1 KULTUR–SPRÅK–MEDIER
Självständigt arbete i fördjupningsämnet
Idrott och Hälsa
15 högskolepoäng, grundnivå
Analysing the Intrinsic and Extrinsic
Values of Physical Education and
Health
Viktor Hjalmarsson
950509
&
Mattias Henriksson
961012
Ämneslärarutbildning: Gymnasieskolan, förstaämne Idrott, 300 högskolepoäng.
Självständigt arbete i fördjupningsämnet, 15hp. 2020-01-15
Examinator: Kutte Jönsson Handledare: Torsten Buhre
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Foreword
In this paper, we have equally distributed the work, but had different responsibility areas. However, we have assisted one another through the whole process. We would also like to thank our supervisor and seminar group for all the assistance, that provided insights to revision and the completion of our paper.
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Abstract
A traditional view has, more or less, infested the subject of Physical Education, which affects the subject´s intrinsic values. The purpose of this knowledge overview is to analyse teachers and pupil’s perception and understanding of PEH in relation to intrinsic and extrinsic values. Intrinsic refers to the certain value of knowing a subject’s core content, on the other hand, extrinsic refers that knowledge in a subject content is valuable for something else. The following questions will aid us in this overview and provide us with as much angles as possible;
What is/are teachers’ perception of PEH based on intrinsic and extrinsic values? What are pupils’ perception of PEH based on intrinsic and extrinsic values?
What is/are teachers’ understanding of PEH based on intrinsic and extrinsic values? What are pupils’ understanding of PEH based on intrinsic and extrinsic values?
This knowledge overview focusses mainly on Sweden but includes some international research. These researches range from the years 2006 - 2019.This knowledge overview is conducted by analysing several systematically selected sources, where searches have been made in different databases.
The results show that extrinsic values are highly valued in the subject of PEH even today. Research from when both Lpo94 and Lgr11 were active, showed that a traditional- and extrinsic view is more prevalent than the intrinsic values of PEH. In the discussion different aspects are lifted. Both we and the research suggest, based on the learning outcomes of the syllabus, the importance of making intrinsic values more tangible in PEH lessons. This is in order to produce a consensus within and around the subject.
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Table of Content
Introduction……….5
-Background………...5
- Syllabus and intrinsic Values………...….….6
- Purpose………..…..6
Method……….….8
- Inclusion/Exclusion criteria……….…………....…….8
- Search Description……….……….…..9
Results……….………..14
- Teachers’ Perceptions and Understandings………..………….14
- Pupils’ Perceptions and Understandings………...……16
- Content and Aim……….….18
- PETE Perspectives………..….20
Discussion……….…………...….23
- Teacher Perception……….……….……….23
- Pupil Perception………...………24
- Content and Aim………..24
- PETE Perception………...…..25
- Critical Self-Evaluation………....….26
- Consequences for Future Profession and A Call for Action………..………....26
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Introduction
In the past, Physical Education (PE) was only seen as a practical subject. Today the subject strives to be more aligned with the other theoretical school subjects. Larsson (2007a) in
Idrottsdidaktiska Utmaningar suggests that modern PE, nowadays labelled Physical Education and
Health (PEH), should focus on knowledge and experiences of physical activity. This could be seen as the foundation of the subject, where it functions as a general description of PEH´s
intrinsic values. Larsson (2016) in the book Idrott och Hälsa - i går, i dag, i morgon refers to Arnold
(1991) who defines intrinsic values of a subject. Intrinsic values refer to the certain value of knowing the subject’s core content, in regard to PEH this can be the above mentioned of Larsson (2007a) or as Arnold (1991) defines the subject as knowledge in and about movement. To add, every subject also has extrinsic values, which refers to the notion that knowledge in the subject content is valuable for something else. In PEH extrinsic values tend to dominate, which is the core of this paper and what it aims to investigate further. Arnold describes that the extrinsic values in PEH is defined by what is achieved through movement. A recurring example is the focus on reducing pupils being sedentary, leading the content of PEH to predominantly consist of getting pupils to exercise. Larsson (2016) warns that if the extrinsic values are in too much focus, diminishing the intrinsic values, the subject can be replaced by other activities.
Background
To elaborate on the mentioning of PE as a practical subject,Larsson (2007b) recounts how PE, historically, has been seen as a complement to the intellectual work in school, and how it has functioned as a “help subject”. Focus was on extrinsic values of PE, such as, nurturing healthy pupils by letting them exercise, where learning any specific knowledge was not in question. Larsson continues that this can be seen in regard to the traditional dualistic way of looking at knowledge, where the practical part was based on the manual and bodily, the applying, and in that which one must practice. In contrast, the theoretical part was based on theory, the intellectual, and that one could express and module with language. Furthermore, Larsson (2016) presents that except reducing sedentary behaviour, there are other extrinsic values being fostered in PEH. These are: collaboration between pupils and motor skills which help pupils perform better in other subjects. Whereas, enhanced concentration is one such example.
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Syllabus and Intrinsic Values
To build on the previous paragraph, Larsson (2007a) illuminates that school today is not, as mentioned earlier, based on the dualistic way of looking at knowledge. Theoretical and practical approaches are intertwined, where development of knowledge and abilities ought to be targeted in every subject. Except the descriptions mentioned earlier of the intrinsic values, Larsson (2016) recall that when the title was changed from Physical Education to Physical Education and Health, a focus on knowledge about health and knowledge about health in relation to physical activity occurred more often.
Additionally, in the syllabus for upper secondary school Skolverket (2011a) explicitly state that the pupils should be given the opportunity to develop knowledge in several areas, for example: “Knowledge of the importance of physical activities and experiences from nature for physical ability and health.”, “Knowledge of cultural and social aspects of physical activities and experiences from nature.”, and “Knowledge of the demands different situations place on the ergonomic adaptation of movement.” (p.1-2). Larsson (2016) analyses and summarizes all the seven developmental aspects, which include the three mentioned above, and formulates in an intrinsic matter that PEH in upper secondary school “aims to make it possible for pupils to understand, engage in, and, adapt one's participation in the culture´s activities after considering about health and well-being, or possibly reform the activities.“ (our translation, Larsson, 2016, p. 130).
In regard to movement, Larsson views the terms All-round physical capacity and Physical ability as
attempts in the syllabus to express intrinsic values. In a content perspective, which may be more concrete to understand, Skolverket (2011b), in the syllabus for the compulsory school, address that PEH is to be divided by the following areas; movement, health and lifestyle, and outdoor life and activities.
Purpose
Teachers’ and pupils’ understanding and perception of the subject PEH might affect the delivery and content of PEH. Therefore, this could impact the pupils’ possibilities to actually achieve the learning outcomes. The purpose is to analyse teachers’ and pupils’ perception and understanding of PEH in relation to intrinsic and extrinsic values.
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This knowledge overview will be led by the following questions:
What is/are teachers’ perception of PEH based on intrinsic and extrinsic values? What is/are pupils’ perception of PEH based on intrinsic and extrinsic values? What is/are teachers’ understanding of PEH based on intrinsic and extrinsic values? What is/are pupils’ understanding of PEH based on intrinsic and extrinsic values?
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Method
This section will explain our method in regard to how the selection of sources was conducted. The section will also include what databases we decided to use, which different search words that were used in our searches and the inclusion/exclusion criteria that our sources were based on. These criterions were crucial for how we selected the sources.
This paper´s sources were systematically selected. The search results were valued due to a chosen inclusion-criteria. However, there will also occur a collection of non-systematically sources as well, the non-systematically sources will only support the primary sources.
These non-systematically sources were mainly collected from a variety of different books or were primary sources from the literature included in our search. Our searches were conducted in different databases: Education Research Complete and ERIC. These databases provided different sources and gave a broader view of the chosen problem area. In these databases we tested
different search words in a variety of combinations. The database searches were mainly based around the following search words: Physical Education, Physical Education and Health, perception or attitudes or opinion, status, purpose, and content.
Inclusion/Exclusion Criteria
The main focus of this paper is Swedish focused research. However, the paper will also investigate how the general view of PEH is regarded internationally.
The research used in this paper will have the year frame of 2006 - 2019. This is because we want to see the thoughts about PEH before and after the change of the Swedish National Agency for Education syllabus from Lpo94 in 1994 and Lgr11 in 2011.
The lowest relevant age in this paper is primary PE/PEH pupils and stretches to upper secondary pupils, PETE (Physical education Teacher education) students and teachers. The results are to include at least one of the following areas:
1. Teacher, pupils, PETE students or parents’ perception of PE/PEH, where it can be labelled attitudes, experiences, beliefs, opinions or views.
2. The status/role of subject PE/PEH in the school unit or as a legitimized content elsewhere.
3. Challenges/diverse views regarding subject content in PE/PEH. 4. Learning and knowledge aspects in PE/PEH.
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If none of these areas occurred in the research articles, then they did not get selected to be analysed in this paper.
Search Description
The search process was long, which took us on a path where we tried different searches. We wanted to find the most relevant sources, within a relevant number of results. The chosen
research that are the pillar stones for this knowledge overview were assessed and selected through the following steps; Firstly, reading the title. Secondly, if the title showed some promise, we then analysed the abstract and finally, assessed the whole research. However, in the beginning, if we noticed the number of results showed to be overwhelming but showed some relevant sources on the first ten pages, then we chose to include them. Thereafter, we continued with a new search to receive better results with the technique of improving our search word combinations.
We began our search for systematic sources on ERIC Ebsco, which lead us to the following path: Database Date of Search Search words Year limit Source type Number of results Relevant sources ERIC (EBSCO) 12th Nov 2019.
Physical education, School, status. 2009 – 2019 All source types.
278 results 3 relevant sources
These sources provided a good ground for the problem area. Unfortunately, we realised that the third source was not relevant to the problem area because it did not address the chosen problem area. However, we received a high amount of results and after a examining the pages the
relevance to our paper faded and we decided to produce a new search, in hope of finding better results.
10 Database Date of Search Search words Year limit Source type Number of results Relevant sources ERIC (EBSCO) 12th Nov 2019.
physical education, Sweden, status 2009 – 2019 All source types.
8 results
2 relevant sources
The sources that were not selected could have been relevant. Despite their interview questions had some interesting/relevant topics, the articles did not present anything of our chosen problem area. Therefore, they could not be used.
Thereafter, we tried the database ERC and made some progress. We made the following search:
Database Date of Search Search words Year limit Source type Number of results Relevant sources ERC 18th Nov 2019.
Physical education, Sweden, purpose, school 2008-2019 Academic journals 60 results 1 relevant source
From this search we found the word perception from one article. This intrigued us to make a new search which include this word.We could exclude the other 59 sources after examining their titles and abstracts.
11 Database Date of Search Search words Year limit Source type Number of results Relevant sources ERC 18th Nov 2019.
Physical education, Sweden, perceptions or attitudes or opinion, school.
2006-2019 Academic journals 28 results 1 relevant source
In this search, most of the sources were related to norms and health focused research. We came to the conclusion that these sources were not relevant to this papers problem area. However, there was a source that was relevant. The reason we used Sweden as a search word was that we wanted to find relevant sources that focused on the situation in Sweden, and all of these sources were related to Sweden. However, in the following search, we wanted to try the same search, but without focus area Sweden.
Database Date of Search Search words Year limit Source type Number of results Relevant sources ERC 18th Nov 2019.
Physical education, perceptions or attitudes or opinion, school. 2006-2019 Academic journals 1660 results 1 relevant source
A lot of these sources was about other nations as we presumed.However, the sources focused on many different forms of perception in school, these sources drifted from our chosen problem
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area and were therefore not chosen. We also received a high amount of results and concluded that we needed to proceed with a better search to receive a more focused search for our problem area. Nonetheless, we found a source that were relevant and focused on student perception of PE in USA. This source was relevant because it asked the question to students’ if PE should be fun.
However, we wanted more about the teacher themselves and their perception about PE. Therefore, we made the following search.
Database Date of Search Search words Year limit Source type Number of results Relevant sources ERC 18th Nov 2019.
Physical education, Sweden education, Teacher perceptions or attitudes or opinion. 2006-2019 Academic journals 6 results 1 relevant source
After reading title and abstract of these results, only one was relevant. This source provided relevant findings that we could integrate to this papers problem area.
We also wanted some research that focused on the content of PE, therefore, we searched the following; Database Date of Search Search words Year limit Source type Number of results Relevant sources
13 ERC
18th Nov 2019.
Physical education AND theoretical AND practical 2006-2019 All source types. 34 results 2 relevant sources
From this search, after reading the different results title and abstract we found one relevant source. This research focuses on the knowledge and learning in PE.
From this source we found an additional primary source, this was an unsystematic search. We found another source by examining the reference list of the primary source. After reading the abstract we recognized the potential to contribute to our problem area and therefore chose to include it. That is why we proceeded with acknowledging that this search has two relevant sources from the search.
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Results
This part consists of four parts which categorize the sources into four different themes. The themes are the following: Teachers’ perceptions and understandings, Pupils’ perceptions and understandings, Content and Aim, and PETE. These different themes will show how the intrinsic and extrinsic values appear in school and how they affect, or could affect, education.
Teachers´ Perceptions and Understandings
In the following paragraphs, Larsson and Redelius (2008) in the article Swedish physical education
research questioned and Quennerstedt, Öhman, and Eriksson (2008) in Physical Education in Sweden – a national evaluation configure around the aspect of fun in PEH. Both of the articles analyse
teacher and pupil perception. However, in this section only teachers’ perception will be presented, and pupils’ perception will be presented later.
Larsson and Redelius (2008) analyse gathered material that has been impacted by the tension between the heavy emphasis on doing and a lesser focus on learning in PEH. From the
questionnaires the teachers answered, most frequently, that the purpose of PEH was to have fun. This can be interpreted in different ways, that fun in PEH is aligned with the subject being a recreational break in the school day or in accordance with the syllabus developing a positive self-image and an interest for being physically active. However, follow-up interviews with the teachers´ show little reflection of what fun might mean. The content of ball games and fitness training may be an indicator of teachers wanting to please pupils who exercise this outside of school. The “fun” aspect could be a motive of buying pupils loyalty, due to the absence of actual teaching. It could also be because of the belief that PEH is a practical subject and has lower status than other theoretical subjects. When the questions were more directed towards learning, the teachers had difficulty expressing the objectives. Health was mentioned, but in a broad and unspecific way. To conclude, the gathered results show uncertainty of PEH´s educational purpose.
Likewise, Quennerstedt, Öhman, and Eriksson (2008) presents in their research what aspects are most important for pupils learning according to the teachers that participated. Firstly, enjoyment of physical activities, secondly, learning to cooperate, and thirdly, enhanced physical fitness. Least important were; to compete and develop a critical ability. However, critical ability according to
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the syllabus is not valued low (Skolverket, 2011a, 2011b). Quennerstedt, Öhman, and Eriksson (2008) conclude in the study, that the results together with the prevailing discussions´ concerning PEH are aligned when it comes to the purpose of enjoying physical activity. This content is driven by the goal of getting inactive pupils active. The authors explain that with this clear health focus, the learning and knowledge aspects easily get forgotten. The authors further claim that many pupils are already in good shape and need to learn more. Leading the study to question PEH´s aim. Is it to achieve recreation, to serve public health and reduce obesity, which are extrinsic values, or, because it has certain learning objectives (Quennerstedt, Öhman, and Eriksson, 2008)?
The following section will show different perceptions of the importance of PE in Scotland according to multiple subject teachers. Jess, McEvilly and Carse conducted this research in 2017 called Moving primary physical education forwards: start at the beginning.
This research main purpose was to analyse teachers’ perception and the importance of PE in Scotland. The authors used a questionnaire that all teachers of the research were to complete, which included a variety of PE related questions such as; perceptions towards PE and personal experience of PE. 509 teachers took part in the research, the participants contained of 73% women and 27% male. 49% of the participants were between 21-30 years old, which the author states that this indicates that most of the participants are modern qualified teachers. Of the participants, 80% taught some sort of PE. While 80% of the participants taught some form of PE, the results presented some interesting perspectives. While 56% indicated that PE either had some importance or had much importance, 39% indicated that PE had limited- or no
importance. The authors revealed three key themes in relation to the participants answers, these were; staff, time and subject status. 59% indicated staff, 29% time and 16% subject status. The positive inquiries of the theme staff mentioned the importance of physical activity, and how it becomes more important in this technology era. “I think all teachers in the school realise the importance of PE and in this technological world that we live, we have an important role to encourage children to be physically active.” (Jess, McEvilly and Carse, 2017, Questionnaire 43). Whereas, the negative thoughts implied otherwise; “Staff do not believe PE should be given 2 hours per week as it has impacted on other subjects.” (Jess, McEvilly and Carse, 2017,
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In the theme of time, teachers implied positive thoughts of at least 2 hours physical activity for pupils. However, some teachers had negative thoughts of the time of PE; “Due to packed curriculum other things take priority.” (Jess, McEvilly and Carse, 2017, Questionnaire 315) In the last theme of subject status, teachers indicated that PE is important and see the need to inform pupils of this importance. The negative indications implied that other subjects had more importance than PE, and that PE only was relevant in tournaments and local press events. These negative and traditional perceptions toward PE show that extrinsic values have affected the status of PE in Scotland. The authors therefore suggested that teachers should receive deeper
knowledge and understanding of PE, in order to improve the perception of the PE agenda in Scotland.
Pupils´ Perceptions and Understandings
In the following section, Redelius and Hay (2012) in Student views on criterion-referenced assessment and
grading in Swedish physical education examine what pupils understand as the basis for grading
decisions in PEH and what they perceive as the learning goals of the subject.
In the background, reference to research that confirm that there is low consensus on what PEH´s core knowledge is and the legitimacy of the subject’s knowledge is taken for granted. In the study, results of which characteristics the pupils thought they were being graded on were not aligned with the syllabus. Notable factors of the pupils’ perceptions were that having the right body and sporting ability was in first place out of ten, doing one's best was in second place and, having theoretical knowledge was in seventh place. When coming to perceived learning goals and what sort of knowledge that was important few could outline or describe. There was a group that highlighted being positive, supportive and being collaborative as important. This is elaborated further in the discussion where reference is made to Quennerstedt, Öhman and Eriksson (2008), they state that oral feedback in PEH predominantly address physical exertion and character-building. In absence of another more educational content, this might be a reason why the pupils in this study give account for examples highlighted above expressing extrinsic values.
Similar to the research regarding teacher perception towards PEH, Phillips, Bernstein, and Silverman (2019) in the study Upper Elementary School Student Perceptions of Physical Education show that pupils also give account for the importance of having fun in PEH.
Phillips, Bernstein and Silverman (2019) give account of two clear topics that could be seen from the interviews and observations made from the fourth and fifth grade pupils. The first was that
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all students gave account that it is important to have fun in PE. The second was that class
activities are important. In the discussion Phillips, Bernstein, and, Silverman confirms that having fun pervades the subject of PE. Experiencing fun is of high importance for the pupils. Further pupils’ perceptions can give insights and show differences in regard to teachers intended goals and outcomes. This assumption is made despite little attention is paid to actual learning objectives, this could be due to the pupils lower age. To summarize, this study has shown how pupils equate PE and fun. Comparable results are found by Kougioumtzis (2016) in Students’
beliefs on physical education. In the discussion it is described that the relation between fun and the
“what do we learn” become present due to the results. This is based on that pupils’ answers were in accordance of the enjoyment/appreciation dimension and not in accordance with
benefit/attractiveness dimension.
As mentioned before, Larsson and Redelius (2008) and Quennerstedt, Öhman and Eriksson (2008) also inform about pupils´ perception. In the following we get information of the absence of knowledge and learning. Which are, as earlier mentioned, basics for the intrinsic values. Larsson and Redelius (2008) explain that when the pupils´ expressed the purpose of PEH, few had anything specific to say apart from learning different sports and getting fitter. When the question was directed to what they are to learn, a similar absence was revealed.
Furthermore, Quennerstedt, Öhman, and Eriksson (2008) in a related matter highlight the absence of knowledge and learning. The authors also express that focus was on physical activity with no connection to intrinsic goals. Based on the evaluation, being physically active and positive is more or less the basis for getting a pass in PEH, and the actual performance or
learning and knowledge gained is not that important. This can be implied by the fact of the those who self-reported having a high level of activity in class seldom failed. It could also be to the fact that pupils with high grades gave the account of not being good at either swimming or dancing, which are important abilities. Quennerstedt, Öhman, and Eriksson continue that discussions and reflections in PEH are absent, leading to the interpretation that the subject content is taken for granted. A prevailing perspective on learning can be seen in style with, as long as you change to gym clothes and are physically active you will learn (Quennerstedt, Öhman, and Eriksson, 2008). Nyberg and Larsson (2014) in Exploring "What" to Learn in Physical Education are in agreement with the former findings stated above. Presenting that when pupils and teachers are asked of what’s the aim of the subject, they answer that PEH is to be fun and do not address any certain learning
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objectives or knowledge. It may be due to the aim of wanting to plant the seed for a healthy lifestyle. Nonetheless, if the pupils´ focus is on experiencing the subject as fun and not the syllabus objectives this could lead to low demands on the pupils´. Further implying that the requirements are reduced to attendance and being active in class. Contributing to the perception that PEH´s aim is to be active and not to learn anything specific.
Content and Aim
The following paragraphs will discuss different perceptions toward what PEH’s content should include and be based on. The articles of Larsson and Redelius (2008) and Nyberg and Larsson (2014) that previously presented pupils and teacher’s perception towards PEH, also elaborate results of content-based perception in their research.
Larsson and Redelius (2008) report that pupils’ perception is that they are supposed to learn the skills and rules of different kinds of sports. Furthermore, pupils gave account for that ball games tend to dominate lessons, where competitive connotations occur often. To add, content that can be quantitatively measured like track and field, and cross-country running was also common. Nyberg and Larsson (2014) presents in a comparable manner that content in PEH is based on established sports, where measurement procedures and competition are used. In absence of what is important in PEH, the ability to perform well in sports becomes implicitly high valued. This is problematic in a pedagogical perspective, due to the nature of competition, where it excludes pupils who have not spent time on these kinds of activities in their spare time (Nyberg and Larsson, 2014). To elaborate, this could mean that it is more difficult for the excluded group to achieve the same goals.
This can be seen in the light of what Larsson (2016) describes. Teachers in PEH view the knowledge, that the pupils are to develop, as certain complete products. Which they can quantitatively measure, due to their uncertainty of making qualitative assessments on pupils’ abilities, which should develop over time. This relates to that ability is seen as a synonym to the schools’ way of looking at knowledge, where it includes the dimensions of facts, comprehension, skills, and familiarity. The ability concept also aims to signal the integration of these four
dimensions. To continue, and clarify the development over time, the subjects chosen abilities are to develop in situations between the teaching and the pupils’ pre-knowledge and earlier
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Quennerstedt, Öhman and Eriksson (2008) and Nyberg and Larsson (2014) provide in the following sections of how extrinsic values take place over the intrinsic values in PEH’s content. Quennerstedt, Öhman, and Eriksson (2008) express in their discussion that the amount of lessons being spent on physical activity interferes on time spent on discussions and reflections, for example the content regarding health, the body, and lifestyle issues. The Swedish School Inspectorate (2018) in Kvalitetsgranskning av ämnet idrott och hälsa i årskurs 7–9, gives similar accounts that pupils seldom get to discuss or reflect on their work-performances or learning, where it relates to that the lessons´ predominantly consist of getting pupils physically active. A consequence of reduced discussion and reflection, that can be implied of interviews, are that pupils have difficulty to express PEH´s aim and content.
This can be connected to Nyberg and Larsson (2014) who refer in their research to Evans (2004). Whereas, Evans mean that if physical activity in PEH is treated with the goals of public health-discourse, which relates to extrinsic values, the educational content is not achievable. This could lead to the loss of developing specific abilities and providing bodily experiences. In a comparable matter, The Swedish School Inspectorate (2018) addresses in regard to how content is divided, that heavy focus is put on the area movement. Where it is as earlier mentioned, predominantly carried out with activities in aim of getting the pupils physically active. The other knowledge-areas health and lifestyle, and outdoor life and activities are marginalized in PEH.
Continuing, Nyberg and Larsson (2014) attempts to address movement and learning in an
intrinsic point of view. Nyberg and Larsson have the aim of showing a need for clarifying “what” there is to learn in PEH, with a particular focus on learning to move and to provide an example of exploring what they call “bodily knowing”. This can be seen from the earlier mentioned dualistic view between theoretical knowledge referring to the mind and sedentary schooling against body, practice, and physical activity. Nyberg and Larsson mean that physical activity is reduced to the concern of “learning why to move” and not about “learning moving”. Using the term knowing instead of knowledge, addresses the relationship between theoretical and practical knowledge. This makes a starting point towards how movement abilities can be understood in terms of knowing and learning.
To deepen understanding, the authors refer to Carlgren, Forsberg and Lindberg (2009) who describe knowledge aspects in four different categories: Firstly, as facts (knowing that), secondly, as comprehension (knowing why), thirdly, as proficiency (knowing how) and finally, as knowing
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by acquaintance (knowing what). In PEH knowing how and what is very limited, this can be due to the lack of the process when coming to learning qualities of movement. Leaving the content to contend of facts (knowing that) and in some cases comprehension (knowing why). To clarify, there is lack of articulating all the knowledge aspects as important. This reduction leads to lowering of the subject’s status in comparison to other subjects and relates back to the dualistic view of mind and body being separated (Nyberg and Larsson, 2014).
Why movement does not include the absent aspects of knowledge mentioned above, can be explained by the tacit dimension in different sorts of movement. More specifically in one’s body awareness, where this tacit knowledge or knowing is hard to articulate, it is embedded in the body, like riding a bike. However, this needs to be dealt with, making the tacit dimension explicit. So it becomes clear what there is to know, regard to learning and moving (Nyberg and Larsson, 2014).
Furthermore, different approaches to bodily knowing are presented, these explain in depth how one can address intrinsic values of movement. One opposes the mind/body dualism where mental processes and bodily actions are seen as interwoven. An example is that there is both a consideration and executing phase. Leading to picture an integrated view and form a possible way to achieve the “knowing how” in movement. The importance of reflecting on experience is mentioned in several places. Where the action of movement is emphasized as the crucial part where learning occurs, where another integrated view can be explained in terms of “his/her body thinks”, where the person explores the situation and circumstances (Nyberg and Larsson, 2014). To summarize, movement and learning shall be addressed with the complex knowledge term, where it should not be reduced to facts about movement and why we should move.
Larsson (2016) also addresses the area of movement and learning. Where he explains how PEH is a subject that is and has been based on movement. In the syllabus Lpo94 (Skolverket, 2000-2011), there was an increased focus on knowledge in PEH, but this led to more focus on facts and comprehension with the consequence of more sedentary schooling in PEH. With this, movement in PEH still became associated with extrinsic values. As mentioned in the
introduction, All-round physical capacity and Physical ability, are abilities expressed in thesyllabus for Lgr11 (Skolverket, 2011a). These are aimed to highlight intrinsic values of movement, where the aim is that pupils’ study, investigate and explore movements in order to develop these abilities. This can additionally be seen as an attempt to intertwine the dualistic way of knowledge in PEH.
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Larsson (2016) clarifies, for these new concepts to function well, teachers need to integrate and interpret them from pupils’ previous knowledge and experiences together with the subject’s content.
PETE Perspectives
In the following paragraphs a PETE perspective is given, where the research includes students’ perception towards PEH. Larsson, Linner and Schenker (2018) conducted research, The doxa of
physical education teacher education - set in stone? That investigated PETE students’ different views,
regarding what PE teachers should know and teach in school. The authors implied that past research showed that tradition has a strong connection to the subject of PE, and that PETE programs do not improve the students’ perceptions towards the subject.
The research was conducted in the form of two research questions that the participants
answered. The first question regard PETE students’ perceptions of what teachers in PE should know and what skills to focus on. The second question focus on what PETE students are assessed on and how this is connected to current PE teachers’ skills. The participants are
collected from two universities in Sweden and consist of freshmen PETE students. The data that answers the first question is gathered through 62 essays written by these participants. The essays consist of these student’s perception of the PETE, future subject of PE and their position as a future PE teacher. The data that answers the second question contains of all the PETE course assessments and booklets, which consisted of 14 booklets and 58 assessments.
Two main themes erupted from the data, these were health and sport, and pedagogical skills. In the theme of health and sport, the PETE students focused on two content areas that according to them were most important. Firstly, knowledge about and responsibility of the theme good health. Secondly, was about activities in relation to sport. Most of the PETE students expressed the importance of knowledge regarding the body, exercise and nutrition. In the theme of
pedagogical skills, the PETE students focused on the importance of improving their pedagogical skills which could improve their teaching, respect, adaption and help diverse pupils.
The authors explain that the study shows that individuals that starts the PETE program are inspired by their perception and knowledge of PE. The study also shows that these PETE students want to lead all pupils, interested and uninterested, to a lifelong learning of PE. This research showed that PETE students are not influenced by extrinsic values of PE, but are instead
22 inspired closer to the intrinsic values.
However, in a longitudinal study, another perspective of PETE appears. Ferry (2018) in Physical
Education Preservice Teachers’ Perceptions of the Subject and Profession: Development during 2005-2016,
wanted to investigate on PETE students’ perception of their future profession and how these perceptions change from the years of 2005 to 2016. These years are interesting because the syllabus Lpo94 changed in 2011 to Lgr11. The research consists of 224 students from one university in Sweden. The participants include 90 women and 134 men. Ferry explain that the participants consist of a homogenous group as they have comparable characteristics regarding the following; backgrounds, experiences and perception. Ferry clarify that the data was gathered through a web-based questionnaire that the participants answered. This web-based questionnaire focused on gathering information on four themes, which were the participants beliefs, views, experiences and perceptions of their future profession as a PE teacher.
Ferry (2018) made some interesting findings. The participants answered through the
questionnaire, which crucial qualities regarding their future profession was important to them. These qualities comprised of subject knowledge, pedagogical competence and considerate personality. The participants also answered which qualities of a PE lesson they considered important. These were, to have fun, to be physically active, the lessons are adapted to all pupils, and the lessons promote health. These are similar to how the pupils in the former research mentioned view PEH, where extrinsic values are dominant. Further, Ferry explains that these opinions from the participants did not change during the period of 2005-2016, even though the PETE programme changed its structure during this time, and that the syllabus changed. Ferry concludes that PETE programmes could fail to succeed in the preparation of PETE students and the teaching of intrinsic values. This might lead to challenges in their upcoming profession as PEH teachers, in form of larger pressure and higher demands on them to adapt in the situation.
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Discussion
Teacher Perception
The results show a diverse perception and understanding of intrinsic and extrinsic values in PEH. In Scotland, Jess, McEvilly and Carse (2017) research showed that teachers both argued that PE was not important and important. The teachers that argued that PE was not important meant that PE took time from the other subjects, as to them were more important. While some teachers argued that in this era of technology it was crucial that we inform pupils of the importance to be active. However, the question that could be asked is, even if it is important to inform pupils to be physically active, is that really an intrinsic value of PEH or is this a traditional extrinsic value?In whole, the teachers in Scotland that argued for the importance of PE, did not mention any characteristics that implied the intrinsic values of PEH but rather the extrinsic traditional views of PE.
Larsson and Redelius research from 2008, showed that teachers also had the extrinsic values of PEH in focus. The teachers meant that the most important aspect of PEH was to have fun. When further asked to evolve their thoughts, the teachers had difficulties to explain PEH’s educational purpose, which showed the absence of knowledge regarding PEH and intrinsic values. Quennerstedt, Öhman, and Eriksson (2008) found similar findings of teachers’
perception. The teachers´ in this research mostly focus on getting pupils to be physically active and to have fun. According to the study, one of the least important focus-areas was to develop a critical ability in PEH, which could be questioned due to the fact that the syllabus both for compulsory and upper secondary school state clear guidelines of intrinsic values, that pupils are to develop an critical ability, both in Lpo94 and Lgr11.
“– Utvecklar kunskaper att kritiskt bemöta missförhållanden som kan förekomma i samband med olika typer av fysiska aktiviteter samt ges förutsättningar till ett personligt ställningstagande i idrotts- och hälsofrågor” which could be translated to; Develop knowledge to critically approach abnormal opinions in relation to different kinds of physical activities, but also receive
opportunities to a personal opinion in matters of physical- and health related questions. (Skolverket, 2000-2011, p.1).
”Teaching in the subject of physical education and health should aim at helping students develop…, and assess a variety of physical activities that promote all-round physical capacity within the subject.” (Skolverket, 2011a, p.1).
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Pupil Perception
The pupils´ perception and understanding of PEH showed a varied amount of extrinsic values, but also absence of intrinsic values. Redelius and Hay´s (2012) study show that pupils perception of what the basis they are graded on, is not aligned with the syllabus. Notable examples were; doing one´s best is valued high and theoretical knowledge is valued low. Other behavioural factors were also mentioned by the pupils´ as important, like being positive, supportive and collaborative. Giving the clear picture of that extrinsic values are present. Phillips, Bernstein, and Silverman (2019) and Kougioumtzis (2016) similar to the teachers´ perception and understanding, give account for pupils’ general view of PEH is to have fun, and how important this is.
Larsson and Redelius (2008) and Quennerstedt, Öhman and Eriksson (2008) present through the pupils´ perceptions that there is a absence of learning and knowledge in PEH. Quennerstedt, Öhman and Eriksson adds that the pupils´ highlight how physical activity is predominantly used without a clear goal. Nyberg and Larsson (2014) elaborates on the aspect of fun, and addresses concern. Heavy emphasis on fun reduces the demands on pupils, and leading to increase the view of that there is an absence of specific learning objectives in PEH. We consider that this emphasis could increase the power of extrinsic values, and because of this, cause the intrinsic values to fade away.
Content and Aim
Larsson and Redelius (2008), and Nyberg and Larsson (2014) gathered information that PEH is often contained by organized sport activities, mostly ball games and activities which are
quantitatively measurable. Firstly, this is questioned by Nyberg and Larsson, they emphasize the problem with that these activities predominantly use competition. This can exclude pupils who have not spent time on these kinds of activities in their spare time. Our reflection is that this could also make it difficult for the excluded group to achieve the same goals. This is problematic because quantitatively measurable content and competition does not have any specific relation to the syllabus. Secondly, Larsson (2016) points criticism towards the quantitatively measurable, as it relates to reduction of knowledge to certain complete products, instead of qualities that develop over time.
Quennerstedt, Öhman and Eriksson (2008), Nyberg and Larsson (2014) and The Swedish School Inspectorate (2018) address how extrinsic values take place over the intrinsic values in PEH’s
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content. In elaboration, PEH is treated with the goals of public health-discourses, often through physical activity without any specific goal. Leading to the marginalization of other knowledge areas, and important basics in lessons, such as time to reflect and discuss. In relation to this, Nyberg and Larsson (2014) are concerned, that reductions of these sort, risk to destroy the educational content. When reflecting on this matter, we would like to relate Larsson (2016) who describes how teaching methods in PEH can help us understand the prevailing situation. Larsson means that PEH is hard to conduct as a knowledge-subject when it is predominantly taught with teacher-centred methods. This relates to activities when the teacher is in the centre and controls the pupils. In contrast, to align PEH better with the school unit’s description of knowledge, these teacher-centred methods need to change. The suggestion is to focus more on problem-solving and task-based methods. Where, in opposition to the research earlier mentioned, emphasis is on discussion and reflection. For example, group-based tasks are also highlighted as a way forward. Nyberg and Larsson (2014) and Larsson (2016) highlights movement and learning, where they set the tone in their study and book to addresses the intrinsic values of PEH. Nyberg and Larsson (2014) argue that movement or physical activity in PEH, is not treated as other more theoretical subjects in school. To describe the knowledge concept, Nyberg and Larsson refer to Carlgren, Forsberg and Lindberg (2009) who defines knowledge from four different categories. This is similar to how Skolverket (2011c) clarifies in their commentary material to the syllabuses for PEH. When addressing the distribution between theory and practice, it is to relate to the curriculum’s knowledge-terms: facts, comprehension, skills, and familiarity. To show these, students are to deliver both in practice and theory. The focus of Nyberg and Larsson´s (2014) study, is to include a more complex way of looking at knowledge in PEH, in relation to
movement. Reflecting on these results, PEH´s intrinsic values relating to movement seem more vague and complex in comparison to the extrinsic values, like getting the pupils to be physically active and to have fun. To make teaching effective, we think that PEH teachers´ need to devote much thought and reflection, in order to be prepared of teaching the intrinsic values.
PETE Perception
Larsson, Linner and Schenker (2018) research of PETE students’ perception of their future profession, showed a different perception than the current teachers of PEH. The students of the PETE program mentioned the importance of knowledge regarding the body, exercise and nutrition, but also, the importance of pedagogical skills which could improve their own teaching,
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respect from pupils, adaptation of lessons and help diverse pupils.This showed that PETE students’ regard PEH in another way then the current PEH teachers.However, one could ask if even these aspects are the intrinsic values of the subject. As the authors found in post research, extrinsic values and traditional views has a strong connection to PEH, which makes it difficult for people to change their perspectives towards PEH, if this perception is still the driving force behind PETE.
Ferry (2018) found different results of PETE students’ perception than the former mentioned research. In Ferry’s research, students of the PETE program claimed that PEH lessons should be fun, promote physical activity, be adapted to all pupils and that the lessons should promote health. These perceptions of PEH were equivalent to pupils’ perception of PEH, which were closely linked to the extrinsic values of PEH. Ferry also mentioned that these perceptions did not change from the PETE students from 2005 where they were first asked to 2016 when secondly asked again. Which is a troublesome thought, as both the structure of the PETE program and the syllabus changed during this period. As Ferry mentioned, PETE program could fail in the
teaching of intrinsic values to students’, which could perpetuate to further issues in the future where the extrinsic values are still in focus and does not aid in the teaching of the subjects intrinsic values to pupils.
Critical Self-Evaluation
We did not evaluate pupils’ perception of the earlier grades 1-6, and how these perceptions could have affected the results. Where pupils might be socialized into how PEH works. For example, that PEH is mainly about having fun and to be physically active without any specific goal. When coming to grade 7-9 and upper secondary, they are stuck in their old perceptions, whereas having fun and to be physically active are not the core of the subject. This could have given the
investigation a clearer view of our chosen problem area.
If we would have placed more time in the search for more sources, then we would perhaps have received some new interesting views. However, we are satisfied with what we have gathered within the task´s timeframe.
Consequences for Future Profession and A Call for Action
As the research has shown us, there is a need to clarify the subject of PEH. Teachers regard and analyse the syllabus differently in relation to what is important to teach. We consider that this sort27
of diverse thinking does not only affect the status of PEH, but most of all, it affects the pupils right to equal education. Pupils´ that fall under this diverse thinking and teaching, do not receive an equal education and equal means to achieve their goals. We believe that this also provides additional means for those who believe that PEH is not an important subject. This could unfortunately lead to unnecessary pressure on newly educated PEH teachers who, most likely, will feel this aura of prejudice and could lean towards a more extrinsic valued education. In addition, the research has further showed clear extrinsic values are prioritized within PEH. This could unfortunately lead to that teachers do not teach the intrinsic values of the subject. As other research has stated, this sort of teaching where focus is on extrinsic values, will lead to lowering the status of the subject, where people will question the subjects importance, whereas the teaching of extrinsic values has no connection to the subjects core.
As Larsson and Redelius (2008) addresses, there is call for change of focus in future research, from studying activities to studying learning outcomes. In agreement with this we would also like to add that future research raises the need to in-depth focus of the intrinsic values within PEH to further improve the subject. In addition to a more in-depth focus in future research, we also suggest that this needs to be prioritized to PETE students as well. This could lead to an equal view of the subject, which could hopefully develop to an equal education.
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