International Development Cooperation and Climate
Change Adaptation in Kuyoj Qhocha, Bolivia
- A Case Study of Resilience and Vulnerability
Among Small-Scale Farmers
Internationellt Utvecklingssamarbete och Anpassning till
Klimatförändringarna i Kuyoj Qhocha, Bolivia
– En Fallstudie om Resiliens och Sårbarhet Bland
Småskaliga Jordbrukare
Miljövetenskap, Vt. 2011
Författare: Johannes Malmqvist & Johan Viscarra
Handledare: Ebba Lisberg Jensen
2
A
BSTRACT
In the small basin Kuyoj Qhocha, in Bolivia, an agriculture program named PROAGRO (Programa de Desarrollo Agropecuario Sostenible, Sustainable Agricultural Development Program) is being conducted. The program is carried out by a trilateral cooperation between Bolivia, Germany and Sweden and its main objectives are to increase resilience to climate risks among small-scale farmers, improve their management of water resources and local watersheds and generate increased and sustainable returns from their agricultural production. This essay aims to respond on how Kuyoj Qhocha‟s small-scale farmers and other actors involved in PROAGRO perceive that climate change is affecting the farmers‟ livelihood. It also aims to investigate if the farmers and the other actors recognize that the farmers‟ resilience to climate risks is increasing as a result of the efforts made through PROAGRO. The investigation has been made through qualitative interviews with farmers, personnel from international cooperation agencies and with officials at the local municipality. The investigation is compared with earlier research concerning climate change adaptation and social resilience. The study shows that farmers of the region are experiencing variations in climate, such as altered rain and heat cycles, affecting them both negatively: for example through destroyed plantations due to droughts, and positively: for example by the possibility to cultivate new crops. Their resilience against climate risks is gradually increasing mainly because of the usage of water harvest technologies but also through several integrated solutions such as the exploit of beneficial opportunities through the diversification of crops and income, by educational workshops and by assisting the farmers to apply for economic support from the government.
Keywords: Climate risks, Resilience, Bolivia, Kuyoj Qhocha, PROAGRO, Climate change,
3
R
ESUMEN
En la pequeña cuenca de Kuyoj Qhocha, en Bolivia, se está llevando a cabo el programa agropecuario PROAGRO (Programa de Desarrollo Agropecuario Sostenible), mediante una cooperación trilateral entre los gobiernos de Bolivia, Alemania y Suecia. Los principales objetivos son: aumentar la resiliencia entre agricultores a pequeña escala ante los riesgos climáticos, mejorar su gestión de los recursos hídricos y cuencas hidrográficas y generar mayores rendimientos sostenibles de su producción agrícola. El enfoque de esta tesis en relación al PROAGRO tiene como objetivo responder las siguientes preguntas: ¿Como se ve afectado el medio de sustento de los agricultores por los cambios climáticos, según los actores del PROAGRO y los agricultores de Kuyoj Qhocha? y según estos mismos actores, ¿Se está incrementando la resiliencia entre los agricultores como resultado de las soluciones y estrategias realizadas por el PROAGRO? La investigación se ha realizado por medio de entrevistas cualitativas con agricultores, el personal de las agencias de cooperación internacional y con funcionarios de la municipalidad de Sacaba. Las entrevistas y la investigación realizada son comparadas con teorías e investigaciones científicas relacionadas al cambio climático, resiliencia y adaptación. Los resultados indican que los entrevistados perciben variaciones en el clima, como ciclos alterados de lluvia y temperatura, que afecta a los agricultores negativamente: por ejemplo sequias que destruyen sus cultivos, y positivamente: por la aparición de nuevas oportunidades de cultivo. Se indica también que la resiliencia está incrementando paulatinamente entre los agricultores, debido mayormente al uso de tecnologías de cosecha de agua pero también a través de varias soluciones integradas, como el aprovechamiento de oportunidades beneficiosas por medio de la diversificación de cultivos y de ingresos, por los talleres educativos y mediante la asistencia a los agricultores al momento de solicitar apoyo económico del gobierno para proyectos de desarrollo de su agricultura.
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S
AMMANDRAG
I Bolivia bedrivs ett jordbruksprogram vid namn PROAGRO (Programa de Desarrollo Agropecuario Sostenible), genom ett trilateralt samarbete mellan Bolivia, Tyskland och Sverige. Syftet med programmet är att öka resiliensen bland småskaliga jordbrukare mot klimatrisker, förbättra deras förvaltning av vattenresurser och lokala avrinningsområden samt skapa ökad hållbar avkastning från deras jordbruksproduktion. Denna uppsats syftar till att undersöka hur PROAGROs personal, småskaliga jordbrukare och andra aktörer, upplever att klimatförändringarna påverkar lantbrukarnas levebröd. Vidare syftar uppsatsen att undersöka om lantbrukarnas resiliens mot klimatrisker ökar till följd av de insatser som genomförs av PROAGRO. Undersökningen har avgränsats och fokuserar på ett specifikt avrinningsområde vid namn Kuyoj Qhocha. Undersökningen baseras på kvalitativa intervjuer med lantbrukare, personal från svenska och tyska biståndsorgan samt med lokala myndighetspersoner. Den insamlade empirin jämförs i uppsatsen med tidigare forskning och teorier relaterade till resiliens, klimatförändringar och anpassning. Resultaten av studien visar att lantbrukarna i Kuyoj Qhocha upplever variationer i klimatet, som förändrade regn- och värmecykler, vilka påverkar dem både positivt: exempelvis genom uppkomsten av nya odlingsmöjligheter och negativt: exempelvis på grund av förstörda odlingar tillföljd av torka. Deras resiliens ökar successivt, främst på grund av användandet av vattenskörds tekniker men också på grund av andra integrerade lösningar som diversifieringen av grödor och inkomster, pedagogiska verkstäder, och genom att hjälpa lantbrukarna att ansöka om ekonomiskt bistånd hos regeringen för förverkligandet av jordbruksutvecklande projekt.
5 INDEX Abstract ...2 Resumen ...3 Sammandrag ...4 Preface ...7 1 Introduction ...8 1.1 Farming in Bolivia ...8
1.2 Purpose and investigation questions ...8
1.3 Disposition ...9
2 Background ... 10
2.1 Bolivia ... 10
2.1.1 Agriculture and climate change ... 10
2.1.2 La Paz, Cochabamba and Kuyoj Qhocha: the visited locations ... 11
2.2 Introduction to the agricultural issues in Kuyoj Qhocha ... 13
2.3 PROAGRO: International development cooperation focused on climate change adaptation for sustainable agriculture among small-scale farmers ... 14
2.3.1 PROAGRO’s local strategy in Kuyoj Qhocha ... 15
3 Earlier Research ... 18
3.1 Adaptation, Resilience and Vulnerability ... 18
3.2 Theoretical strategies and solutions ... 20
4 Method ... 24
4.1 Introduction ... 24
4.2 Choice of Subject and Approach ... 24
4.3 Choice of method and Collection of Data ... 24
4.3The interviewed Persons – Population and Selection ... 27
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4.5 Analyze method ... 29
4.6 Ethical aspects ... 29
5 Perceptions and observations of a changing climate – Vulnerability and Opportunities ... 30
5.1 Introduction ... 30
5.2 The changing water and heat cycles ... 30
5.3 Negative consequences of the variations on the farmers of Kuyoj Qhocha – Vulnerability ... 32
5.3.1 Possible outcomes due to negative external shocks ... 34
5.4 Opportunities ... 35
6 Climate change adaptation – Increasing resilience in Kuyoj Qhocha ... 38
6.1 Introduction ... 38
6.2 solutions at the fields ... 38
7 Concluding Results and Reflections ... 42
References ... 44
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P
REFACE“… a todos les digo, amigos: qué esta tierra que habitamos, tenemos que respetarla. Porque es ella quien nos da todo y solo nos pide amarla; y si queremos dejarles a nuestros hijos, un futuro,
un mañana. Todos debemos poner el hombro para cuidarla…”.
Juan Enrique Jurado, compositor boliviano. “… to all I say, friends: that this earth we inhabit, we must respect it. Because it is she that
gives us everything and only ask for love in return; and if we want to leave our children a future, a tomorrow we all need to place our shoulders to sustain her…”
(Authors translation) Juan Enrique Jurado, Bolivian composer.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (SIDA) for making these kinds of studies reality through the Minor Field Study (MFS) scholarship. They would also like to thank all people that participated in interviews, for making this investigation possible. A special thanks to Peter Asmussen and Pierre Frühling, supervisors out in the field and also to our supervisor at Malmö University, Ebba Lisberg Jensen and our examiner Per Lindquist.
Johan Viscarra also wishes to give special thanks to his father Juan Viscarra Aguilar, who died shortly before this investigation began, for all his support and commitment over the past years and for having planted curiosity about environmental issues and knowledge of Bolivia.
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1
I
NTRODUCTION1.1 FARMING IN BOLIVIA
Bolivia‟s geography is characterized by different types of landscapes due to large topographic height differences. There are areas with cold, temperate and warm climate as well as humid, arid and semi-arid zones. This variation in topographic and climatic conditions makes Bolivia a fascinating as well as, in some aspects, a vulnerable country.
Some human activities, such as small-scale agriculture in arid or semi-arid regions, are being particularly affected by climate change. The producers in these areas are specifically exposed since their subsistence depends heavily on agricultural production, which in turn is highly depended on stable weather conditions and water availability. The farmers in these regions of Bolivia are already exposed but now risk experiencing an increased vulnerability due to climate change.
Some international development cooperation agencies, such as GIZ (Deutsche Gesellschaft
für Internationale Zusammenarbeit, German International Cooperation Agency) and SIDA
(Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency), have identified these regions as especially vulnerable and are therefore conducting the agriculture program PROAGRO (Programa de Desarrollo Agropecuario Sostenible, Sustainable Agricultural Development Program) in selected farming communities. The main objective of the program is to increase resilience among small-scale farmers to climate risks.
The basin of Kuyoj Qhocha is one of PROAGRO‟s benefited farming communities. It is located in a semi-arid region of the country. This location, its farmers and the people working with climate change adaptation for the benefit of the community, makes the basis for this field study.
1.2 PURPOSE AND INVESTIGATION QUESTIONS
The purpose of this essay is to investigate how Kuyoj Qhocha‟s small-scale farmers and other actors involved in PROAGRO perceive that climate change is affecting the farmers‟ livelihood. It also aims to investigate if the farmers and the other actors can observe that the farmers‟ resilience is increasing as a result of the efforts made through PROAGRO.
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The investigation is based on interviews made with actors involved in PROAGRO, such as the personnel from the cooperation agencies, the politicians and officials at the local municipality and the main actors, the farmers. Based on these interviews, observations and document analysis, this essay aims to answer the following main investigation questions:
How do small-scale farmers from Kuyoj Qhocha and other actors involved in PROAGRO perceive that climate change is affecting the farmers‟ livelihood? Is the farmers‟ vulnerability decreasing, and if so, to what extent and in what ways
is the resilience increasing through PROAGRO?
The approach for answering these questions is mainly based on how the involved actors perceive their reality and their perception of the future. Still, not all the empirical data is based on interviews, it is also investigated and collected through observations and document analysis of the work and strategic plans done by international development cooperation agencies and national entities.
1.3 DISPOSITION
In figure 1 the disposition of this essay is being illustrated:
Figure 1: The figure shows an ov erview of the essay's disposition
Chapter 1 presents an introduction of the essay and its problem-area.
Chapter 2 presents relevant background facts of Bolivia, Kuyoj Qhocha and PROAGRO. Chapter 3 begins explaining the central terms and relevant concepts such as vulnerability, resilience, climate change and adaptation. Further, is earlier research and theories presented, describing how increment social resilience and working with climate change adaptation. Chapter 4 presents the method of investigation and choice of subject.
Chapter 5 and 6 answers the main research questions through the analysis of the collected empirical data.
Finally, chapter 7 concludes discussing and presenting the results of the investigation. Introduction Background researchEarlier Method Data analysis conclusionsResults and
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2
B
ACKGROUND2.1 BOLIVIA
Bolivia is a country situated in the middle of South America, surrounded by Brazil in the north and east, Paraguay in the southeast, Argentina in the south, Chile in the southwest and Peru in the northwest (Bonniers, 2008).
Bolivia‟s climate is characterized by its geographic location and its differences in altitude. The country is situated in the tropic of Capricorn; and because of the big differences in altitude that characterize the country, the temperature, hence the flora and fauna differs widely. In east there is lowlands with high temperatures, in the middle of the country the
mesothermal valleys and in the west the Altiplano1 and the Andean mountain range (Bedregal, 2010). The administrative capital of Bolivia is La Paz (see table 1 for more short facts of Bolivia). The country is politically divided into nine departments with their own capital cities. The capital city of each department has the same name as the department (see map 1, below).
2.1.1AGRICULTURE AND CLIMATE CHANGE
Bolivia is a country with a high percentage of rural population, with more persons working in the agricultural sphere than in industry, mining and commerce together (Andresen & Paco, 2009). Over 80 percent of the rural population lives below the line of poverty and 64 percent below the line of extreme poverty. The average income for the rural areas of Bolivia is U$ 0,60 /day (The World Bank, 2008) & (SIDA, 2010b).
Agriculture, which is a major economic, social, and cultural activity, is highly sensitive to climate variations. It is especially seen in those areas of Bolivia where the impacts of climate change on agricultural activities are substantial because of water deficit (c.f. Howden,
1
Altiplano is the name or term of the high plateau situated in the Andes, It is used to identify the altitude zone and the type of climate that prevails within it.
Table 1: Short country facts
Source: (SIDA, 2010a) Plurinational State of Bolivia
Habitants: 9.700.000 (2008)
Capital: La Paz (administrative) Sucre (constitutional)
Language: Spanish, Quechua, Aymara and Guaraní
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Map 1: Map over Bolivia and the 3 locations were the study
has been conducted. Source: Openstreetmaps
Soussana, Tubiello, Chhetri, & Dunlop, 2007., & Bedregal, 2010). The last conference on climate change in Cancun confirmed this, stating that poor agricultural countries, such as Bolivia, are particularly vulnerable, a reason why the conference emphasized the urgent need of enhanced action and international cooperation on adaptation in the developing world. While also aiming to reduce vulnerability and building resilience among these countries (FCCC, 2011).
These terms are being explained further, later in chapter 3, first a description of the visited locations and then an explanation about the socio-agricultural issues concerning the investigated location, Kuyoj Qhocha, in chapter 2.2.
2.1.2 LA PAZ, COCHABAMBA AND
KUYOJ QHOCHA: THE VISITED
LOCATIONS
The location which makes the base for this essay, the basin of Kuyoj Qhocha and its farming community, is situated in the department of Cochabamba. However the investigations made for this essay have been realized at different institutional levels in different locations of the country (see map 1 were these locations are pinpointed).
In the capital city of La Paz, personnel from the head offices of SIDA and GIZ were interviewed.
In the city of Cochabamba the personnel from PROAGRO‟s
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valleys unit were interviewed and outside of the city in the basin of Kuyoj Qhocha the farmers were interviewed (for more information about the interviewed persons and population selection read chapter 4).
The department of Cochabamba is situated in the center of the country and it is geographically a part of the mesothermal valleys, with milder weather than that of the Altiplano (Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011). Its capital city (the green dot in map 1) is situated at an altitude of 2531 m.a.s.l. (meters above sea level).
The basin of Kuyoj Qhocha (blue dot in map 1), is located in the municipality of Sacaba at a distance of 40km from the city of Cochabamba (PROAGRO, 2011a) (picture 1, below). Kuyoj Qhocha covers an area of 12 km2 from the water contribution zone to the harvesting area. The Tuti Mayu River runs through the area in which six farming communities are settled with approximately 537 households2 engaged mainly in agricultural production activities producing crops such as potatoes, beans and coarse grains (PROAGRO, 2011a).
2
For the simplification and easier comprehension of this text, the six small farming communities in the basin of Kuyoj Qhocha and its 537 households, are referred to as a basin or as one whole community or location.
Picture 1: View of Sacaba (below in the picture) and the basin of Kuyoj
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The climate in Kuyoj Qhocha is characterized by humid and temperate climate with a dry winter season. Although the basin is only 40 km away from the city of Cochabamba, it is located much higher, approximately 1000 meter above the city, at a height between 3600 and 3800 m.a.s.l. (PROAGRO, 2011a), the height of Kuyoj Qhocha compared to Cochabamba can also be seen visually in picture 1. The average annual rainfall is 600mm and with an average temperature of 15ºC. The evaporation in the locality reaches 1600mm/year which makes it a semiarid place (Montaño, 2010).
2.2 INTRODUCTION TO THE AGRICULTURAL ISSUES IN KUYOJ
QHOCHA
The major concern among Kuyoj Qhocha‟s farmers is the lack of water for irrigation and for own use (Montaño, 2010). As mentioned above the region is defined as a semiarid place. The water contributing zone of Kuyoj Qhocha consists of rainwater stored together with groundwater which flow out into two recently renovated dams. The water from these dams is shared by the farming communities through a complex system of channels and through a complex social system by which each farmer receive a scheduled share of water, measured in terms of flow time, during certain day(s) each month. The lack of small water-storage facilities, as atajados which is mentioned below in 2.2.1, and the use of flood irrigation by the farmers are the major factors of the wasteful use of the water (Asmussen, 2011., & Parra, 2011).
The geography and other physiographical factors of the location, such as pronounced slopes, are leading to accelerated processes of erosion by the wind and running water. This combined with monoculture are resulting in the continuous loss of soil fertility which influences the low yields of the agricultural production (Montaño, 2010). The effects of climate change, such as increased frequency of extreme weather events, changing patterns concerning rainfall, water availability and temperature, are also contributing to a situation of uncertainty and risk taking among the farmers (Asmussen, 2011., Frühling, 2011., Parra, 2011., & MPD, 2007). These phenomenon tend to make the outcome of the cultivated crops uncertain because of for example hailstorms which destroys certain crops (cf. MPD, 2007), or epochs of drought which make it difficult to cultivate (cf. Palenque, 2003). These effects are also identified by the farmers of Kuyoj Qhocha. They share their stories about this in chapter 5 and 6.
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Climate change can also bring positive outcome since an increase in temperature in high places, like Kuyoj Qhocha, combined with the usage of adaptation measures to prevent crop drought, such as efficient irrigation systems, can lead to a higher yield and to the production of “new” crops that were not possible to produce there before (cf. Andresen & Paco, 2009., & Flores Bedregal, 2010).
All of these mentioned problems and possible opportunities combined, creates a complex situation which has to be tackled in an integrated way combining technical and social solutions at macro as well as in the local level (Asmussen, 2011., & Frühling, 2011). These strategies and solutions are presented in the following chapter.
2.3
PROAGRO:
INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT COOPERATION FOCUSED ON
CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AMONG SMALL
-SCALE FARMERS
PROAGRO is an agricultural program conducted by a trilateral cooperation between the government of Bolivia and the international cooperation agencies of Germany (GIZ) and Sweden (SIDA) (Asmussen, 2011).
At a macro level PROAGRO is constituted by GIZ, SIDA and the Bolivian ministries of environment, water and their vice-ministries. At the local level, PROAGRO works with municipalities, departmental governments, universities, etc. (Heiland & Baudach, 2010., & Asmussen, 2011).
The program is conducted in three different focal regions of Bolivia: Chaco, Norte Potosí and Valles. The basin of Kuyoj Qhocha belongs to the Valles region (valleys). Beside the regional division, the program works with four different components: Irrigation, Watershed management, Agricultural innovation and commercialization and Access to Energy Services (PROAGRO, 2011b., & GTZ, 2009). These components are interlinked with the central concepts of the Bolivian national watershed plan, which was developed in 2006. The central concepts of this plan are: integrated management of water resources (GIRH), integrated management of watersheds and social management of water and environment (MIC) (Heidland & Krug, 2010).
15 Institution of techincal assistence: • Technical capacity • Information • Integrated focus • Methodology and technics
Interaction • Participatory dialogues • Field trips •Problem identification • Proposals Local Actors:
•"Knowers" of their own reality • Expectations
• Needs
• Water use related conflicts • Proposals
• Identification and prioritization of measures • Sizing actions, definition of responsibilities and
commitments
• Conceptual plans (GIRH and MIC) • Components
The focus of the program since 2005, during the first phase, was on sustainable agriculture in the mentioned regions with the components explained above. Since 2011, the second phase of the program has sharpened the focus, including climate change adaptation in selected vulnerable locations in the mentioned regions (Asmussen, 2011). The purpose of the second phase of PROAGRO is:
…improving the livelihoods for small-scale farmers living in arid and semi-arid areas of Bolivia, where the effects of climate change (such as increased frequency of extreme weather events, changing patterns concerning rainfall and water availability) will further increase the vulnerabilities faced by this population group. (SIDA, 2010b, p. 1)
…and it has the overall objectives to (SIDA, 2010b):
2.3.1PROAGRO’S LOCAL STRATEGY IN KUYOJ QHOCHA
PROAGRO‟s strategy for Kuyoj Qhocha consists of integrating the four mentioned components: Irrigation, Watershed management, Access to energy services, Agricultural innovation and commercialization. Culminating in the role of an entity provider of advisory services who through the sharing of information, methodologies and tools aims to interact with the local actors discussing their issues related to water, environment, production and commercialization (Montaño, 2010). This is illustrated by the following figure:
Generate increased and sustainable returns from the farmers‟ agricultural production. Improve their management of water resources and local watersheds.
Increase resilience among small-scale farmers to climate risks.
Figure 2: Schematic figure illustrating the actors, their contributions, demands and their interaction
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Through the dialogues between the actors, illustrated in the interaction box in figure 2, it is aimed to create an atmosphere of reflection in which the problems and measures are identified and were the actions are defined and the responsibilities and commitments are distributed (Montaño, 2010., & Parra, 2011).
This strategy layout has led to assistance in different forms. For example there are concrete technical results/solutions of cooperation being implemented with selected families of Kuyoj Qhocha. Who have received technical counseling and assistance for the construction of pilot systems of water harvesting or water irrigation and the introduction of new crops. See picture 2 and 3:
The atajado in picture 2 is a small water reservoir where the owner can store water from rain and from his quota of the water received from the dams in the contribution zone. The atajados can later on be connected to sprinkler or drip irrigation systems for a more efficient water use. In picture 3, the flower bulbs contribute to a new kind of income for the farmer since the cultivation of flowers and the commercialization in the markets of Cochabamba creates a new way of income for the farmers (Asmussen, 2011., & Parra, 2011).
Through this kind of assistance, PROAGRO increases the knowledge about different systems, how to build them, how they work and/or how to cultivate new crops, etc. The expectation is that these new methods and ideas are being propagated by other farmers and counterparts such as municipalities and regional authorities, as mentioned before; they assist selected motivated farmers with the final intention of creating a spinoff effect (cf. PROAGRO, 2011b., Picture 2: An atajado constructed with
assistance of PROAGRO. Photo: Malmqvist
Picture 3: Flower bulbs, a crop introduced for the
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GIZ, 2011., & SIDA, 2010b), and by using the local authorities human resources and infrastructure while implementing the programming it is expected to generate continuity and auto-management (SIDA, 2010b). This kind of cooperation is, as Hermele explains, development created from inside, inside poor countries or locations and with the purpose of engaging the local actors so they help themselves to rise out of poverty and vulnerability (cf. Hermele, 2008)
To conclude this chapter, it is also relevant mentioning that PROAGRO also assists in other forms, working as consultants for the farmers or local actors with the goal of helping them design own projects that are later on being presented to the Bolivian ministries or other entities who can finance their projects. This is the case of a recently applied irrigation project done with the assistance of PROAGRO, which is resulting in funds from the Bolivian government for the investment in sprinkler irrigation systems for the farmers of Kuyoj Qhocha, a measure which can help reduce the usage of water for irrigation by 90 percent if these systems are combined with the atajados mentioned above (Asmussen, 2011., & Parra, 2011).
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3
E
ARLIERR
ESEARCH3.1 ADAPTATION
, RESILIENCE AND
VULNERABILITY
In this essay technical terms are used, such as climate change adaptation, resilience and vulnerability. These terms are explained here based on scientific articles and reports.
The atajado and the flower bulbs, presented in 2.3.1 are examples of technical solutions used as adaptation measures. The term climate change adaptation is much wider. It is closely related to the term resilience, both emphasized in the global climate discussions. For example the IPCC defines climate change adaptation as:
…adjustment in natural or human systems in response to actual or expected climatic stimuli or their effects, that moderates harm and exploits beneficial opportunities [and]…a process by which individuals, communities, and countries seek to cope with the consequences of climate change, including variability. IPCC in (UNDP, 2010, p. 9)
The content of this quotation is closely linked to the term resilience, described by Resilience Alliance (2002) as: applied to ecosystems, or to integrated systems of people and the natural environment, resilience has three defining characteristics (Resilience Alliance, 2002):
The amount of change the system can undergo and still retain the same controls on function and structure;
The degree to which the system is capable of self-organization;
The ability to build and increase the capacity for learning and adaptation;
The term resilience can be used both for ecosystems and for social systems. Ecological
resilience describes the capacity of an ecosystem to adjust or adapt to disturbances and
changes, without shifting to a qualitatively different state, by absorbing shocks at the same time as it maintain its function (Environmental Advisory Council, 2002). The social definition is similar, as IPCC‟s definition of climate change adaptation states, focusing on the abilities of social systems to adjust to disturbances. Additionally social resilience describes a society and its social systems ability to handle changes that affect the livelihood of the society. It depends on the capabilities and capacities of people/society to adapt to internal and external shocks and stresses (Chambers & Conway, 1991). In other words, it is about how we, in a world of changes, can sustain the ecosystems ability to produce goods, services and other values that the human race is depended on for its wellbeing (Environmental Advisory Council, 2002). It
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can also be interpreted as the opposite to vulnerability (Stadel, 2008) and should also be approached with an integrated view since social and ecological systems are dynamic, affect each other and are mutual dependent (Environmental Advisory Council, 2002).
To better understand climate change adaptation and promoting resilience in several sectors of social systems the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP, 2010) writes that:
Promoting increased resilience to the impacts of climate change is closely intertwined with development choices and actions that cover a variety of sectors, such as energy, agriculture, health, water, and infrastructure. In particular, it is essential to consider both the synergies and trade-offs between adaptation and mitigation activities, including possible negative and positive side effects. (UNDP, 2010, p. 9)
To conclude this chapter, table 2 presents explanations of the terms mentioned in this section:
Summarized explanations of basic terms
Table 2: Explanations of the basic terms used in this essay.
Theoretical term
Explanation
Resilience: Ecological/Social: The amount of change a system can undergo and
still retain the same controls on function and structure. The degree to which the system is capable of self-organization and the ability to build and increase the capacity for learning and adaptation. In the specific case of social resilience it depends on the capabilities and capacities of people/society to adapt to internal and external shocks and stresses and often described as the antipode to vulnerability.
Vulnerability: Resilience can be seen as the antipode to vulnerability. In the case of this essay‟s investigation focus, vulnerability is described as the agriculture being highly sensitive to climate variations. The majority of the small-scale farmers in Kuyoj Qhocha are poor and their agriculture methods are very depended on climate conditions. Making it difficult for them, since they have limited capacities, to withstand external shocks related to climate change, such as droughts, landslides, storms, floods, plagues, etc.
Climate change adaptation: An adjustment in natural or human systems in response to actual or expected climatic stimuli or their effects, that moderates harm and exploits beneficial opportunities [and]…a process by which individuals, communities, and countries seek to cope with the consequences of climate change, including variability.
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3.2 THEORETICAL STRATEGIES AND SOLUTIONS
The theoretical strategies and solutions described in this chapter are compared later in chapter 5 and 6 with solutions and strategies applied by PROAGRO. This is done in order to answer this essay‟s second research question.
Earlier research concerning climate change adaptation in agricultural systems shows, as mentioned before, that increasing social resilience is done by integrating several kinds of solutions and measures between the social and the ecological realm (Stern, 2006, & Stadel, 2008). This chapter will mainly present theoretical solutions, for adapting agricultural activities and farming communities to climate variations or other similar external shocks, mentioned in different sources as scientific articles, reports and websites.
In Christoph Stadel‟s article: Resilience and adaptations of rural communities and
agricultural land use in the tropical Andes: Coping with environmental and socioeconomic changes, are problems related to economic, social an ecological issues presented as well as
organizational strategies with most focus on the tropical Andes. Kuyoj Qhocha is not categorized as a tropical part of the Andes, still this article is applicable since it is based on the vast array of environmental conditions found in the Andean tropical mountain system in which some issues and solutions are similar, replicable and found or used in Kuyoj Qhocha. Stadel resumes in his article that “A principal objective of Andean agriculture is to cope with ecological, economic and social crisis situations which result in various manifestations of vulnerability” (Stadel, 2008, p. 21). He pinpoints three realms illustrated below, closely integrated with measures designed to contribute each other (Stadel, 2008). The following figure found in Stadel‟s article describes different crisis situations, vulnerabilities, strategies and possible results:
21
Source: (Stadel, 2008, p. 22)
Stadel presents these problems and possible solutions on a general level, not focusing on a determined external shock, such as climate change. The figure is applicable on the impacts of climate change. For example can one issue related to climate change in Kuyoj Qhocha, the scarceness of water for irrigation and for own use, be fitted in the first ecological box “resource scarcity…” This issue is being discussed later in chapter 5 and 6. This external shock can affect the three realms, for example by impoverishing the farmers (economic realm) and by affecting their social networks such as Kuyoj Qhocha‟s irrigation organization (social realm), making it necessary to identify the vulnerabilities it leads to and determining solutions in all realms (cf. Stadel, 2008).
Further Stadel presents more tangible and concrete examples of “different components of traditional and potentially new forms and strategies of agricultural land use and of farming communities to strengthen and promote the resilience of Andean agriculture and rural livelihoods” (Stadel, 2008, p. 22). Presented in the following figure (Stadel, 2008, p. 24):
Results
Improvement of economic situation Enhancement of local social political power Enhancment of environtmental quality
SURVIVAL STRATEGIES
Enhancement of subsistence production alternative employment and incomes
Improved forms of organization and networking
Conservation, resource protection alternative resource use
Vulnerability
Marginal livelihoods, insufficient income,
food Inadequate social security Inadequate conservation, nonsustainable exploitationof environment Economic Social Ecological
Crisis Situation
Empoverishment Marginalization Collapse of social networks Ressource scarcity, deteriorationof resource quality
Figure 3: Vulnerability and survival strategies in Andean rural
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Resilience
Farming communities Agricultural land use
Andean knowledge Reciprocity
Capacitating
Enablement, Entitlement Empowerment
Attitudes of Justice & Equity Auto management
Fostering of local Leadership Communal Coherence
Environmental Protection
Strengthening of Economic Base Sustainable Resource Use
Improved Rural Infrastructures and Services
Improved Market Access
Enhancement of Human Security and Quality of Life
Risk minimization
Sustainable forms of Agricultural Land Use
Strengthening of Successful Traditional Crops, Forms of Land Cultivation and Land Use
Development of New “Niches” of Sustainable and Profitable Agricultural Land Use and of “Niche” Product for Markets Fostering Compatible forms of
Agroforestry
Improvement of Irrigation Potential and Pest Control
Promotion of Successful Land Use Innovation & Technologies
Figure 4: Resilience of Andean farming communities and agricultural land use. Source: (Stadel, 2008)
Many of these solutions/ components are being implemented in Kuyoj Qhocha by PROAGRO. Examples of solutions being discussed in chapter 5 and 6 are: Auto-management, Sustainable Resource Use, Capacitating, Improvement of Irrigation, Development of New Niches of Sustainable and Profitable Agricultural Land Use and of Niche Product for Markets, etc.
Another article, Howden et al. (2007), focuses on how climate change specifically can affect different agricultural systems and explains which potential solutions can be used (Howden et al., 2007). The following bullet-list gives some examples on how to deal with projected climatic and atmospheric changes that affect cropping systems:
Altering inputs such as varieties/species to those with more appropriate thermal time and vernalization requirements and/or with increased resistance to heat shock and drought, altering fertilizer rates to maintain grain or fruit quality consistent with the
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prevailing climate, altering amounts and timing of irrigation and other water management.
Wider use of technologies to „„harvest‟‟ water, conserve soil moisture (e.g., crop residue retention), and use and transport water more effectively where rainfall decreases.
Managing water to prevent water logging, erosion, and nutrient leaching where rainfall increases.
Altering the timing or location of cropping activities.
Diversifying income through altering integration with other farming activities such as livestock raising.
Improving the effectiveness of pest, disease, and weed management practices through wider use of integrated pest and pathogen management, development, and use of varieties and species resistant to pests and diseases and maintaining or improving quarantine capabilities and monitoring programs.
Using climate forecasting to reduce production risk.
Source: Howden et al., (2007) p. 19693
Some of these solutions, for example water harvest techniques and the diversification of income, are being implemented in Kuyoj Qhocha by PROAGRO and are also mentioned in chapter 6.
Summing up this chapter, increasing resilience to climate risks among small-scale farmers and rural communities of the Andes is done through adaptation measures and strategies which are closely linked to good development practices, approached by investing in health and education, promoting diversification of economic, social and ecological activity and also by decreasing vulnerability against disasters by improving disaster management (Stern, 2006) & (Resilience Alliance, 2002). It refers to adjusting practices and processes in response to current or future risks related to climate change (Howden et al., 2007)
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4
M
ETHOD4.1 INTRODUCTION
This investigation is mainly based on qualitative interviews with farmers from Kuyoj Qhocha and actors working in or with the agriculture program PROAGRO. In total, there were nine interviews made with different persons who gave answers to the investigation questions. Other methods used for this study were observations and document analysis.
4.2 CHOICE OF SUBJECT AND
APPROACH
We (the authors) have both been interested in studying international development cooperation with focus on environmental issues and sustainable development. We began to talk about writing our essay together with this focus in the spring of 2010 and thereby contacted the Swedish International Cooperation Agency (SIDA) in Bolivia. They informed us of their activities with German GIZ related to sustainable agriculture with focus on climate change adaptation within PROAGRO. This later became the basis for our thesis.
The choice of the subject was aimed to capture a problem at the intersection between man and nature, which also is a criterion for studies made in environmental science. We found that the investigation on how small-scale farmers were affected by climate change was an interesting starting point for our investigation. Second we wanted to know if the efforts made through PROAGRO were helping the benefited farmers to increase their resilience to climate risks and if so how they were making this possible.
The choice of the location, the basin of Kuyoj Qhocha, was chosen together with our contact person from GIZ in La Paz, Peter Asmussen. He explained that PROAGRO are present in many different locations of Bolivia and that the basin of Kuyoj Qhocha was an appropriate place to conduct our investigation from a practical stand point; since the basin is situated close to the city of Cochabamba and we had little time at our disposal making it difficult to choose another location far away from a major city.
4.3 CHOICE OF METHOD AND COLLECTION OF DATA
After having identified the area and the questions we wanted to answer, our next phase was to determine which method or methods we would use. We first began discussing the usage of a
25
quantitative survey made in Kuyoj Qhocha, which we later were going to compare with statistics or climate models. The problems we encountered with this method were first that there is not any data available specifically for this region. There are general models for Bolivia but these models tell very little or nothing at all about a specific region since the topographic height difference creates micro-climates. Second we found it difficult to make a quantitative survey considering that the farmers lived relatively far away from each other and we were not sure if they all could read a written survey or even speak Spanish.
These practical issues made us reconsider and reshape our investigation‟s focus so it would fit a qualitative method. The aim of qualitative methods is not to generalize the results but to, for example through interviews or observations, understand the reality of people‟s own perspectives (Teorell & Svensson, 2007). We thereby found it interesting to investigate these questions through the perceptions of key-persons, getting dynamic answers based on the knowledge and experience of key-persons within PROAGRO, see for example Esaiasson et al. (2009) for differences between methods. Through qualitative interviews we were able to investigate and identify characteristics such as the interviewed person‟s view of a specific issue and his or she‟s perceptions of a phenomenon (Davidson & Patel, 2003). With this approach we could also, for example, talk about the farmers‟ daily experiences as a way of gathering our answers, a procedure which in many ways is typical for qualitative interviews (Esaiasson, Gilljam, Oscarsson, & Wängnerud, 2009). Summing up, we wanted to build our data material on emotions and/or experiences which made interviews the right method (cf. Denscombe, 2000). This led to us choosing qualitative interviews as our major method for this investigation.
The other methods used for this investigation, the observations and document analysis, were not chosen by design since they were methods which came naturally and were implemented when possible.
During the collection of the data (the dialogues with the farmers and with other actors) different interview guides were used. The interview guides consists of themes with possible issues to discuss, these guides had the purpose of guiding the conversations so they answered our basic questions. They were used, during our partially structured interviews with the farmers and other key-persons (Kvale, 1997). Through the guides we aimed to create a
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dynamic situation where the dialogs were alive and free but simultaneously giving us a framework so that the topic of the conversation did not leave the focus of our investigation (Esaiasson et al., 2009). The questions under every theme were personalized depending on which person was being interviewed and were pre-elaborated in such a way that they avoided resulting in fixed answers, giving the responder an opportunity to express freely and share their own opinions (cf. Davidson & Patel, 2003).
Below are the overall themes and examples of some questions on the interview guides for the
farmers:
Climate change and its effects on you as a small-scale farmer in Kuyoj Qhocha.
Example on questions made under this theme: In what way have you noticed and change in the climate
over the years? What do you cultivate today that you were not able to cultivate before and vice versa? How does climate change affect you as a small-scale farmer, both positive and negative effects?Do you experience opportunities with climate change?
Efforts by PROAGRO to reduce vulnerability and its influence on you as a farmer.
Example on questions made under this theme: How are you adapting to these changes? How is the
international cooperation agencies helping you through PROAGRO? Is it technical, social or other kind of support?
Results of the efforts, increased resilience among the farmer as well as for the entire community. Example on questions made under this theme: Have you more access to water now than
before? Are you experiencing increased revenue from your agricultural production? How has your income changed the last time period? How do you think the economic and social situation will be for you and the entire farming community in the future?
There are some rules to when you construct an interview guide. The questions shall be easy to understand, short and not too academic. The most important questions shall also be constructed in descriptive form (Esaiasson et al., 2009). The interviews began with simple questions that gave background information. This approach gave a natural bridge to the deeper themes connected to our investigation focus (cf. Davidson & Patel, 2003).
Beside the themes and questions for the farmers, exemplified above, we did the rest of the interview guides for the remaining persons similarly; however these were adapted to each specific case, person and work field for a multi-faceted view and response of the investigation questions (cf. Kvale 1997).
The interviews were recorded with a voice-recorder and notes were taken simultaneous during the interviews. After and before the interview photographs were taking on relevant objects.
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VALENTIN AND SANDRO TRUJILLO: farmers of the basin. We met them on a field outside Kuyoj Qhocha while they were harvesting oca.
Some of the oca had been destroyed due to rain, too much rain in to short time. During the interview we were able to try the traditional drink chicha made of corn.
JULIO VALENCIA: farmer of the basin who has lived there all his life. Has fields with different cultivations of crops with a drip
irrigation-system connected to an atajado (small reservoir of water). We were invited to Julios house to eat homemade oca and goat cheese.
CORNEJO-TRUJILLIO FAMILY (THE TRUJILLO SISTERS): farmer-family consisted by mainly women, two sister, a cousin, the grandmother
and a nephew. They have a drip irrigation-system, diversified fields and an increasing economy thanks to the revenue from the strawberry and flower fields. We met this family at one of their fields sharing some strawberries that they proudly presented.
The interviews lasted from 22 min (shortest) to 1h 40 min (longest) and all interviews have been transcribed.
4.3T
HE INTERVIEWED PERSONS– POPULATION AND
SELECTION
We decided to begin the interviews with two key persons who were most relevant or centrally placed. This selection method, called centrality, is very commonly used since central placed persons often can pinpoint new persons to interview (Esaiasson et al., 2009). These persons were Peter Asmussen and Pierre Frühling (see figure 5).
With their help we searched for appropriated persons to interview. Our approach was to look for persons in diverse institutions and with different types of personal knowledge and experience of our investigation focus. By this approach we were able to obtain a wider perspective to our investigation focus (cf. Esaiasson et al., 2009).
The interviewed persons are presented shortly in the boxes below in figure 5. Beside from these brief presentations, a short description is being given explaining where and how each of these interviews took place:
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Figure 5: Boxes with short descriptions of the interviewed persons and the context of each
interview.
JULIANA TRUJILLO, vice-mayor of Sacaba and former resident and farmer of Kuyoj Qhocha. Juliana we met in the
municipality of Sacaba.
FABIAN MALDONADO, working with environmental issues for the municipality of Sacaba. We met him in the municipality
of Sacaba.
PETER ASMUSSEN, coordinator of PROAGRO and working in an office in La Paz. Peter was the first to be interviewed,
giving us the big picture of the structure of PROAGRO. Peter we met at his office in La Paz.
PIERRE FRÜHLING, consultant for SIDA and PROAGRO, working at an office in La Paz. This interview was also central for
our comprehension of the big picture, this interview was made in Frühling's home in La Paz.
CLAUDIA CORDERO, working for PROAGRO in the GIZ office in La Paz. We met Claudia in her office in La Paz and we
talked of PROAGRO's approach to the farmers' problems and how these had relation to climate change.
FARIT PARRA working for PROAGRO in Cochabamba and Dayana doing her internship for PROAGRO in Cochabamba. We
met both in their office in Cochabamba and during a field introduction-trip by car to Kuyoj Qhocha.
As shown in the boxes, we interviewed varied persons, from different institutions who gave us a wide perspective through their answers. The farmers shared their knowledge on practical things related to everyday life in the communities while the other actors shared more specialized knowledge, often theoretical based because of their higher level of education. More interviews were possible to conduct, but we felt that we reached theoretical saturation (cf. Esaiasson, et al., 2009) after the interviews described here.
4.4 LANGUAGE
It is important to briefly describe the languages used during the investigation and elaboration of the final essay since several languages were used. A requirement for receiving the minor field study (MFS) was that the essay was written in English or the studied country‟s official language. We first discussed the possibility to write it in Spanish but the lack of Spanish-speaking examiners, supervisors and opponents at the University of Malmö excluded this possibility. Because of this the essay is written in English.
During the investigation and collection of the empirical data Spanish, Swedish and Quechua were used. An example of a complex linguistic scenario during the elaboration of this essay that we encountered during one of the interviews was that a question was asked in Spanish, translated to Quechua and answered in Quechua, translated back to Spanish, processed in
29
Swedish between the authors and finally written down in English. This example is an extreme case of a complex linguistic situation that we encountered, but it did occur and we consider it to be a good example of how this could have altered our perception of the collected empirical data during some of the interviews.
4.5 ANALYZE METHOD
The empirical data collected for the elaboration of this essay, was as mentioned before, done mainly through interviews. According to Kvale (1997) the analysis of the empirical data begins during the interviews (Kvale, 1997). Secondly, the interviews were later transcribed which opened up for reflections and thoughts of the empirical data (cf. Davidson & Patel, 2003), but mainly were our theoretical framework, presented in chapter 2 and 3, used to give us a base to compare and analyze our collected data with theories and earlier research.
4.6 ETHICAL ASPECTS
It is an important ethical aspect to consider peoples integrity (Esaiasson et al., 2009). During our interviews, which were similar to a normal conversation, we considered it important to inform the person being interviewed they were part of an academic research and also to give them the opportunity of being anonymous if they wished it (Esaiasson et al., 2009). None of the interviewed has expressed their desire to not be part of the survey before, during or after the interviews.
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5
P
ERCEPTIONS AND OBSERVATIONS OF A CHANGING CLIMATE–
V
ULNERABILITY ANDO
PPORTUNITIES5.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter aims to, through the collected data from the interviews, answer the first main research question of this essay:
How do small-scale farmers from Kuyoj Qhocha and other actors involved in PROAGRO perceive that climate change is affecting the farmers‟ livelihood?
The final answers and results of this question and of the other research question, being analyzed in chapter 6, are presented in a summarized and reflecting fashion in chapter 7.
This chapter begins, describing the observed variations in climate; secondly it describes the negative consequences of these variations and thereafter the positive consequences on the farmers‟ livelihood. These perceptions of the variations and consequences are discussed and simultaneously compared with the background facts and theories of chapter 2.
5.2 THE CHANGING WATER AND HEAT CYCLES
As mentioned in chapter 2, is water the main concern among the farmers of Kuyoj Qhocha. Chapter 2 described also, that variations in climate are mainly being observed, in this region of the world and in semi-arid zones as Kuyoj Qhocha, in the water- and temperature-cycles and by the occurrence of extreme weather events (cf. MPD, 2007., Palenque, 2003., Andresen & Paco, 2009. & Flores Bedregal, 2010). These theories were confirmed by PROAGRO‟s personnel and the farmers of Kuyoj Qhocha during the course of the interviews, when it became clear that water and water issues had the most important place in the stories about the effects of climate change in the locality. All the farmers and employees of PROAGRO emphasized its importance. For example did Farit Parra from PROAGRO‟s valley-unit agency in Cochabamba, share his perception about the changing water access stating that:
A notable problem is the delayed rains. Generally it started to rain in the month of November, than the farmers used to cultivate in October so that the first rains of November made the seeds sprout. These last years, the delay of the rains has been so big that it even has begun in December. (Parra, 2011)
These delayed rains that Parra states in the quotation are also mentioned by other interviewed persons. Valentin (V) and Sandro (S) Trujillo, farmers of the region who have lived in and around Kuyoj Qhocha their whole life‟s, said as a response to a question about changes in the precipitation that:
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Picture 4: The Trujillo Sisters in the front and their
mother Julia Cornejo in the back. Photo: Malmqvist
(V): It has changed. For example this year it has rained a lot. (S): Yes, but it has rained a lot during little time. Before it rained during a longer time, sometimes even from October. (V): Yes, and before we also used to have snowfall in the last winter months, in August; it helped to moisten the soil. Now it does not snow and the rains are late, for example in this last season it started to rain in January and it stopped in March. (Trujillo & Trujillo, 2011)
These perceptions were also reaffirmed by the vice-mayor of Sacaba Juliana Trujillo, who also is a previous farmer of Kuyoj Qhocha. She reiterated the statements of Valentin and Sandro Trujillo, while also adding that the temperature, during the last couple of years, has felt increased (Trujillo J. , 2011).
The oldest of all the interviewed persons, Julia Cornejo, the mother of the Trujillo Sisters seen in picture 4, shared her perceptions of these climatic phenomena based on a life time of experience and observations, since she has lived in Kuyoj Qhocha all her life. She and her daughter resumes what the other persons above said, stating that:
(Julia): Before it rained from November until April […] it does not rain as before […] this year it has rained concentrated and a lot; but last year we had a drought. The heat to, has increased, it was not so hot before as it is now, we had a template climate here before but now the heat is strong… (Alicia): Yes, the droughts have increased in both intensity and strength. (Cornejo & Trujillo, 2011)
As shown, do Julia and her daughter Alicia, pinpoint the same type of changes, while simultaneously emphasizing the importance of rain.
The occurrence of extreme weather events was another topic which was discussed by the farmers. One of the farmers, Julio Valencia, did particularly talked about this when he described the last hail-storm in Kuyoj Qhocha, telling us that
he was 63 years old and had never seen a hailstorm as that one, “the ice balls were the size of beetroots” (Valencia, 2011).
That particular hail-storm, explained by Julio Valencia, resulted in a negative consequence for him since it destroyed his fields of different crops, affecting his economy and his livelihood. These negative consequences of the observed changes are presented and discussed below in chapter 5.3.
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5.3 NEGATIVE CONSEQUENCES OF THE VARIATIONS ON THE FARMERS OF
KUYOJ
QHOCHA – VULNERABILITY
The farmers of Kuyoj Qhocha, the personnel from PROAGRO and the officials from the municipality of Sacaba, concede all that climate variations are occurring. The consequences of these variations, however, are more dramatically explained depending on who is answering. For the farmers the variations in rain, temperature, etc. can mean direct impoverishment, reduced nutrient intake and an obligation to migrate searching for luck in new places.
When there are higher temperatures and altered rain-cycles the farming with commercial purpose and for own consumption gets affected. Juliana Trujillo explains that “when the water dries out. [...] the little amount of water which is left is barely enough to produce food, there is nothing to sell, barely to eat” (Trujillo J. , 2011).
These possible outcomes that Juliana explains above depend on the variations of temperature, rain, etc. Since the cycles of temperature and rain are no longer stable, the farmers are uncertain at the moment of deciding if they are going to cultivate or what crop they are going to cultivate. They also do not know when to start with different refining processes or if the products can rot before the estimated time because of the raised temperature. The production of Chuño3 is one example. The process for making it requires sunlight, cold and dry weather simultaneously. This process was not very successful during the last year:
Last year the farmers went to make Chuño during the month of June, as they normally do, but there was not that amount of cold that was needed to make Chuño. Because of the heat, some of the Chuño rotted. (Parra, 2011)
Some farmers coincided with this to a certain point but affirming that the process was able to be accomplished but more time was required:
(V): We are still making chuño, but also this process is not like before. Because we did and still do it high up over the hill, next to the lake. Before it took about one day to complete the process but now it could take over a week. There is not the cold needed, the cold like we had before. (Trujillo & Trujillo, 2011)
The Chuño is of particularly importance for the farmers‟ nutrition, since it is stored and eaten all year around (Trujillo & Trujillo, 2011). The temperature elevation can therefore, be seen
3
A traditional staple food consisted by dehydrated potato. When the process of making Chuño has been done it can be stored for a very long time making it a food-product of high importance for the nutrition of poor farmers.
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as a specific effect of climate variations that can be described as an external shock which can potentially and directly affect the farmers‟ livelihood negatively. As explained in chapter 3 society is vulnerable when it is not able or has limited possibilities to adapt or adjust to external shocks which affect it negatively (Chambers & Conway, 1991, Environmental Advisory Council, 2002, & Stadel, 2008).
Another negative consequence from the increased heat that the some farmers talked about is the appearance of new plagues which are difficult to get rid of and which has the potential of destroying some cultivated crops (Trujillo & Trujillo, 2011).
Further does the farmers concede that altered rain-cycles can result in the shortness of water for irrigation or too much water during a short period of time (Cornejo & Trujillo, 2011, Valencia, 2011 & Trujillo Trujillo, 2011), a consequence that can also be identified as an external shock, which potentially could destabilize the food production or the production of commercial crops. The Trujillo Sisters explains:
(A): It does not rain like before, the weather has changed. Also, sometimes it rains too much, this year for example; it rained a lot which ruined our barley. If it rains too much they become small. (T): We have not recovered nor the effort nor the money invested in the plantation of the barley. (Cornejo & Trujillo, 2011)
As shown water is essential but as the quotation states it is only essential to a certain degree and within the right periods. If there is uncertainty among the farmers on how much water there are going to have or when it is going to come they automatically become unsecure of the sowing times because they could misscalculate their procedures. Claudia Cordero at PROAGROs office in La Paz states that the rain cycles have shortened and because of this the timing for example sowing need to be adjusted (Cordero, 2011).
Another external shock, which has become more frequent according to the farmers, is extreme weather events such as storms. Hailstorms are one of these types of extreme precipitation-forms that can be harmful for the crops, here explained by Julio Valencia, the farmer quoted in last chapter:
…now hail might fall a lot, this year for example, my strawberries have been ruined by the hail, I think it was the 7th of January, this year. It only lasted for a couple of minutes but, as I said it ruined my strawberries and it lowered the production of Tumbos because their leaves were destroyed. (Valencia, 2011)
34 Picture 5: Julio Valencia’s damaged strawberry
field. Photo: Malmqvist
This hailstorm affected Julio Valencia directly and quickly. He was affected negatively since the production of strawberry and Tumbo was aimed to be sold at the local markets. In chapter 3 do Howden, Stern and UNDP write that extreme weather events as this hailstorm are external shocks that have or could have an important negative effect on agriculture and/or rural communities (cf. Howden, et al., 2007., Stern, 2006., & UNDP, 2010). The case of Valencia illustrates this fact.
To conclude this chapter it is also relevant to mention the vulnerability among the farmers which does not have a direct connection to climate change. It is important to remember that Kuyoj Qhocha‟s farmers are conducting farming at a small-scale. This leads to small buffers or a low protection from unexpected events. Pierre Frühling of the Swedish cooperation agency, SIDA, explained that they “distinguished that because of climatic, but also for other reasons, like infrastructure or the market's remoteness, the smallholders‟ have very small margins. Their production is fragile” (Frühling, 2011). These reasons remarked by Frühling, are also mentioned by Stadel (2008) who explains that the diversity and complexity of Andean agriculture can create all kind of situation as for example bad accessibility to roads and markets, which affects the farmers degree of market penetration (Stadel, 2008). These facts are important to mention here since different kinds of vulnerabilities effect each other and lower the resilience of the smallholders (Stadel, 2008).
5.3.1POSSIBLE OUTCOMES DUE TO NEGATIVE EXTERNAL SHOCKS
During the interviews we found a strong and interesting consensus among the farmers about their historical solution to bad periods. All of them explained that when their livelihood was negatively affected by a climatic phenomena or another external shock, people tend to migrate
