projects.
Ecological, technical and economical comparison.
Be byggelseu tvec kli n g
Clara Norell February 2010
TBUOlOll
ziondistribution(@gmail.com
Prologue
This field study is performed and written as a case study for Malmö Högskola, Techniques and Science, January to April 2009,
Thanks and introduction of persons involved in the case study:
Humble thanks to supervisor in field; Gustaf Asplund, fonner urban advisor SIPU Intemational AB. Architect/planner SAR/MSA. Humble thanks for inspiration, support and contact links.
Deepest thanks to Donald McGillivray, supervisor in fteld, director Afri-Coast Engineeerings (ACE). Mr Gillivray was introduced as my assistant on behalf of
Mr Asplund. I want to give my deepest thanks for my time at Afri-Coast Engineerings, for a truly warm and welcoming atmosphere. Thanks to Elsabe for the generous supervision, for Suzi and her staff in the GIS-building, to Bruce and Dylan for showing genuine interest and providing help and to the continuous interest, help and feedback on my case study from all other not mentioned staff in the company. I have been to many different meetings in NMMB, private companies as well as municipality, and everywhere I have been people have been giving very good compliments about ACE, congratulating me to be under the supervision of Donald McGillivray. They are so right. T am very glad to have had the great opportunity to getto know ACE.
Grateful thanks to Jens Wittmiss for many years of mentorship. Assistant master at university, responsible of the programs: Building Techniques and Architecture, Malmö Högskola. Master of science in civil engineering. I have attended MR Wittmiss classes both at Malmö Högskola and at CPTU. I got the great opportunity to be an exchange student the same semester as Mr Wittmiss was an exchange teacher. I highly respect Mr Wittmiss and his most pedagogic way of teaching and am very much delighted that he offered himself to supervise my studies.
Warm thanks to Mr Neethling, professor in water engineering at Cape Technikon, My courses for Mr Neethling at Cape Technikon 2003 opened up my heart and interest for water engineering. He has truly inspired me to further studies on the subject.
Thanks to Franco Akogyeram for assisting me through my studies both in South Africa and in Sweden.
Thanks to Corrie Schmidt, Stan Grunewald and Tony Anthony, NMMB, for assisting me in regards of Sakhuluntu Village.
Thanks to Sandra Coetze, Housing Subsidy NMMB, for assisting me in regards oflaws and regulations regarding housing subsidies.
Thanks to Dawn McCarthy and Schalk Potgieter, NMMB, for assisting me in regards ofthe RDP-housing planning process.
Thanks to Mandisa Cgobo, Motherwell social housing centre NMMB, and ANC-members ofWard 58 for assisting me in regards ofempiric interviews. Thanks to Sool-Plaatje Social Housing Projects for showing me around their housing projects.
Thanks to everyone I have interviewed in different regards, throughout my studies. Most people mentioned by name in bibliography; verbal references. Thanks to my dear family and friends, in South Africa and Sweden, for general support and friendship <luring a hectic period.
Loving thanks to lzak-Zion for accompanying me throughout the field studies in South Africa and helping in taking pictures.
Malmö, Februay 2010
Summary
The aim of the case study is to investigate the possibilities of creating a sustainable house within the Renewal Development Programme (RDP) housing projects of South Africa (SA). RDP-houses are built by the municipalities of SA on order as well as on subsidy grant of the National Government of SA. A household can apply for three different kind of subsidies from the municipalities within the Assistance to the Poor (ATTP); house, electricity and water (tap and sewage including services).
The aim of the case study is to set up an economic cost specification for the price of building a sustainable RDP-house; including a water tank for rainwater harvesting, Solar Water Heater (S WH) geyser (for heating up warm water). The house will also include; LED-lighting, gas stove, separated toilets ( urine, faeces ), compost of food, a small private garden as well as a separated agricultural plot for a community with e.g. 100 households. The cost of the house will be compared to the cost ofthe RDP-houses that are built today (fixed total subsidy: R70555). Thereafter follows an investigation of the ecological footprint, over a 15 year period, to compare the two different RDP-house options. The aim is to create a sustainable house that can be more self sufficient and sustainable; in terms of the energy use and in terms of self sufficiency based on food securi ty.
Although not an economical difference for the people living in the house, but instead for the municipality and by that even for the government, it will indeed be an ecological difference for the user, the municipality as well as for the environment ofthe world.
Since the houses, electricity and water is handed out for free to a certain group of the poor population of SA, the municipalities stands for !hese costs. If there could be a more sustainable RDP-housing process, the municipalities could instead use these resources on school and healthcare.
When "households" and "people" are mentioned in the essay as an average tenn, it is understood that it is the low income households and the people from the average South A frican townships.
The results of the studies show a great realism in the thesis. If implementing water tank for rain water harvesting as well as SWH for heating of warm water, the South African RDP-households could after a period of 15 years be more self sustainable. Consequently the SA government could instead
of subsidising water and electricity, consider to subsidies the implementation of above mentioned technical equipment as a part of the RDP-housing subsidised programmes. Thereby the municipalities could target economical and human resources for improvement of school- and health system. The South African people would be self empowered and their health status would thereby improve. The ecological savings per household after 15 years would be 4 7820k Wh coal-produced electricity and 309 kl municipal water. The economical savings would after 15 years, per household be more than R20000.
Sammanfattning
Denna studie syftar till att undersöka tekniska möjligheter, kunskaper samt viljan till ett byggande för hållbar utveckling i Sydafrika
Författaren har genom MFS (mindre fältstudie) undersökt möjligheterna för att skapa mer hållbara hus ekologiska hus, för att sedermera kunna skapa "ekobyar" istället för som det idag, fortfarande byggs enligt den förlegade apartheidarkitekturens struktur; "one house one plot township".
The Department of Housing har sedan 1994 byggt över 2.6 miljoner hus för över 14 miljoner hushåll. Dessa hus benämns RDP-hus (renewal development programme) och byggs för att levereras till den absolut fattigaste befolkningen med en viss mängd gratis elektricitet (75kwh) liksom vatten (8kl kranvatten, l lkl avloppsvatten).
I Sydafrika ägs, projekteras och genomförs RDP-husprojektprogram av de separata kommunerna på uppdrag liksom subventionerade pengar från regeringen. RDP-husens standard är oehört låg och totala kostnaden/subventionen ligger på R70555 I hus med en tillhörande mindre mark jord/trädgård. Hushåll med gemensam inkomst på under R3500/månad har rätt att ansöka om ett hus hos konununen. När ett hushåll tilldelats ett RDP-hus, ses det efter 8 år som ägare till huset och är därmed även ansvarig för underhåll och skötsel av huset. Hushåll med gemensam månatlig inkomst på under R2020/månad kan även ansöka om subventionerad distribution av vatten-och elektricitet. Hushållen har rätt till:
• 8kl kranvatten • 1 lkl avloppsvatten
• service såsom sophämtning • 75kwh elektricitet.
(NMMB, 2009; Schalk Potgieter, 2009)
Studien kommer endast fokusera på nämnd inkomstgrupp med inkluderande subventioner.
När det subventionerade vattnet är förbrukat påbörjas en vattenräkning. Dessa räkningar kan sällan betalas utan avskrives istället efter en viss tid för individen. Istället får kommunen stå för kostnaderna. P.g.a. okunskap om att vatten inte är en förnybar källa, leder det ofta även till stora slöseri er av vatten.
Enligt Stan Grunewald, vatten- och elektricitet avdelning i Port Elizabeths (PE) kommun, har PE ett årligt "slöseri/svinn" av vatten som kostar kommunen över 70 miljoner Rand. (Stan Grunewald, 2009)
När den subventionerade elektriciteten förbrukats måste brukaren införskaffa förköpt elkod i jämförelse med kontantkort för mobiltelefon. Har hushållet ingen ekonomisk möjlighet att köpa ny el, leder detta ofta till att människor i nödsituationer kapar elkablar. Dvs. de klipper av en elkabel, ofta den hängande varianten, och drar in den i sitt hus. Detta är livsfarligt, människor dör årligen pga. av detta. Det leder även till större elavbrott där stora ytor av elbrukare, trafiksignaler etc. slås ut.
Problem med de RDP-hus som byggs idag är således ekologiska, ekonomiska samt säkerhetsmässigt hälsofarliga.
Studien syftar till att skapa mer miljövänliga, hållbara samt på lång sikt även mer ekonomiska RDP-hus, därmed även en helt ny fonn av bostadsutveckling i Sydafrikas sk kåkstäder.
Studien vill inspirera för samtliga nybyggnationer av RDP-housing projects att komplettera tillhörande vattentank för uppsamling av vatten (att brukas för allt utom dricksvatten), solvattenbehållare for uppvännning av vannvatten, gasspis, LED-lampor for inomhusbruk samt separerade toaletter. Där urinen används som irrigation för den privata trädgården och avföring tillsammans med hushållets kompostering, hämtas 1 ggr/vecka, för framställning av gödsel för separat lott som gemensamt används likt en kolonilott.
l denna form av husprojekt är det viktigt med intresserade hyresgäster samt kontinuerliga workshops för att få igång en bredare kunskap kring sopor och vår jord. Exempel på workshops:
• Jordbruks utveckling • plantskola
• sopsortering • kompostering.
Studien fokuserar på utformning, design samt val av material för hustypen. Genom att duplicera huset och tillsammans med hjälp av god fysisk planering, med tydliga riktlinjer, workshops samt entreprenörsskapsutbildning, skulle en helt ny form av sarnhällsutveckling i Sydafrika kunna växa fram.
Denna del kommer dock inte tas upp i studien, utan nämns istället som ett eventuellt framtida arbetsuppdrag för författaren eller som inspiration för annan elev att ta vid att utföra som examensarbete
Studien undersöker kostnader över en tidsperiod på 15 år, för att jämföra med dagens sk. RDP-hus. En ekonomisk jämförelse, av den nya totala konstruktionskostnaden med dagens RDP-hus på R77000. Därefter undersöks de två olika husens energiförbrukning över 15 år, för att göra en ekologisk jämförelse samt en kostnadsanalys på energiförbrukningen.
Den ekonomiska skillnaden kommer möjligtvis inte särskilja sig mycket för den privata brukaren, däremot förhoppningsvis för kommunen och därmed även för regeringen. Det konuner med största sannolikhet vara en ekologisk revolutionerande skillnad för den privata brukaren likväl som för kommunen och även då för hela jorden.
Visionen är att mha. nya lösningar kunna minska användning av kolproducerad elektricitet samt kommunalt vatten för att komma till en ekonomisk och ekologisk slutsats som visar att kommunen liksom regeringen kan spara miljöresurser liksom pengar. På så sätt kan märkta ekonomiska resurser istället används till förbättring av hälsa, utbildning samt äldrevård.
Visonen med studien är fungera som ett gott exempel och riktlinje, att presenteras för kommuner i Sydafrika för att förhoppningsvis därefter kunna byggas som testprojekt i stil med Sakhuluntu Village, Sool Plaatje Social Housing projects; Hull Street, Moeschoe Village samt Hemporiums k01mnande Hemp Village.
Studiens resultat visar på en stor realism i tesen. Vid implementation av vattentank för dagvattenhantering samt SWH för uppvärmning av varmvatten, skulle de Sydafrikanska RDP-hushållen efter en tidsperiod på 15 år bli mer hållbara. Således skulle den Sydafrikanska regeringen istället, för subventionering av vatten och elektricitet, kunna subventionera tekniska installationer som en del av RDP-husens standard subventionerade konstruktions kostnad. Ekonomiska och mänskliga resurser skulle dänned istället kunna örornnärkas för förbättring av skol- och hälsosystem. Sydafrikas folk skulle bli mer självförsörjande och deras hälsostatus skulle förbättras.
De ekologiska besparingarna per hushåll blir efter 15 år; 47820 kWh kolproducerad el och 309kl kommunalt vatten. Ekonomiska besparingar per hushåll blir efter 15 år mer än 20000 rand.
Table of contents Introdnction 1.1 Introduction of problem Aim Vision Methods Demarcations
Tntroduction to South Africa 1.2
1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6
1.7 Introduction to history of housing in South Africa
3 4 5 6 7 8 1.8 Introduction to Motherwell, example of township and
apartheid architecture 12
1.8. l Sakhuluntu Villlage RDP-housing pilot project 14 l.9
1.10 1.11
Housing process Housing subsidies
Energy report of South Africa today, technology and legislations
2 Solar Energy
2.1 Concentrating solar power generation 3 Solar Water Heater (SWH)
3.1 3.2 SWH, economical benefits 3.1.1 SWH, development offinancing in SA Usage ofSWH 4 Rainwater harvesting 4.1 Maintenance 17 18 development, 18 20 21 21 22 23 23 24 27 5 Proposal of an alternative concept of RDP-house, energy efficient,
including alternative water- and energy system 27 5 .1 Thermal efficiency; checklist for the house plan 2 7
6
5.3 Building with energy efficient materials 5 .4 Reduction of energy consumption 5.5 Energy efficient lightning
5.6 Alternative toilet for RDP-housing projects
29 30 30 30 5.6.1 Urine from separated toilet used as irrigation for the
private garden 3 5
5.6.2 Faeces mixed with household compost used as fertilizer for agricultural plot 3 5 5.7 Urban agriculture as part ofRDP-housing projects 36
5.7.1 Food security 5.8 Grey water system 5.9 Garbage
5 .10 Water tank for rainwater harvesting 5.11 SWH for heating up warm water Empiric Interviews
6.1 Empiric interviews regarding water usage
36 36 37 37 37 38 40 6.2 Empiric interviews regarding electricity and renewable
energies 41
7 Rainwater harvesting as an implementation of RDP-housing
projects 42
7 .1 Catchment areas 7.2 Collection devices 7.3 Conveyance systems
7.4 Effectiveness ofrainwater harvesting
7.5 Calculations regarding implementing water rainwater harvesting to RDP-housing projects
44 47 48 51 tank for 51 7.5.1 Measurements of daily water usage and demands in
7.5.2 Calculations of monthly water usage in typical RDP-areas, refen-ing measurements performed 5 6 7.5.3 Calculations of required yearly rain amount and roof
area, considering measurements performed 57 7.5.4 Calculations to determine the size and price of water
tank needed, considering measurements 59 7.5.5 Economical and ecological comparison over a 15 year
period, considering measurements 59 7.5.6 Calculations regarding built dwelling ERF 19 & 20,
Sakhuluntu Village 63
7.5.7 Calculations of roof area and required volume of water tank, considering ERF 19 & 20 66 7.5.8 Economical comparison of ERF 19 & 20, over a 15
year period. With or without water tank 67 7.5.9 Calculation of total cost of ROP-house, including
water tank for rainwater harvesting, considering ERF 19 & 20 and housing subsidy amount 2008/2009. Economical and ecological comparison 69
7.6 Short conclusion 70
8 Implementing SWH-geyser as part of RDP-housing projects 70 8.1 Calculations of economical savings of energy consumption.
S WH compared to electric geyser 7 4 8.1.1 Calculations of average monthly
consumptions, using electric geyser, empiric interviews and measurements 8.1.2 Subsidies
and yearly considering 74 77 8.1.3 Financial savings, community of 100 households 77 8.1.4 Calculations of financial savings, using SWH 78 8.1.5 Daily, monthly and yearly electricity costs for C2a
incl. heat losses, considering measurements and individual electricity price and Index 80
9
10 11 12
8.3 Calculation of total construction cost of RDP-house, water tank, SWH-geyser, considering ERfF19 & 20 and housing subsidy amount 2008/2009. Economical and ecological
comparison 82
8.3.1 Cost specification considering electricity prices for
municipalities 83
8.4 Short conclusion Conclusions and discussions
84 85 9.1 Conclusions regarding benefits of energy saving conscious
design 85
9.1.1 Benefits for the individual 9.1.2 Benefits for the nation 9. l .3 Benefits for the enviromnent
85 85 85 9.2 Conclusions of empiric interviews regarding water usage 85 9.3 Conclusions and discussions regarding implementing a water
tank for rainwater harvesting 86
9.4 Conclusions of empiric interviews regarding electricity
usage 87
9.5 Conclusions and discussions regarding installing
SWH-geyser 88
9.5.1 Suggestions by author considering SWH 9.6 Final conclusion Afterword by author Bibliography Appendix 89 89 90 91 98
1 Introduction
This case study is a proposal of a more sustainable RDP-house with new solutions regarding water and energy distribution, proposing an alternative toilet, choice of materials, energy efficient lighting as well as thermal design.
1.1 Introduction of problem
According to World Meteorological Organization (WMO), the average monthly precipitation over Port Elizabeth (PE), Eastern Cape, SA is 455 mm/year compared to 600 mm/year; Malmö, Sweden. This climatologically information is the normal values and prescripts, based on monthly averages for the 30-year period 1961 – 1990. Rain that is not harvested. (South African Weather Services, 2009; SMHI, 2009; WMO, 2008)
The walls of the RDP-houses built today are very thin. Many of them could, according to Swedish standards, be measured as pure shacks. During the three coldest winter months, June - August, it can get extremely cold in the nights. According to WMO average daily minimum of 9°C. (South African Weather Services, 2009)
The houses have no central heating. The people of low economic status are forced to use their money on expensive heating devices of various kinds. It can be electrical or even worse; primer stove, which contains paraffin which has polluting consequences, give burning eyes etc. These heating devices heats up a small isolated area. (Sarah Ward, 2007)
South Africa is a nation of over 49-million people of diverse origins, cultures, languages and beliefs. A large majority of South Africa’s people are poor and most of the poorer population suffer from a great lack of sufficient water supply. The few that have water inside lack heated water. (SIDA, 2009; UD, 2009)
The standard cost specification, see Appendix 12 A, provided by Tony Anthony, Land & Management NMMB, for RDP- houses is a subsidy amount of R70555, within the Governmental housing subsidy grant 2008/2009 (NMMB, 2009)
A household of a monthly income below R3500 has a right to apply for a house subsidized as a part of assistance to the poor (ATTP), see Appendix 12 B.
A household with a monthly income below R2020 has a right to apply for basic monthly service subsidies:
! 75kwh electricity ! 8kl tap water
! 11kl sewage water including social service.
When the subsidized water is finished, the tap is not turned off; instead the household gets a bill. If the household has insufficient economical situation to pay the bill, it will be written off after a certain amount of time and the municipality will have to stand for the charges.
When the 75kwh electricity is finished the electricity is turned off. The user then has to buy prepaid electricity, comparable to prepaid airtime. If the users don’t have the financial possibilities of buying prepaid airtime; this can lead to people cutting of electricity wires and cables.
Figure 1.1 Picture of stolen electricity, Gugulethu schacks, South Africa, February 2009. Photography by: Clara Norell.
This is extremely dangerous for the person cutting of the wire/cable as well as dangerous for the rest of the society; causing electricity wipe out for a large number of users, traffic jam etc. (Stan Grunewald, 2009)
Due to lack of education of the fact that water is a non-refundable recourse; there is a huge misuse of water as well as an average ignorance towards saving water. Today only in Port Elizabeth, according to Stan Grunewald Infrastructure of Electricity, Electrical and Engineering Department NMMB, the municipality has a water loss of over R70 million/year.
Consequently the problems around water and energy distribution in South Africa are:
! environmental ! economical ! technical
! security; causing health and life danger.
1.2 Aim
The aim of the case study is to create a new RDP-housing concept. Proposing a more sustainable and cost-effective construction. A house containing a water tank joined to the roof to collect rainwater, to be used for everything but drinking water, solar water heater (SWH) geyser with a 100l tank for warming up water, gas-stove, LED-lamps and separated toilets; where the urine is used as irrigation for plants in each private garden and the faeces is taken to a place where mixed with the compost of the household to be used as fertilizers of an agricultural plot. Suggested a separated agricultural plot was included to the RDP-community.
The case study includes a cost calculation of the capital building cost. The author investigates RDP-houses built today, cost specification given by Tony Anthony, Land & Management, Nelson Mandela Metropolitan Bay (NMMB) of R70555, appendix 12 A, within the Governmental subsidy grant 2008/2009. The comparison of the two houses, economical and ecological, presents a far more sustainable house.
The aim of the result of the case study is to find alternative solution for today’s common water and energy distribution system in South Africa (SA).
A great wish is that the concept will be used by the SA municipalities to be built for the poorer population in SA.
For the results of the case study to be achieved in the best way there is possibly needed yet another case study. For people to learn how to use separated toilets, agriculture and for the continuation of the plan and line of action, there would be needed large education programmes.
Workshops could be held with themes as: ! energy; renewable and non renewable ! environment
! global warming
! water-the source of life, ! waste separation
1.3 Vision
The vision is to find alternative and sustainable solutions to prevailing energy supplies in SA. By that be able to take part in helping nature, saving water and energy resource that exist now, educate and uplift people to self empowerment using their own water distribution system.
Well aware of the time limits of the field study, the time might not be enough for the vision to be accomplished. Therefore it should be henced that firstly it is a showcase and a conceptual proposal of that alternative solution exists. The aim during the10 weeks of field study is not to have an overall new solution in readiness for SA, but to develop a plan, adjust it for low income areas and bring forward a concept of how such a plan could be carried out.
By designing an ecological RDP-house with a water container in combination with solar energy, in SA, the author hopes to inspire others to look at the alternative ways of water- and energy systems.
The vision of the case study is to come up with a winning alternative that can be presented for the municipalities in South Africa and hope for it to be built as a pilot project like Sakhuluntu Village, Sool Plaatje social housing projects; Hull Street, Moeshoshoe Village and the future coming Hemp village built by Hemporium.
1.4 Methods.
The work includes all in all three parts, one study of literature, one field study, one study of statistics. Study of literature was performed as a pre study. Study of literature and field study was a parallel task in South Africa January till April 2009. Study of statistics was performed when all empiric interviews, Appendix 12 C, and measurements were done.
Field studies were performed in different low income areas as empiric interviews and measurements of water usages. The empiric interviews and estimations are done both in Motherwell, Port Elizabeth, Eastern Cape and Gugulethu, Cape Town, Western Cape. The statistic data of amount of sun hours is general information of South Africa. Therefore the case study has no direct demographic demarcation. Instead it is aiming to be used as an average example of how the municipalities could steer their RDP-housing projects compared to how it is done today.
The statistic data of rain amount per year is provided by the Airport of Port Elizabeth.
The calculations of roof area is based on architectural drawing from a housing competition on behalf of SIDA, South African and Swedish National Architectural organisations of creating RDP-houses. Drawings provided by NOH -Architects, Port Elizabeth.
The houses are built in Sakhuluntu Village, Motherwell, Port Elizabeth, Eastern Cape and therefore goes well with the statistic rain data.
1.5 Demarcations.
The author investigated households within the monthly income gap of R (0 – 2020), which is the lowest income gap. This income gap has a right to receive all the subsidies:
! House
! 75kWh of electricity / month ! 8kl of tap water / month
! 11kl sewage water incl. social services. ! Free sanitation services
! Free refuse removal services ! Free property rates changes (NMMB, 2009; Schalk Potgeiter, 2009)
Since there are yet no statistic data available in SA on the matter, the investigations and calculations of the ecological footprint is based on:
! Empiric interviews ! Measurements ! Interviews ! Assumptions
The case study will not take into consideration the costs of: ! time and resource of workshops
! information on how to use separated toilets ! how to grow your own garden
! how to create an agricultural plot connected to a community
That could instead be a future work task for the author or be an inspiration to another student to take upon as another case study.
The author is very well aware of that a sustainable house demands an interested and driven owner/tenant, which means that the market of the owner/tenant in such community must be targeted.
This case study will in terms of rainwater harvesting only look into catchment of roof top areas.
The case study will present a solution for one type of house and will not do line out, line of action, drawings etc of a whole community.
The costs; construction, materials, transportations etc could possibly be lowered if the case study would present a building project of 100 houses and therefore it might be mentioned as so.
In terms of grey water, there will only be a short presentation of how grey water could be re-used with more information in Appendix K. Since it is quite costly and demands some extra adding in the way of designing, construction as well as in terms of choice of materials and in maintenance it is not recommended for the use of the poorest population of South Africa. The author recommends the municipalities to continue to deal with the grey water use and instead come up with a larger solution of re-using grey water.
The case study will not comment or propose the fact that in a long term view, it would be more sustainable if the municipalities would create more rental RDP-housing projects.
The case study will not comment on the effect on the ground water, when proposing for water tanks to be implemented on a larger scale.
The case study will not comment or investigate any regards on the issue of subsidies such as impact benefits and handouts do on people and their own driving force towards self support.
The size of the case study is exceeded in terms of normal size 15 points case study at Malmö Högskola, Bologna measurements. The exceeded size is first and foremost due to the great need for an outsider to get a deep explanation and introduction to the history, process, laws and regulations of South African housing politics, before getting to the calculations. Consequently the case study is larger than an average Swedish case study should be.
1.6 Introduction to South Africa
South Africa has a political background like no other country. This case study is technical but since the aim is to implement it in an urban renewal development programme (URDP) it will also face socio economical issues.
Today SA is a democratic and stable country. The peaceful transition from authoritarian minority to democracy as well as a strong relegated open economy is often described as a miracle that has made SA to a role model on the African continent. The South African government is driving ambitious programmes for
more people to get access to accommodation, electricity, water, sewage, social services, education and much more. (SIDA, 2009)
The economy of SA is not big, compared to Europe (half of Sweden), but the best in Africa, where it makes a fourth of the whole African continent. Internationally SA is mentioned as an emerging market.
Since 1999 the economy has had an unbroken growth. SA is part of the middle income countries. The infrastructure, including roads, railways and harbours, is of high standard. The country is a modern market economy and telex- and electricity net are relatively well developed. There are huge nature resources and good conditions to increase and develop tourism. Since SA is of such high part of the economy of Africa, the development of SA is of high content of Africa, political and economical. (SIDA, 2009)
The differences in the income-gaps between the riches and the poorest are very big. SA is one of the most uneven countries; ca. 15 million out of the 49 million inhabitants counts as very poor and live below 2 dollar a day. (SIDA, 2009)
1.7 Introduction to history of housing in SA
South African urban housing problem is consequent to the rapid urbanization that followed the development of the diamond and gold industry in the latter half of the 19thcentury. The Land Act of 1913 limited the non-White population to 7.5% of the land. This increased to 13% in 1936. Various other repressive laws followed, culminating in the Groups Area Act of 1950, which was often amended. This apartheid law provided the division of urban areas into totally segregated districts. Separate areas were set aside for Black, Indian and Coloured communities.
The exception to the rule was that only domestic workers were allowed to live in the residential areas of their White employers. These backyard buildings may be regarded as the first type of housing for Blacks in urban areas. In the 1950s the Government commissioned the National Building Research Institute to design “appropriate” houses for Blacks. The main types proposed were small, single storey, and single-family units. These were built in the centre of an ERF (plot) with standard measurements, the so called “51/6 and 51/9 houses” see figure 1.6a and 1.6b. (Sara Ward, 2007; Albrecht Herholdt Architects CC, 2006)
Figure 1.6a "51/6 and 51/9 houses "plan. (Albrecht Herholdt Architects, 2006)
Figure 1.6b "51/6 and 51/9 houses" facades. (Albrecht Herholdt Architects, 2006)
Filled townships created monotonous townscape devoid of any outstanding features. It also resulted in a relatively low density and became the model of the “one house one plot” policy that is still in use today (Vestbro, 1999) points out that, “taking into consideration public open spaces, streets etc, it resulted in a floor area ratio of 0,1 to 0.25”. This is almost ten times lower than housing in the European inner cities.
Picture 1.6a. Pilot Project in Port Elizabeth, March 2009. Solar Geysers are being installed on the roofs on new built RDP-houses. Still building as apartheid architecture; low density model of the “one house one plot”. Photography: Clara Norell, March 2009.
The 1976 Soweto uprising started a new chapter in South Africa´s history. Under the directive of the African National Congress (ANC), the opposition movement endeavoured to make the country ungovernable. Their policy succeeded, particularly in the townships. Inhabitants stopped paying their rent, water and electricity bills. Thus rapid urbanization resulted in the existing housing being insufficient and people settling in shacks. (Albrecht Herholdt Architects CC, 2006)
When Nelson Mandela, elected president of South Africa 1994, as leader of the ANC won the first democratic election, he committed himself to build one million new houses before the following election, through his proposal of RDP-housing projects. Since then great strides have been made in the provision for the poor. Unfortunately, as previously mentioned, “the one house one plot” model has been used almost exclusively. Notwithstanding this, some notable exceptions have been built and accepted, ranging from semi-detached dwellings to multi-storey blocks, and this in turn has contributed to the creation of denser cities.(Albrecht Herholdt Architects CC, 2006)
The focus on numbers as well as pressure of delivery resulted in poor quality houses. The planning of the neighbourhood continued to follow the layout concept of the apartheid era; mono-functional “urban sprawl” with repetitive rows of small boxes. (Albrecht Herholdt Architects CC, 2006)
After huge criticism, policies subsequently changed to focus more on public participation. The present urban sprawl is an expensive planning model. Municipalities face very costly technical and social infrastructure due to the lack of financial resources for low-cost housing projects. (Albrecht Herholdt Architects CC, 2006)
The complexity of SAs housing crisis requires more than a straight forward approach to building houses. The crisis is not just about an enormous backlog but also about a dysfunctional market, torn communities and a strained social fabric, spatial as well as social segregation etc. The response to the crisis should be innovative and diversity. (Schalk Potgieter 2009)
! To only respond to the numbers that must be built, shows that municipalities replicate the distorted apartheid geography of the past. ! To respond only to the dysfunctional mark, risks alienating households so
impoverished that they are unable to access any market.
! To develop houses although the housing crisis is only about bricks and mortar, waste the enormous potential for gearing the massive reconstruction and development effort happening in SA.
The housing process must be economically, fiscally, socially, financially and politically sustainable in the long term. This implies balancing end-user affordability, the standard of housing, the number of housing units required and the fiscal allocations to housing.
Despite servicing of new sites and building of new houses as well as the delivery of 1.831 million subsidised houses between 1994 and March 2005, the housing backlog continuous to grow. (Schalk Potgieter 2009)
1.8 Introduction to Motherwell, a township and apartheid architecture
The Motherwell Urban Renewal Programme (MURP), located within the larger Integrated Development Programme of the NMMB, has been allocated an amount of 14.25 million Euros by the European Union’s Support to the Urban Renewal Programme (URP) in the Eastern Cape. The EU’s Support to the URP in the Eastern Cape aims to improve the quality of life of the marginalised communities in Motherwell in NMMB through the mechanism of a Sector Policy Support Programme (SPSP). For this purpose the MURP, located within the larger integrated development programme (IDP) of the NMMB, has been allocated an amount of 14.25 million Euros over five years. (ACE, 2009)
Motherwell is uses in the case study as a reference site for demographic, estimations, interviews, rain data and house design.
The design and layout of Motherwell is a typical township, built under a renewal development housing programme (RDP) on a typical apartheid architectural frame. Typical of these influences, this township was subdivided into self-contained neighbourhood units, with limited access to them and with a buffer zone created around it for the easy control of the authorities.
Established in 1980 the layout was one of the first township plans to incorporate functions other than residential. However it essentially stayed a dormitory township with limited economic and employment opportunities. Situated 18kms outside of Port Elizabeth, designed purely as a residential area for about 120000 people, it now consists of 15 neighbourhood units (NU), which house an estimated 117000 people, although local studies shows a population of close to 450 000 people. (ACE, 2009.)
Indicator City Motherwell Number % Number % Population 1 005 788 117 323 Households 265 101 31 739 Gender head of household Male 479 763 47.7% 54 965 46.9% Female 526 019 52.3% 62 351 53.1% Age 0-14 263 212 26.1% 34 230 29.3% 15-34 374 981 37.2% 45 325 38.6% 35-59 286 890 28.7% 32 815 27.9% 60+ 80 700 8.1% 4 948 4.2%
Table1.7a. Socio-demographic survey conducted by Africoast Engineers 2001-07. INTRODUCTION TO THE TENDERED PROJECT AND REQUESTED PROCESS This report was commissioned by the Nelson Mandela Bay Municipality’s Special Programmes Unit and conducted by Africoast Engineers SA (Pty) Ltd – (hereafter known as ACE.)
The average monthly household income in Motherwell is around R520, of which 50% of the resident population is unskilled and unemployed. The community is attempting to become self sufficient and sustainable by means of community food gardens, which proof to be successful and seem to be economically viable. Urban agriculture is practiced to a limited extent in Motherwell. A few numbers of households maintain their own small vegetable patch. The soil condition in Motherwell is generally very poor but with the right approach and techniques it would be possible to extend the practice of urban agriculture. (ACE, 2009)
The existence of agricultural projects and food security projects is also paramount in the node for eradication of poverty and promoting local economic development. The municipality is currently funding garden plots and ploughing fields’ projects. Training was given to many beneficiaries on how to plough.
Urban Agricultural households are pilot projects within all NUs in Motherwell to encourage members of the community to grow their own vegetables. (ACE, 2009)
The challenges faced so far: formation of interested participants as well as organisation. (ACE, 2009)
The benefits for the community: members of the community learn to supplement their income with own production of vegetables. (ACE, 2009)
The provision of water seems to be a persistent problem as a result of the flat gradient, hence the provision and the pumping of water becomes costly. In some of the areas the bucket system is still prevailing as the only means of sanitation which needs an urgent attention. About 48% of households in Motherwell have access to free basic electricity e.g. subsidized electricity. (ACE, 2009)
1.8.1 Sakhuluntu Village, RDP-housing pilot project
“The Sakhuluntu village project in NMMB was initiated as part of the support to the municipality from Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (SIDA). The official objective to densify and integrate the city needed new types of housing for the subsidy sector, more urbanized versions of the Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP) houses, with denser housing areas and with variety in tenure options. An architectural competition was organised in 2004 together with Buffalo City Municipality (BCM), inviting South African and Swedish architects and architectural students to propose the new type of housing on two competition areas, one in Motherwell in Nelson Mandela Bay, one in Duncan Village in Buffalo City. The jury selected one winner for the BCM site and two winners; Julian Cooke (SA) and Lindström & Walldén Arkitekter AB (Sweden) for the NMB site.” (Asplund & Anthony 2006)
In February 2004, the NMMB invited South African and Swedish architects and architectural students to participate in an Affordable High-Density Housing Competition. The South African institute of Architects (SAIA) and the Swedish association of Architects (SAA) accredited the competition and it was supported by the Swedish International development Cooperation Agency (SIDA, 2004, Albrecht Herholdt CC Architects, 2006)
The competition was initially intended as a model project with commercial builders for the construction of the best projects. The winning sites, called for a design that could be built by emerging builders. Two proposals were selected for implementation; ne submitted by Swedish Architects and one by South African architects. Organisation involved; local councillors Swedish and South African architects, NMMB and MURP. (Tony Anthony, 2009)
This project will provide 64 single storey residential units, 44 duplexes and number of rental units. Cost per dwelling is R70555, see cost specification Appendix A. (Tony Anthony, 2009) Construction started in 2005 with the total funding and source of R4 million has been allocated from SIDA. The construction of units is progressing slow (ACE; 2009).
10 houses have been built, all negotiations and papers are ready for 100 more units to be built, yet nothing is happening. Tony Anthony, Land & Management says: “the Environmental department keeps the project on hold, with the comments that there are special indigenous plants on the plot that needs to be saved”. (Tony Anthony, 2009)
Picture1.8.1a. South African proposal, winning dwelling, ERF 19 & 20, in Sakhuluntu Village. Photography by: Clara Norell. February 2009
Sakhuluntu costs, the achievement of minimum standards for the majority of units for the available money, included:
! plastered exterior walls
! interior walls built up to roof level ! internal doors
! a sink
! internal water closet and shower ! Concrete finish to floors
! ISO-boards 25 mm in the ceiling, reducing heat in warm climate and decrease heat in cold climate
! No heating or insulation provided
! Sustainable technical solutions based on ecological awareness ! Sustainable construction proposals, feasible for the participation of
the inhabitants
! Ecological considerations including alternative sanitation and energy matters
( Albrecht Herholdt Architects, 2006; Tony Anthony, 2009)
Picture 1.8.1c. South African winning proposal, Sakhuluntu Village, ERF 19 & 20. Photography by: Clara Norell February 2009.
1.9 Housing Process
In order to support the efforts of the various parties in the housing process, government housing policy is therefore primarily facilitative. Through legislation, the provision of subsidies and through the creation of appropriate institutional frameworks and support structures, government seeks to create an enabling environment in which the housing processes people-centred and partnerships thrive. (NMMB, 2007)
State housing policies and subsidies programmes should accommodate the needs of the youth, the disabled, single parent families, rural households without formal tenure rights, hostel inhabitants and of other persons with special needs. This must occur within a framework that gives appropriate attention to these needs in both their urban and rural contexts to ensure balanced development. (NMMB, 2007)
These laws and regulations are part of the Housing Act amended 1997, see Appendix B for more information regarding housing politics.
Municipalities must ensure all SA-citizens basic service infrastructure, water supply options, sanitation options, roads and storm water options. Municipalities can get municipal infrastructure grant (MIG) capital funding for infrastructure improvement. (Schalk Potgieter, 2009)
1.10 Housing subsidies
A Government Housing Subsidy, free basic services, is a grant by Government to qualifying beneficiaries for housing purposes of a total set amount of R70555. The grant is not paid in cash to beneficiaries. The grant is either paid to a seller or a house or in new developments. The grant is used for houses that comply with the minimum technical and environmental norms and standards, which is then transferred to the qualifying to beneficiaries. See Appendix C and Appendix D regarding laws and qualifying criteria for applicants wanting to apply for the housing subsidy. (Housing Subsidies NMMB, 2009)
1.11 Energy report of South Africa today, development, technology and legislations
“Ready access to adequate appropriate and affordable forms of energy is a prerequisite for sustainable socio-economic development and the improvement of quality of life.” (SA Energy on White Paper, DME, 1994)
A major component of urban poverty is energy poverty. Poor households spend substantial income on meeting their energy needs to survive. These households are also often dependant on energy sources which are unsafe, unhealthy, expensive and inconvenient. Understanding energy needs of citizens assists municipalities to address poverty. Appropriate energy solutions can also stimulate job creation. An energy strategy is an excellent management tool that will assist a municipality to make strategic longer term decisions and be more energy efficient; delivering not only cost savings in the short-term, but longer term financial viability and competitiveness taking into account factors such as reputation, carbon management and environmental responsibility. South Africa is a signatory of the Kyoto Protocol and while not yet obligated, as one of the world’s heaviest carbon emitters, South African cities are beginning to take the lead in initiating carbon emissions reduction. (Sarah Ward, 2007)
The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), is an United Nations (UN) mechanism set up to reduce CO2-emissions, Allocating carbon pollution limits to countries on the basis of population and enables developing countries which use less than their allocation to sell carbon credits to developed countries that use more than their allocation and have a Co2 -debit. The department of Minerals and Energy approves CDM projects in SA, which enables them to seek funding partners via the CDM. (Genergy, 2009)
For more information regarding South African energy picture, rules and regulations, see Appendix F.
An energy service provision approach which includes thermally efficient low cost housing, SWH, energy information and education alongside fuel subsidies, would better target poverty alleviation and addressing environmental footprint and national capacity issues associated with growing electricity demand. (Sarah Ward, 2007)
Eskom is currently the only electricity supplier and distributor within South Africa. Substantial growth in electricity demand during the 1990s when government held up on new capacity development has resulted in an electricity supply capacity abstains. (Stan Grunewald, 2009)
The government was hoping for new forthcoming black independent power producers to rise. There was no prerequisite legal and support framework, this has yet not happened. In 2006 SA had 40 GW of installed capacity with a peak demand of 35 GW. This is considered electricity crisis. Index of electricity prices will rise in the coming years to allow renewable energies to enter the market. South Africa is endowed with relatively cheap electricity. This is because 95 percent of the national grid electricity is generated from abundant coal resources, which in turn translates into low electricity prices. The incentives for energy efficiency and alternative forms of energy supply have thus not been prioritised up until recently with the release of the Draft Energy Efficiency Strategy of the Republic of South Africa in 2004. (Sarah Ward, 2007)
According to Stan Grunewald, electricity and department of NMMB an assumed yearly index of 25% is expected.
South Africa is currently introducing feed in tariffs to the grid, for more info see Appendix G.
Most poor households in SA are dependent on energy sources which are; inconvenient, unhealthy and expensive, including problems with fuels like coal, paraffin and wood. Choices made upon South African energy sources are determined by accessibility, cost, familiarity and access to information. Majority of the households which have electricity still continue to use energy sources of fuels of different energy uses depending on economic, social and cultural reasons. (NMMB, 2007)
2 Solar Energy
Is everything that energy should be; clean, safe and environmentally sustainable. Solar Energy is the best way to heat a house, provided the house is designed correctly and insulation installed. The term used for this is passive solar design. (Sarah Ward, 2007)
SA has one of the best climates for solar power, with strong sunlight 9 months per year. The difficulties lie in the high cost of solar technologies and appliances. A common perception is that solar technology is second rate, unreliable and limited in its applications. To change this mindset it’s necessary to put up pro- active campaigns, incentives and regulations. (NMMB, 2007)
The Northern Cape receives the highest levels of daily solar radiation levels in South Africa (between 8,500 and 9,500 MJ/m2 annually). Consequently the province is a very suitable choice for the development of bulk solar energy generation, as well as the application of existing solar energy technologies to the local authorities, commercial, industrial, and residential sectors. (Sara Ward, 2007)
2.1 Concentrating solar power generation
Eskom’s Solar Thermal Electric Project has identified the potential for bulk solar electricity generation in the Northern Cape. This would likely be through the building of Concentrating Solar Power Plants. Preliminary study results indicate that these plants have the potential to produce significant quantities of cheap solar electricity, and meet evening peak loads in South Africa. The cost per kWh is less than nuclear power reducing rapidly as technologies improve and economies of scale grow. (Sarah Ward, 2007)
3 Solar Water Heater (SWH)
SWH is much cheaper than electric geysers for heating up water. The ongoing cost to the user is low because once the system is installed and paid for the energy is free. (Corrie Schmidt, 2009)
A worldwide huge consumer of electricity is domestic water heating. Solar Water Heaters (SWH) can play a significant role in reducing electricity consumption. SWH easily compete with gas and electric water heaters in countries that have supported the growth of the SWH industry through legislation and tax incentives. As domestic water heating consumes one third of total domestic power used, SWH could save SA 2000MW of capacity, the equivalent of one coal fired power station. SWH can, through electricity savings, currently pay off in about five years. (Sarah Ward, 2007; Tony Anthony, 2009)
Consequently the case study will, when calculating for SWH, do an ecological footprint of a five year period, followed by an added ten year period, due to the minimum lifetime of a SWH. (Martin Nel, 2009)
Eskom have introduced a scheme to provide an up to 20% subsidy on SWH.
Studies suggests that the volume of hot water demand for different standards of living, that the availability of a small volume of piped hot water on a stand is a stronger determinant of standard living than merely an abundance of cold water. (Meyer, 2000)
3.1 SWH, economical benefits
Solar water heating (SWH) systems are a well-established solar technology in South Africa. There is significant domestic manufacturing of these systems. SWH systems represent an effective way to reduce electricity consumption related to water heating. In middle-income households, an electric geyser may represent 30-60 percent of total electricity consumption. (Sarah Ward, 2007)
Consequently SWH systems make a good choice to reduce electricity bills and total electricity consumption. Despite potential monthly savings, SWH systems represent a significant capital outlay. With a suitable financing mechanism the uptake of SWH could be much higher than it has been. Effective for households, commercial complexes, industry and capital costs will be covered from reduced electricity use well within the lifespan of systems. Well developed technology with various products on the market. Increased local production of solar systems will contribute to jobs and economic growth. Financing SWH; a standard electric geyser accounts for about 60% of an average middle income household electric bill. (Sarah Ward, 2007)
Figure 3.1 SWH-geyesers installed in Moeshoeshoe Village, Sool Plaatje housing project. Photography by: Clara Norell February 2009
Consequently this data is used in calculations in chapter 8.
In rental schemes, SWH, make a lot of sense, as it reduces the running costs of the household while providing a high level of service- making rentals more affordable. Local electricity service providers will benefit from SWH, as timers can reduce electricity demand at peak times; costs are reduced for the electricity providers. (Sarah Ward 2007; Corrie Schmidt, 2009)
3.1.1 SWH, development of financing in SA
As with many households with electric geysers, there is a high demand of a lot of power at peak times. Technologies retrofitting are more expensive than if the intervention were installed from the outset. To make SWH attractive to households it is necessary to provide appropriate financing, including subsidies for poorer households. Tax incentives and subsidies to developers and householders are needed to encourage installation of SWH in i.e. new housing development. If i.e. a housing project involving installations of SWH will collaborate with an international organisation from an industrial country; it is possible to apply for CDM, see Appendix F.
The City of Cape Town is currently exploring the use of a by-law to ensure that new buildings include SWH rather than traditional geyser systems. As the SPM receives relatively high average daily solar radiation, SWH systems are a very suitable alternative to electric geysers. There are potential opportunities for local manufacturing of these systems to supply the SPM and the surrounding areas. (Sarah Ward, 2007)
3.2 Usage of SWH
The hot water system needs two sunny days initially to reach its optimum operating temperature. The temperature of the water in the tank depends upon the amount of hot water used and the weather conditions. The unit needs sunshine and not heat to operate efficiently. It will be warmer on a clear cold day than on a cloudy warm day. If no water is used in summer it is possible for the temperature in the system to reach boiling point. This will cause steaming and water to overflow from the exhaust or ball valve tank. This will not damage the system but it is better to cover the tubes partially if no water is going to be used for an extended period. (Sarah Ward, 2007)
Figure 3.2 showing a SWH-geyser with Thermosyphon flow, such as the geysers used as references for calculations. More info on TASOL-geyser, see Appendix H.
4 Rainwater harvesting
Rainwater harvesting has been practiced for more than 4, 000 years. Rainwater harvesting is a technology used for collecting and storing rainwater from rooftops, the land surface or rock catchments using simple techniques such as jars and pots as well as more complex techniques such as underground check dams. The techniques usually found in Asia and Africa arise from practices employed by ancient civilizations within these regions and still serve as a major source of drinking water supply in rural areas. A rainwater harvesting system consists of three basic elements:
! collection area ! conveyance system ! storage facilities (Gould, 1992)
The collection area in most cases is the roof of a house or a building. The effective roof area and the material used in constructing the roof influence the efficiency of collection and the water quality. (UN, 2009)
A conveyance system usually consists of gutters or pipes that deliver rainwater falling on the rooftop to cisterns or other storage vessels. Both drainpipes and roof surfaces should be constructed of chemically immobile materials such as wood, plastic, aluminium, or fibreglass, in order to avoid adverse effects on water quality. (Plumbing Engineering, Plumbing Africa Magazine, 2009)
The ultimate storage facility is in a storage tank or cistern, which should also be constructed of an inert material. Reinforced concrete, fibreglass, or stainless steel is suitable materials. Storage tanks may be constructed as part of the building, or may be built as a separate unit located some distance away from the building. (Plumbing Engineering, Plumbing Africa Magazine, 2009)
Figure 4.1 Water tank joined to roof catchment areas, Motherwell Social Housing Centre, Port Elizabeth , South Africa. Photography by: Clara Norell March 2009.
While any container that can safely hold water can be used they should be closed units such as closed top recycled barrels or open top barrels that have removable lids. This provides safety for small children, animals, birds and especially important to prevent mosquito infestation. (Plumbing Engineering, plumbing Africa Magazine, 2009)
Most rainwater collection systems are designed to capture rainwater from the roofs of buildings. The water is then diverted through gutters and drain pipes into storage tanks, where it is stored until needed. The water collected can be used for drinking water, depending upon the materials used and the treatment undertaken by the homeowner, recommended to be filtered first. (Plumbing Engineering, plumbing Africa Magazine, 2009)
A short rain storm can result in a large amount of water being collected. The rain water runs into a tank and it is then normally pumped to its final destination point. (Gould, 1992)
Accounts of serious illness linked to rainwater supplies are few, suggesting that rainwater harvesting technologies are effective sources of water supply for many household purposes. It would appear that the potential for slight contamination of roof runoff from occasional bird droppings does not represent a major health risk; nevertheless, placing taps at least 10 cm above the base of the rainwater storage tanks allows any debris entering the tank to settle on the bottom, where it will not affect the quality of the stored water, provided it remains undisturbed. (UN, 2009)
Domestic rainwater harvesting (DRWH) appears to be one of the most promising alternatives for supplying freshwater in the face of increasing water scarcity and escalating demand. The pressures on rural water supplies, greater environmental impacts associated with new projects, and increased opposition from NGOs to the development of new surface water sources, as well as deteriorating water quality in surface reservoirs already constructed, constrain the ability of communities to meet the demand for freshwater from traditional sources, and present an opportunity for augmentation of water supplies using this technology. (UN; 2009)
4.1 Maintenance
Maintenance is generally limited to the annual cleaning of the tank and regular inspection of the gutters and down-pipes. Maintenance typically consists of the removal of dirt, leaves and other accumulated materials. Such cleaning should take place annually before the start of the major rainfall season. However, cracks in the storage tanks can create major problems and should be repaired immediately. In the case of ground and rock catchments, additional care is required to avoid damage and contamination by people and animals, and proper fencing is required.
For more info regarding rainwater harvesting, see Appendix L.
5. Proposal of an alternative concept of RDP-house, energy efficient, including alternative water- and energy system.
Following chapter presents a good way to design a house in a sustainable way, using passive thermal design as well as energy efficient materials. Passive thermal design; works with the climate, natural heating, cooling and lighting.
Proposal of how such a concept could be carried out in terms of design, structure, materials, lightning, toilet, garden, community as well as source of energy distribution and water system. More detailed information on the housing proposal, see Appendix I.
If a city can lower its energy expenses it could instead focus on poverty alleviation, housing, school and health agendas. (Sarah Ward, 2007)
5.1Thermal efficiency; checklist for the house plan
! Adjacent houses allow solar-access sufficient north/south spacing for winter sun.
! Long axis of the house oriented essentially north/north east 15°C west to 45°C east.
! The most used room should be facing north side, which will give them natural light and warmth.
! A compact house plan will reduce the loss of heat from a house. Compact design faces as little wall area as possible to the outside.
! Multi storey rather than single storey. Row housing rather than detached houses. Enables better thermal performance, higher comfort and lower materials and energy costs. (Sarah Ward, 2007)
5.2 Energy efficient housing
South Africa has very cold and damp winters and very hot summers. Table 5.1a shows the best ways to make the house warm in winter and cool in summer.
In the southern hemisphere the sun moves on a path from east to west, slightly towards the north in summer and towards the north lower in the sky, in winter. The difference between the height of the summer and winter sun can be used to make the houses warm in the winter and keep out the sun in summer. (Sarah Ward, 2007)
Energy efficient housing
Energy efficient
housing Density The Sun Deciduous trees
Allow maximum
benefit from the sun.
A ceiling; most
important factor for
making a house
warmer in winter & cooler in summer. Site sheltered.
House designed to be protected from harsh summer sun and receive winter sun.
Reduced cost and recourse usage. Shared services. Greater support for facilities. Double storey, due to shared walls have better thermal efficiency and can deliver a larger dwelling with less wasted land on site.
To catch the
winter sun, main rooms should face north.
A roof overhang on the north side, designed correct, will allow in the winter sun but will protect the
north facing
windows from
higher summer
sun.
planted outside the north facing windows:
Shade the house in summer.
Let in the sun
during winter
when they lose their leaves.
Provide fruit in summer.
5.3 Building with energy efficient materials
The materials used for the walls, roof , ceiling and floor of a house are very important for making a house warm in winter and cool in summer.
Walls Roof material Ceiling Floors
Straw (straw bale buildings)
Cob (mixture of mud and straw)
Adobe ( a mixture of sand and mud)
High reflective
properties give cooler interior if it is a good heat conductor.
A double roof
system, consisting of one layer of either a
double sheet
corrugated tin sheets or one layer of corrugated tin sheets and a wickerwork of palm leaves.
This system prevents the indoor climate
from direct sun
heating in
wintertime. The hot
air is removed
through natural
ventilation during the hot season.
In summertime the air slot could have an isolating effect if the openings are closed.
In areas with cold
winter, ceiling
reduces heating costs by at least 50% with insulation it can increase to 75%. Ceiling material should be a good insulator. Floors exposed to winter sun should be made of materials with a high thermal mass.
Floor can release heat during the night.
A concrete slab,
bricks or thick floor of clay works very well.
5.4 Reduction of energy consumption
Retrofitting a good quality dual-flush toilet significantly reduces water demand. More appropriate for suburban households while reduced flush frequency is more appropriate for township-type stands. Installing a low-flow showerhead for reduction in:
! water demand ! hot water demand ! wastewater flow (DME, 2009)
5.5 Energy efficient lighting
Light emitting diodes LED-lamps are tiny, purely electronic lights that are extremely energy efficient; they have a long life, require much reduced maintenance and fewer traffic disruptions. LED units are also brighter and provide an equal brightness over the whole surface of the light fitting compared to other lighting systems. LED bulbs consume 20W instead of 100W; consequently power consumption would drop by a factor of 5-6 by changing bulbs. (Sarah Ward, 2007)
Costs:
! 40 rand for 20W LED. ! 10 rand for 100W Globe (Game Store, South Africa, 2009)
5.6 Alternative toilet for RDP-housing projects
The case study integrates a so called separated toilet to the RDP-house proposal, where the urine is used as irrigation for plants in each private garden and the faeces is taken to a place where mixed with the compost of the household to be used as fertilizers of an agricultural plot. Suggested a separated agricultural plot was included to the RDP-community.
Figure 5.6a Separated toilet integrated to building in Hull Street, Sool Plaatje social housing project. Photgraphy by: Clara Norell February 2009.
Africa is a good place to build and practice the art of recycling nutrients from their own excreta in order to gain better crops and vegetables in their back gardens. Southern Africa, where there is space, where backyard gardening is practiced and where the climate is warm and wet seasons are interspersed with dry.
A urine-diverting toilet uses a special pedestal or squat plate which separates the urine from the faeces (Figure 5.6b). In this case, the faeces fall into a 20 litre bucket held in a brick vault. Soil and ash are added to the bucket after every deposit is made. The contents of the bucket are removed regularly and placed in another site, secondary compost site, to make compost. This process takes between 6 – 12 months. The urine collects in a plastic container. Both toilet compost and urine add fertility to the soil and can enhance food production. (Sool Plaatje Social Housing Project, 2009)
Figure 5.6c Separated toilet, side view.(Ecosan, 2009)
It is of utmost importance to have a good functional ventilation pipe as well as ventilation in the whole house.
When on site, Hull Street and Kimberly in Sool Plaatje Social housing project, for field studies and interviews the most common comments and complaints the author received was regarding the ventilation and the bad odour coming from the toilet. Consequently the tenants were using strong chemicals to clean and take away the heavy smell, leading to an ecologically unfriendly environment.
