this is the reason why the adults hold more power within the society in comparison to the children (Milfont and Sibley 2016). On the other hand, the male individuals hold greater amount of power within the different social groups or for that matter within the society of the different nations of the world (Dhont, Hodson and Leite 2016). Lastly, the arbitrary-set hierarchies are defined on the basis of the ethnicity, culture, sexual orientation, religion and other important aspects of the members of the group.
this theory takes into consideration the attributes of age, culture and the gender and also considers the male and the female individuals as the social principles for the analysis of the social phenomenon of FGM. This as a matter of fact has important implications for the process of FGM since over the years it had been seen that within the patriarchal society of the nations of Sudan, Nigeria and Iraq the women had been dominated by the male members of the concerned group or the society (Vogt et al. 2016). More importantly, the different actions which are being undertaken by the females are intended for the fulfillment of their sole job role within the society, that is, satisfying the different needs or for that matter the requirements of the male members of the society (Zurynski et al. 2017). The resultant effect of this is that the women and the girls of these nations undergo the process of FGM on account of the societal pressure that they experience within the male dominated society rather than on their accord (Muteshi, Miller and Belizán 2016). This actually outlines the inferior position that the women have within these nations and also the desire of the male individuals to control the female community including their sexuality, their sexual desires, their decision to have sex and others (Cloward 2016). The hypocrisy of the male members of these nations become apparent from the fact that they have the option to indulge in polygamy however in order to ensure that the men are marrying virgin girls the girls are made to undergo this process (Odukogbe et al. 2017). In addition to the girls, it is seen that the married women and divorced women whose husbands go out for work to the other nations or are far from their wives need to undergo this particular process to ensure the fact that they are not having sexual intercourse with other men (Peters and Wolper 2018). Thus, it can be said that the process of FGM is a practice used in the nation under discussion here meant for the purpose of controlling the different aspects of the lives of the girls and the women including their sexuality.
3.3 Social Norms Theory
female genital mutilation which is being undertaken in the nations of Sudan, Iraq and Nigeria along with the other nations of the world. For instance, as per this particular theory the individuals, especially the male individuals, develop misperceptions or conceptions regarding the process of FGM from their peers and thereby forced the girls or the women to undergo the concerned process on account of the power as well as the dominance that they hold within the society. More importantly, in the nations under discussion here since the traditional times the attributes or for that matter the values of purity, submission of women, hygiene, monogamy for women and others have held significance and thus it is seen that even in the present times the male members of the society of these nations force the women to live as per these values or attributes (Abdulcadir et al. 2016). Furthermore, the women or the girls who are not willing to undergo the process of FGM had to face the ire of the society and are even being excluded from the main society as well. This in turn had created the situation wherein it is seen that the women and the girls had to undergo the process of FGM regardless of their desire or the damage that it cause to their health and wellbeing so as to appease the desires or the norms held by the male members of the society.
3.4 Summary
Chapter 4: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 4.1 Introduction
The researcher for the completion of this study had taken the help of the abductive qualitative desk study method. This particular method had helped the researcher to analyze the different secondary sources of information related to the causes for the high prevalence of the practice of female genital mutilations (FGM) in Sudan, Nigeria and Iraq despite the different legislations and the universal human rights prohibiting the same. The usage of this particular method had also helped the researcher to analyze the manner in which FGMs have become ingrained within the cultural and religious traditions of the people of these nations.
4.2 Rationale for the Selection of Sudan, Nigeria and Iraq
this had helped the researcher to understand the role played by culture or society towards the enhancement of FGM.
4.3 Qualitative Data Analysis Method
The data or the evidence required for the completion of this study will had been collected from the different reports related to FGM, credible newspaper articles, peer-reviewed articles, the documents, press releases and others prepared by UN, UNESCO, national governments of Sudan, Nigeria and Iraq, medical reports and case studies related to FGM and others. Furthermore, for the analysis of the secondary data collected from these secondary sources the researcher will use the qualitative data analysis method. Sovacool, Axsen and Sorrell (2018) are of the viewpoint that the qualitative data analysis method requires the researchers objectively the things which are being said by the authors within a particular text or for that matter the information that they intend to convey through the same. Adding to this, Danermark, Ekström and Karlsson (2019) have noted that the primary focus of the researchers taking the help of the qualitative data analysis method is to effectively analyze the arguments of the texts rather than the content or the debates presented by the concerned texts. The resultant effect of this is that the usage of this particular data analysis method helps the researchers to pierce through the veneer of the plethora of information presented by the different texts or secondary sources and use only the arguments presented by the same for the effective analysis of the research topic that they have selected for analysis in the study (Silverman 2016). Thus, the researcher had used this particular data analysis method since it had helped the researcher to objective analyze the arguments of the different secondary sources of information that had been used for the completion of the study and thereby use the same for the analysis of the research topic of this study.
4.4 Qualitative Study
social life led by them. This is usually being done by the researchers through the usage of the information or the data provided by the different secondary sources of information like the peer-reviewed articles, textbooks, credible newspaper articles, government reports, different kinds of reports published by UN, UNESCO and others. It is in the light of these aspects that the researcher had opted for the usage of this particular study method so as to analyze the high prevalence of the practice of female genital mutilations (FGM) in Sudan, Nigeria and Iraq despite the different legislations and the universal human rights prohibiting the same while focusing on the manner in which FGMs have become ingrained within the cultural and religious traditions of the people of these nations.
4.5 Abductive Study
The researcher will focus on the analysis of the prevalence of FGM in three nations, namely, Sudan, Iraq and Nigeria and thus adequate amount of information or the data related to the usage of the practice of FGM in these three nations is required for the effective completion of this researcher. However, on account of resource and time constraints it is not feasible for the researcher to take the help of the method of field trip and thereby visit each of these three nations for the collection of data required for the completion of this study directly from the stakeholders of the study or for that matter the women who have undergone FGM. Thus, rather than using the method of field study, the researcher had opted for the usage of the method of desk study. The usage of this particular method had helped the researcher to take the help of different theoretical models, frameworks, observations, ideologies and others for the analysis of the high prevalence of FGM in Sudan, Nigeria and Iraq. More importantly, through the usage of this particular method the researcher also got the opportunity to take the help of different perspectives, viewpoints and others for analyze the issue of FGM in Sudan, Nigeria and Iraq from different angles like cultural perspective, religious perspective, legal perspective and others. This in turn had not only helped the researcher to effectively analyze the research topic but also to substantially enhance the quality of the study as well.
4.6 Limitations and Delimitations
can be seen that the limitation of a study which is the result of the choices made by the researchers. The most important limitation of this study can be attributed to the fact that the researcher on account of time and resource constraints had to rely primarily on the secondary data for the completion of this study and thereby no primary data had been used for the completion of this study. For instance, the usage of the method of interview for the collection of evidence or the information needed for the completion of this study would have improved the quality of the work and also its accuracy significantly. Another important limitation of the work can be attributed to the fact that the researcher because of the word count constraint had not been able to undertake an in-depth or for that matter a detailed discussion of the research topic. Lastly, the research topic selected by the researcher is very broad in nature and the scope or for that matter the quality of the study could have been improved significantly had the researcher narrowed down the research topic and thereby focused on one specific aspect of FGM in the developing nations like Sudan, Nigeria and Iraq.
important delimitation of the study since numerous high-quality studies were being published before the year 2016 and the usage of the same could have significantly improved the quality and the scope of the study. These in short are some of the delimitations of the study which had adversely affected the scope and the quality of the study.
4.7 Ethical Considerations
The researcher in this study had not collected primary data for the analysis of the research topic so as such thereby are no major ethical considerations regarding the collection of primary data, protection of primary data, usage of the primary data that had been collected for the completion of the study and others. However, the researcher had tried to ardently follow the ethical considerations of conducting academic research work. For instance, the researcher had ensured the arguments of the different secondary sources of information that had been collected for the completion of the study are being objectively analyzed and proper deductions have been made on the basis of the information offered by them and no data manipulations have been done for the completion of the study. More importantly, the researcher for the purpose of avoiding the issue of plagiarism had taken the help of in-text citations and also reference and thereby offered the due credit to the scholars or the researchers whose works have been used for the completion of this study.
4.8 Summary
Chapter 5: PRESENTATION OF RESULTS 5.1 Introduction
The researcher in this chapter had presented the findings which had been obtained from the analysis of the secondary data that had been collected for the completion of this study related to the high prevalence of FGM in Sudan, Nigeria and Iraq. The method of qualitative data analysis method had been used by the researcher for the analysis of the secondary data that had been collected for the completion of the study.
5.2 Presentation of Findings
concerned nation as well it is seen that there are different legislations related to the prohibition of FGM however due to the ineffective implementation of the same and also on account of the extensive usage of the Sharia law which actually support FGM the situation had failed to resolve effectively (Stopfgmkurdistan.org 2020). However, the nation of Nigeria had been able to reduce the number of cases related to FGM by more than 50% in the recent years it the wake of the initiatives as well as the actions undertaken by President Goodluck Ebele Jonathan (Unicef.org 2020). This is an indication of the fact that the high prevalence of FGM in the different developing nations can be effectively controlled if adequate measures are implemented for the resolution of the same.
these nations had also significantly contributed towards the high prevalence of FGM within these nations. This can be explained on the basis of the fact that the women within these nations rather than being seen as human beings are often being seen as mere commodities who are meant only for the satisfaction of the male members of the society. Furthermore, the condition of the women in these nations is another important reason which had significantly contributed towards the high prevalence of FGM in these nations (Hrw.org 2020). The religion of Islam that these nations follow does not allow much freedom or any choice to the female individuals which in turn get reflected on the mandatory nature or for that matter the compulsion which is being placed on the process of FGM within the nations under discussion here (Stopfgmkurdistan.org 2020). The women had to depend on the male members not only for their identity but for their very existence in these nations and the resultant effect of this is that they have no alternative but to follow the rules or the regulations created by the male dominated society of these nations.
conceiving a child, can develop menstrual issues along with other issues and can even die as well. Moreover, the issue becomes even more gruesome when the fact that the majority of the FGM undertaken in the nations under discussion here are being undertaken by unqualified individuals who lack the skill or for that matter the expertise to manage the situation if anything goes wrong during the process (Bbc.com. 2020). Thus, it becomes all the more important for the national government of the nations with high prevalence of FGM and also the international authorities to take the help of adequate measures for reducing the high prevalence of FGM in these nations. A detailed analysis of the prevalence of FGM in Sudan, Nigeria and Iraq and also the causes for the same is being given below-
places and also within their homes in the presence of the male members of their family (Akbas et al. 2019).
In addition to these, it had been seen that the national government of Sudan over the years had formulated different legislations for the eradication of FGM but had not been able to do so completely. For instance, the legislation related to the prohibition of Type III FGM within Sudan was formulated as early as 1943 however not much heed to the same was being paid by the common people of the nation and by the year 1983 it was made completely obsolete through the introduction of the Sharia law (Mahgoub et al. 2019). The concerned nation realizing the inhumane nature of FGM tried to stop the usage of the same through the formulation of different legislations like National Child Act of 2009 and others however it is not until the year 2020 that any concrete legislation had been formulated for the resolution of the concerned issue within the nation under discussion here (Bbc.com 2020). In 2020, the national government of Sudan made FGM to be a criminal activity and the individuals indulging in the same can be punished for a maximum period of three years despite the fact that the human right activist have raised concerns regarding the effectiveness of this legislation and also the manner in which it would be implemented within Sudan wherein FGM had become an important part of the social framework (Bbc.com 2020).
the fact that unlike the other nations of the world wherein the girls related to the age bracket of 0-5 years had to undergo FGM in the nation of Iraq the age bracket during which the girls undergo FGM is 4-12 years (Joly and Bakawan 2016). Furthermore, just like the nation of Sudan within the nation of Iraq also it is seen that this particular ritual had been ingrained within the social, cultural and the religious landscape of the concerned nation. For example, the religion of Islam which is being followed in Iraq does not allow any significant amount of freedom to the girls and the women of the concerned nation and the girls are required to follow the synchronize their dressing style, their manners, their lifestyle and the other important aspects of their life s per the precepts of the Sharia Law (Kaya 2016). The Sharia Law over the years had been used within the concerned nation for the purpose of justifying the usage of the practice of FGM (Shabila 2017). The prevalence of FGM within Iraq was brought to the attention of the world for the first time in the year 2009 by the UNAMI (United Nations Assistance Mission for Iraq and since then numerous policies, legislations, stipulations and others have been formulated for the eradication of the same (Shabila 2017). However, these stipulations, legislations, policies and others have failed to yield the desired result which in turn is an important reason for the high prevalence of FGM within the concerned nation despite the fact that Iraq is a signatory member of the majority of international treaties related to the safeguarding of the rights of the women and the girls (Ahmed, Shabu and Shabila 2019).
President Goodluck Ebele Jonathan completely banned the usage of the practice of FGM within the nation of Nigeria and also different bodies have been established within the concerned nation like the Circumcision Descendants Association of Nigeria (CDAN) and others for the eradication of FGM in Nigeria (Anikwe et al. 2019). In addition to these, the World Health Organization, UN, International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics, UNICEF, African Union, Coalition of Advocates against Violence, Population Council and others are also playing a pivotal role for the resolution of the issue under discussion here (Ossai et al. 2018). The effectiveness of the action undertaken by President Goodluck Ebele Jonathan and also the work performed by the above mentioned authorities becomes apparent from the fact that in the last few years the prevalence of FGM had reduced within Nigeria by more than half and if it continues to reduce at this rate then within a few years it is likely to become completely obsolete within the concerned nation (Omigbodun et al. 2020).
5.3 Summary
Chapter 6: ANALYSIS 6.1 Introduction
This chapter undertakes an analysis of the findings obtained from the secondary data or information that had been collected for the completion of this study. The researcher had used the theoretical framework and also the information highlighted in the Background Research chapter for the conduct of this analysis and this in turn had helped the researcher to address the research objectives as well as the research questions of this study.
6.2 Analysis of the Findings
indicate that the practice of FGM had become ingrained within the family heritage and practices of the different families of the concerned nation and thus it is seen that the mothers of the girls themselves take the required initiative for the purpose of making their girls undergo the process of FGM. These are in synchronicity with the theories of social dominance theory and the social norms theory discussed in the theoretical framework section of this study.
they are in direct violation of the human rights and also the different international legislations, regulations, norms and others.
as a matter of fact has important implications for the other nations like Sudan and Iraq since they also have the opportunity to take the help of similar measures for reducing the high prevalence of FGM in their nations.
6.3 Summary
Chapter 7: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 7.1 Conclusion
The result of the study indicates that the factors of culture, society and religion had directly contributed towards the high prevalence of female genital mutilation (FGM) within the nations of Sudan, Nigeria and Iraq. For instance, within the nations of Iraq and Sudan it had been seen that the religion of Islam followed by the people of these nations not only supports the process of FGM but had also enhanced the prevalence of the same. On the contrary, in the nation of Nigeria it had been seen that the high prevalence of FGM had more to do with the culture or for that matter the traditions which are being followed by the people of the concerned nation. Thus, it can be said that the ritual of FGM had become ingrained within the religious, social and the cultural landscape of the different developing nations like Sudan, Nigeria and Iraq which in turn had directly contributed towards the high prevalence of the same. More importantly, the results of the study also reveals the fact that the ritual of FGM adversely affects the health and the wellbeing of the girls and the women and is an attempt on the part of the male dominated society of these nations to not only control the sexuality of the women but of almost all the aspects of their life. This can be explained on the basis of the fact that the ritual of FGM is in direct violation of the different fundamental rights or for that matter the basic human rights of the women and the girls and deprives them of the right to equality, protection against abuse or harm and others which in turn had aggravated the threat posed by FGM even further. In addition to these, it had also been seen that although nations like Sudan and Iraq have formulated different legislations related to the control of FGM but on account of ineffective implementation as well as monitoring measures used by the nations these legislations have failed to offer the required results. However, the nation of Nigeria is important in this connection since the concerned nation through the effective usage of different measures had been able to reduce the prevalence of FGM within its territory by more than half. This has important implications for the different nations like Sudan and Iraq since they also have the opportunity to take the help of similar measures for reducing the high prevalence of FGM in their territory.
7.2 Recommendations
eradication of FGM. Furthermore, suitable monitoring and evaluation strategies also needs to be used to analyze the benefits offered by the implementation of the same and also to identify adequate ways through which they can be improved. This in turn will help the nations to effectively reduce the high prevalence of FGM in their territory and thereby improve the condition of women.
➢ The different nations need to spread adequate amount of awareness regarding the damage that the process of FGM causes to the women so as to reduce its prevalence of FGM. The majority of the men have no idea regarding the damage that FGM causes to the women and they simply think that it is going to enhance the pleasure that they are going to derive while having sexual intercourse. Thus, by spreading the required information or knowledge about the harmful effects of FGM the authorities have the opportunity to influence the behavior of the men and thereby reduce the high prevalence of FGM. ➢ The different nations for reducing the high prevalence of FGM needs to empower the
women of their nation. This is important since in the majority of the nations like Sudan, Nigeria and Iraq it had been seen that the women even in the present times have not been able to attain the required amount of empowerment which in turn is one of the major reasons why they are being forced into undergoing FGM by the male members of the society. Thus, it is likely that by empowering the women the different nations with high prevalence of FGM would be able to reduce the same.
7.3 Future Scope
References
Abathun, A.D., Sundby, J. and Gele, A.A., 2016. Attitude toward female genital mutilation among Somali and Harari people, Eastern Ethiopia. International journal of women's health, 8, p.557.
Abdulcadir, J., Botsikas, D., Bolmont, M., Bilancioni, A., Djema, D.A., Demicheli, F.B., Yaron, M. and Petignat, P., 2016. Sexual anatomy and function in women with and without genital mutilation: a cross-sectional study. The journal of sexual medicine, 13(2), pp.226-237.
Aderibigbe, S.A., Ameen, B.A.M.H., Salaudeen, A.G., Saka, M.J., Uthman, M.M.B., Bolarinwa, O.A., Akande, T.M. and Raji, H.O., 2018. Practice Of Female Genital Cutting Amongst Adults In Ilorin Metropolis, North-Central Nigeria. EDITORIAL BOARD, p.3430.
Agbede, C., Kio, J. and Adeyemo, O., 2019. Correlates of intention to discontinue female genital mutilation in Osun State, Nigeria: Implication for women well‐being. Public Health Nursing, 36(5), pp.615-622.
Ahmed, H.M., Kareem, M.S., Shabila, N.P. and Mzori, B.Q., 2018. Knowledge and perspectives of female genital cutting among the local religious leaders in Erbil governorate, Iraqi Kurdistan region. Reproductive health, 15(1), p.44.
Ahmed, H.M., Kareem, M.S., Shabila, N.P. and Mzori, B.Q., 2019. Religious leaders’ position toward female genital cutting and their perspectives on the relationship between the Islamic religion and this practice. Women & health, 59(8), pp.854-866.
Ahmed, H.M., Shabu, S.A. and Shabila, N.P., 2019. A qualitative assessment of women’s perspectives and experience of female genital mutilation in Iraqi Kurdistan Region. BMC women's health, 19(1), p.66.
Akbas, M., Birge, O., Arslan, D. and Ozbey, E.G., 2019. Opinions of university students about female genital mutilation in Sudan. Eastern Mediterranean Health Journal, 25(4).
Andro, A. and Lesclingand, M., 2017. Female genital mutilation around the world. Population & Societies, (4), pp.1-4.
Anikwe, C.C., Ejikeme, B.N., Obiechina, N.J., Okorochukwu, B.C., Obuna, J.A., Onu, F.A. and Ajah, L.O., 2019. Female genital mutilation and obstetric outcome: A cross-sectional comparative study in a tertiary hospital in Abakaliki South East Nigeria. European journal of obstetrics & gynecology and reproductive biology: X, 1, p.100005.
Arora, K.S. and Jacobs, A.J., 2016. Female genital alteration: a compromise solution. Journal of medical ethics, 42(3), pp.148-154.
Awolola, O.O. and Ilupeju, N.A., 2019. Female genital mutilation; culture, religion, and medicalization, where do we direct our searchlights for it eradication: Nigeria as a case study. Tzu-Chi Medical Journal, 31(1), p.1.
Battle, J.D., Hennink, M.M. and Yount, K.M., 2017. Influence of female genital cutting on sexual experience in southern Ethiopia. International Journal of Sexual Health, 29(2), pp.173-186.
Bayes, J. and Tohidi, N. eds., 2016. Globalization, Religion and Gender: The Politics of Women's Rights in Catholic and Muslim Contexts. Springer.
Bbc.com 2020. 30 Million 'Face Female Mutilation'. [online] Available at: <https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-23410858> [Accessed 23 May 2020].
Bbc.com. 2020. Sudan Criminalises Female Genital Mutilation. [online] Available at: <https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-52502489> [Accessed 20 May 2020].
Berg, R.C., Taraldsen, S., Said, M.A., Sørbye, I.K. and Vangen, S., 2017. Reasons for and experiences with surgical interventions for female genital mutilation/cutting (FGM/C): a systematic review. The journal of sexual medicine, 14(8), pp.977-990.
Boddy, J., 2016. The normal and the aberrant in female genital cutting: Shifting paradigms. HAU: Journal of Ethnographic Theory, 6(2), pp.41-69.
Borokini, A., Ige, A.E. and Folusho-Ojo, R.A., 2020. The Response of Human Rights Law to the Practice of Female Genital Mutilation in Nigeria. JL Pol'y & Globalization, 94, p.114.
Chang, C.S., Low, D.W. and Percec, I., 2017. Female genital mutilation reconstruction: a preliminary report. Aesthetic surgery journal, 37(8), pp.942-946.
Cislaghi, B. and Heise, L., 2019. Using social norms theory for health promotion in low-income countries. Health promotion international, 34(3), pp.616-623.
Cloward, K., 2016. When norms collide: Local responses to activism against female genital mutilation and early marriage. Oxford University Press.
Connor, J.J., Hunt, S., Finsaas, M., Ciesinski, A., Ahmed, A. and Robinson, B.B.E., 2016. Sexual health care, sexual behaviors and functioning, and female genital cutting: perspectives from Somali women living in the United States. The Journal of Sex Research, 53(3), pp.346-359. Daly, C. and Carson, M., 2020. Nigeria: 20 Million Women And Girls Have Undergone FGM. [online] the Guardian. Available at: <https://www.theguardian.com/society/2016/oct/11/fgm-nigeria-20-million-women-and-girls-undergone-female-genital-mutilation> [Accessed 12 May 2020].
Danermark, B., Ekström, M. and Karlsson, J.C., 2019. Explaining society: Critical realism in the social sciences. Routledge.
Darby, R., 2016. Moral Hypocrisy or Intellectual Inconsistency?: A Historical Perspective on Our Habit of Placing Male and Female Genital Cutting in Separate Ethical Boxes. Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal, 26(2), pp.155-163.
Dhont, K., Hodson, G. and Leite, A.C., 2016. Common ideological roots of speciesism and generalized ethnic prejudice: The social dominance human–animal relations model (SD‐HARM). European Journal of Personality, 30(6), pp.507-522.
Earp, B.D., 2019. The child’s right to bodily integrity. Ethics and the contemporary world, pp.217-235.
Elduma, A.H., 2018. Female genital mutilation in Sudan. Open access Macedonian journal of medical sciences, 6(2), p.430.
Epundu, U.U., Ilika, A.L., Ibeh, C.C., Nwabueze, A.S., Emelumadu, O.F. and Nnebue, C.C., 2018. The epidemiology of female genital mutilation in Nigeria–a twelve year review. Afrimedic Journal, 6(1), pp.1-10.
Evans, W.D., Donahue, C., Snider, J., Bedri, N., Elhussein, T.A. and Elamin, S.A., 2019. The Saleema initiative in Sudan to abandon female genital mutilation: Outcomes and dose response effects. PloS one, 14(3).
Hamid, A., Grace, K.T. and Warren, N., 2018. A Meta‐Synthesis of the Birth Experiences of African Immigrant Women Affected by Female Genital Cutting. Journal of midwifery & women's health, 63(2), pp.185-195.
Hamilton, A. and Kandala, N.B., 2016. Geography and correlates of attitude toward Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) in Sudan: What can we learn from successive Sudan opinion poll data?. Spatial and spatio-temporal epidemiology, 16, pp.59-76.
Harari, M., 2019. Women’s inheritance rights and bargaining power: Evidence from kenya. Economic Development and Cultural Change, 68(1), pp.189-238.
Hodes, D., Armitage, A., Robinson, K. and Creighton, S.M., 2016. Female genital mutilation in children presenting to a London safeguarding clinic: a case series. Archives of disease in childhood, 101(3), pp.212-216.
Hrw.org 2020. Iraqi Kurdistan: Law Banning FGM Not Being Enforced. [online] Available at: <https://www.hrw.org/news/2012/08/29/iraqi-kurdistan-law-banning-fgm-not-being-enforced> [Accessed 23 May 2020].
Johansen, R.E.B., 2017. Undoing female genital cutting: perceptions and experiences of infibulation, defibulation and virginity among Somali and Sudanese migrants in Norway. Culture, health & sexuality, 19(4), pp.528-542.
Johnsdotter, S. and Essén, B., 2016. Cultural change after migration: circumcision of girls in Western migrant communities. Best Practice & Research Clinical Obstetrics & Gynaecology, 32, pp.15-25.
Joly, D. and Bakawan, A., 2016. Women in Kurdistan-Iraq: issues, obstacles and enablers. The International Journal of Human Rights, 20(7), pp.956-977.
Kanazawa, M., 2017. Research methods for environmental studies: a social science approach. Routledge.
Kandala, N.B., Ezejimofor, M.C., Uthman, O.A. and Komba, P., 2018. Secular trends in the prevalence of female genital mutilation/cutting among girls: a systematic analysis. BMJ global health, 3(5), p.e000549.
Kaya, Z.N., 2016. Women in post-conflict Iraqi Kurdistan. Open Democracy.
Klein, E., Helzner, E., Shayowitz, M., Kohlhoff, S. and Smith-Norowitz, T.A., 2018. Female genital mutilation: health consequences and complications—a short literature review. Obstetrics and gynecology international, 2018.
Koski, A. and Heymann, J., 2017. Thirty-year trends in the prevalence and severity of female genital mutilation: a comparison of 22 countries. BMJ global health, 2(4), pp.bmjgh-2017.
Ledford, J.R. and Gast, D.L., 2018. Single case research methodology: Applications in special education and behavioral sciences. Routledge.
Lurie, J.M., Weidman, A., Huynh, S., Delgado, D., Easthausen, I. and Kaur, G., 2020. Painful gynecologic and obstetric complications of female genital mutilation/cutting: A systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS medicine, 17(3), p.e1003088.
Mahgoub, E., Nimir, M., Abdalla, S. and Elhuda, D.A., 2019. Effects of school-based health education on attitudes of female students towards female genital mutilation in Sudan. Eastern Mediterranean health journal, 25(6), pp.406-412.
Marcusán, A.K., Singla, L.R., Secka, D.M., Utzet, M. and Le Charles, M.A., 2016. Female genital mutilation/cutting: changes and trends in knowledge, attitudes, and practices among health care professionals in the Gambia. International journal of women's health, 8, p.103. Milfont, T.L. and Sibley, C.G., 2016. Empathic and social dominance orientations help explain gender differences in environmentalism: A one-year Bayesian mediation analysis. Personality and Individual Differences, 90, pp.85-88.
Muteshi, J.K., Miller, S. and Belizán, J.M., 2016. The ongoing violence against women: female genital mutilation/cutting. Reproductive health, 13(1), p.44.
Nytimes.com 2020. In A Victory For Women In Sudan, Female Genital Mutilation Is Outlawed. [online] Available at: <https://www.nytimes.com/2020/04/30/world/africa/sudan-outlaws-female-genital-mutilation-.html> [Accessed 23 May 2020].
Odukogbe, A.T.A., Afolabi, B.B., Bello, O.O. and Adeyanju, A.S., 2017. Female genital mutilation/cutting in Africa. Translational andrology and urology, 6(2), p.138.
Ossai, E.N., 2019. Maternal Factors Associated with Female Genital Cutting of Daughters in Nigeria: A National Population Based Study. Online J Gyne Obste Maternity Care, 2(1), p.180005.
Ossai, E.N., Aniwada, E.C., Nwobi, E.A. and Ezeoke, U.E., 2018. Prevalence and predictors of female genital cutting in Nigeria: an analysis of 2013 Nigeria Demographic and Health Survey. Journal Community Medicine & Health Care, 3(1), p.1026.
Owojuyigbe, M., Bolorunduro, M.E. and Busari, D., 2017. Female genital mutilation as sexual disability: perceptions of women and their spouses in Akure, Ondo State, Nigeria. Reproductive health matters, 25(50), pp.80-91.
Peters, J.S. and Wolper, A. eds., 2018. Women's rights, human rights: International feminist perspectives. Routledge.
Redhead, D., Cheng, J.T., Driver, C., Foulsham, T. and O'Gorman, R., 2019. On the dynamics of social hierarchy: A longitudinal investigation of the rise and fall of prestige, dominance, and social rank in naturalistic task groups. Evol. Hum. Behav, 40, pp.222-234.
Reig‐Alcaraz, M., Siles‐González, J. and Solano‐Ruiz, C., 2016. A mixed‐method synthesis of knowledge, experiences and attitudes of health professionals to Female Genital Mutilation. Journal of advanced nursing, 72(2), pp.245-260.
Rogala, D., Kornowska, J. and Ziółkowska, M., 2018. Clitoridectomy, excision, infibulation-female circumcision ritual and its consequences for women's health. Journal of Education, Health and Sport, 8(11), pp.583-593.
Rouzi, A.A., Berg, R.C., Alamoudi, R., Alzaban, F. and Sehlo, M., 2019. Survey on female genital mutilation/cutting in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. BMJ open, 9(5), p.e024684.
Sabahelzain, M.M., Eldin, A.G., Babiker, S., Kabiru, C.W. and Eltayeb, M., 2019. Decision-making in the practice of female genital mutilation or cutting in Sudan: a cross-sectional study. Global health research and policy, 4(1), p.5.
Shabila, N.P., 2017. Mothers’ factors associated with female genital mutilation in daughters in the Iraqi Kurdistan region. Women & health, 57(3), pp.283-294.
Shabila, N.P., Ahmed, H.M. and Safari, K., 2017. Knowledge, attitude, and experience of health professionals of female genital mutilation (FGM): a qualitative study in Iraqi Kurdistan region. Health care for women international, 38(11), pp.1202-1218.
Silverman, D. ed., 2016. Qualitative research. Sage.
Sovacool, B.K., Axsen, J. and Sorrell, S., 2018. Promoting novelty, rigor, and style in energy social science: towards codes of practice for appropriate methods and research design. Energy Research & Social Science, 45, pp.12-42.
Stewart, A.L., Pratto, F., Bou Zeineddine, F., Sweetman, J., Eicher, V., Licata, L., Morselli, D., Saab, R., Aiello, A., Chryssochoou, X. and Cichocka, A., 2016. International support for the Arab uprisings: Understanding sympathetic collective action using theories of social dominance and social identity. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 19(1), pp.6-26.
Stopfgmkurdistan.org 2020. Stop FGM In Kurdistan. [online] Available at: <http://www.stopfgmkurdistan.org/> [Accessed 23 May 2020].
Stopfgmmideast.org 2020. Female Genital Mutilations In Iraq. [online] Available at: <http://www.stopfgmmideast.org/countries/iraq/> [Accessed 23 May 2020].
Sustainabledevelopment.un.org 2020. Demographic Perspectives On Female Genital Mutilation.
[online] Available at:
<https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/19961027123_UN_Demograhics_v3 %20(1).pdf> [Accessed 23 May 2020].
Un.org 2020. Eliminating Female Genital Mutilation. [online] Available at: <https://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/csw/csw52/statements_missions/Interagency_Statement _on_Eliminating_FGM.pdf> [Accessed 23 May 2020].
Unfpa.org 2020. Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) Frequently Asked Questions. [online] Available at: <https://www.unfpa.org/resources/female-genital-mutilation-fgm-frequently-asked-questions> [Accessed 23 May 2020].
Unicef.org 2020. Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting: A Statistical Overview And Exploration Of
The Dynamics Of Change. [online] Available at:
<https://www.unicef.org/cbsc/files/UNICEF_FGM_report_July_2013_Hi_res.pdf> [Accessed 23 May 2020].
Unicef.org 2020. What Is Female Genital Mutilation?. [online] Available at: <https://www.unicef.org/stories/what-you-need-know-about-female-genital-mutilation>
[Accessed 12 May 2020].
Unicefusa.org 2020. Female Genital Mutilation Support Falls; 30 Million Girls Still At Risk. [online] Available at: <https://www.unicefusa.org/press/releases/female-genital-mutilation-support-falls-30-million-girls-still-risk/8268> [Accessed 23 May 2020].
Vogt, S., Efferson, C. and Fehr, E., 2017. The risk of female genital cutting in Europe: comparing immigrant attitudes toward uncut girls with attitudes in a practicing country. SSM-population health, 3, pp.283-293.
Vogt, S., Zaid, N.A.M., Ahmed, H.E.F., Fehr, E. and Efferson, C., 2016. Changing cultural attitudes towards female genital cutting. Nature, 538(7626), pp.506-509.
Von Rège, I. and Campion, D., 2017. Female genital mutilation: implications for clinical practice. British Journal of Nursing, 26(18), pp.S22-S27.
Who.int 2020. Working Towards Zero Tolerance For Female Genital Mutilation In Sudan. [online] Available at: <https://www.who.int/features/2018/female-genital-mutilation-sudan/en/> [Accessed 23 May 2020].
Yassin, K., Idris, H.A. and Ali, A.A., 2018. Characteristics of female sexual dysfunctions and obstetric complications related to female genital mutilation in Omdurman maternity hospital, Sudan. Reproductive health, 15(1), p.7.
