Reunification – A difficult and lengthy process : A qualitative study examining social workers’ experiences of the reunification process in South Africa

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Reunification – A difficult and

lengthy process

A qualitative study examining social workers’ experiences

of the reunification process in South Africa

MAJOR: Social work

AUTHORS: Gloria Smith, Michelle Lidström JÖNKÖPING August 2020

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Acknowledgements

We would like to sincerely thank our supervisor Mary McCall for feedback and support. Thank you for genuinely encouraging us when challenges have occurred. We also want to express gratitude towards our contact organisation in South Africa. This thesis would not have been possible without your help and guidance through challenging circumstances, with cancelled trips and last-minute changes.

We would also like to thank all our interviewees who took their time to do the interviews virtually with us. Thank you for sharing your experiences with us, despite South Africa being in lockdown, which we are aware have affected your work. We wish you the best in your future work with children in need of care and protection.

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Abstract

Title: Reunification – A difficult and lengthy process Authors: Gloria Smith, Michelle Lidström

Supervisor: Mary McCall Examiner: Monika Wilinska

The aim of this thesis has been to investigate how social workers work with the reunification process at child and youth care centres in South Africa. The intention has been to explore what is important to accomplish a reunification and what challenges the social workers face in the process. A qualitative method was used and included 7 semi-structured interviews with social workers in South Africa. The conducted data was coded and categorized, using an inductive thematic analysis. In this study, the second phase of the ecological systems theory by Bronfenbrenner has been used, which includes the micro-, meso-micro-, exo-micro-, macro- and chrono levels. The theory has served as a framework in the analysis to explain the development of the child. Through the interviews three main fundamental components in the reunification process were distinguished, that overlap. The components are the 90-day assessment period, the time period of placement and the reunification. The time of placement has been categorized into three subthemes including the role of child and parent, the role of social workers and the role of resources. The findings show that the social workers regard the relationship between child and parent, collaboration between the external and CYCC social worker including resources, as crucial factors for reunification. Through the analyses, factors at each level in the ecological systems theory have been identified that affect the reunification process and thereby the child. Consequently, for a reunification to take place efforts need to address several areas around the child.

Key words: family reunification, child and youth care centre, social work, ecological

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Sammanfattning

Titel: Återförening – En svår och lång process Författare: Gloria Smith, Michelle Lidström Handledare: Mary McCall

Examinator: Monika Wilinska

Syftet med den här studien har varit att undersöka hur socialarbetare arbetar med återföreningsprocessen på boenden för barn och unga i Sydafrika. Intentionen har varit att undersöka vad som är viktigt för att åstadkomma en återförening och vilka utmaningar socialarbetarna står inför i den processen. I studien användes en kvalitativ metod där 7 semistrukturerade intervjuer med socialarbetare i Sydafrika genomfördes digitalt. Den insamlade datan har kodats och kategoriserats med hjälp av en induktiv tematisk analys. I studien har den andra fasen av Bronfenbrenners ekologiska systemteori använts, vilken inkluderar mikro-, meso-, exo-, makro- och krono-nivåerna. Teorin har fungerat som ett ramverk i analysen för att förklara ett barns utveckling. Genom intervjuerna urskildes tre grundläggande komponenter i återföreningsprocessen, vilka överlappar varandra. Komponenterna som urskildes är den 90 dagar långa bedömningsperioden, den tidsperiod som ett barn är placerat på ett boende samt själva återföreningen. Den tidsperiod som ett barn är placerat på ett boende har kategoriserats i tre underteman, vilka består av barnens och föräldrarnas roll, socialarbetarnas roll och resursernas roll. Resultaten visar att socialarbetarna betraktar förhållandet mellan barn och förälder, samarbetet mellan de externa socialarbetarna och socialarbetarna på barn- och ungdomsboendena samt resurser som avgörande faktorer för att en återförening ska ske. Analysen i den här studien visar att faktorer på varje nivå i den ekologiska systemteorin påverkar återföreningsprocessen och därmed barnet. För att möjliggöra en återförening måste därför det sociala arbetet inriktas på flera områden runt barnet.

Nyckelord: familjeåterförening, barn- och ungdomsboende, socialt arbete, ekologisk

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1. Introduction

Family reunification is a central concept within the topic of child welfare, which is a prominent area of research within social work (Martín, González-Navasa, & Betancort, 2020). Reunification can be viewed as the end goal when a child is placed in care and is generally included among the child welfare social worker’s duties (Children’s Act 38 of 2005, 156(9)). Approximately 3,9 million children in South Africa do not live with their biological parents (Statistics South Africa, 2018). Additionally, the children’s court places thousands of children in alternative care outside their parental home (Fortune, 2017; Witbooi, 2019; Children’s Act 38 of 2005, 151(9)). The UN Committee on the Rights of the Child (CRC) (2016) states that 22,000 children in South Africa were placed in child and youth care centres (CYCC) as an alternative care in the year of 2012. At the CYCC’s social workers work to reunify the children with their families (Children’s Act 38 of 2005, 156(9)). Although, there are factors beyond the social worker’s control that may potentially impact the reunification planning, whether reunification occurs or not, or the time it takes for the reunification to be established (Potgieter & Hoosain, 2018; Sauls & Esau, 2015). Social workers testify about high caseloads and insufficient resources which makes the work of fulfilling their commands challenging. In the end this affects the children that are in need of care and protection.

Reunification is often described as an obvious concept that the reader is expected to understand. The research regarding family reunification does not describe what the reunification process looks like in detail (Sauls & Esau, 2015; Potgieter & Hoosain, 2018; Lee, Romich, Kang, Hook, & Marcenko, 2017; Chambers, Crutchfield, Goddu Harper, Fatemi, & Rodriguez, 2018). Reunification is a process that is practiced worldwide, but the research regarding the process itself is limited. This study intends to fill this gap by mapping the process of the reunification process and investigate if there are any obstacles in managing a successful process to family reunification. To investigate what the process looks like in detail, family reunification will be studied in the context of South Africa. Thus, the experiences of social workers in South Africa will represent our findings regarding the reunification process. This could potentially improve the conditions for children placed in care, giving them a better experience of the way to reunify with their families. The previous research about reunification has focused on the post-reunification, the latter part of the

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process. Our study will focus on the reunification process, defined as the time between when a child is placed at a CYCC until the day the child returns to their family.

2. Aim

The aim of our thesis is to investigate how social workers work with the reunification process at child and youth care centres in South Africa. The thesis intends to explore what is important to accomplish a reunification and what challenges the social workers face in the process.

2.1 Research questions

• How do social workers in child and youth care centres, including external social workers, work with children and their families in the reunification process? • What is important in the reunification process, according to the social workers, to

enable the children to return to their families?

• What challenges do social workers encounter in the reunification process?

3. Background

This section contents background information to assist further understandings of the reunification process. Previous research is presented, including specific research regarding the reunification process in South Africa.

3.1 Reasons for placement

In South Africa thousands of children are placed in care outside their parental homes every year as a result of abuse, unsafety, neglect or abandonment (Fortune, 2017; Witbooi, 2019). In regard to the term “abuse”, this is an umbrella term for different types such as physical abuse, sexual abuse, emotional abuse and neglect (NSPCC, n.d.). International research findings have shown that neglect is the most common reason for placement among these (Martín, González-Navasa, & Betancort, 2020; Fernandez, Delfabbro, Ramia, & Kovacs, 2019; Yampolskaya, Armstrong, & Vargo, 2007). According to Psychology Today (2019) neglect means to not meet the needs of the child, such as neglecting to provide the child with food, shelter, or health care. Ward, Artz, Burton and Phyfer (n.d.) stress that neglect refers to an intentional act and differentiate this from the situation when a parent is unable

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to provide the necessary means for their child due to poverty and not due to lack of care. This is emphasized considering 59 % of children in South Africa are living in poverty (Hall, 2019).

3.2 South Africa

To attain a better understanding of the reunification process in South Africa, it may be of value to establish an image of the factors in the South African context that affect society in its entirety, including the social workers and their work environment.

The population of South Africa is approximately 59 million inhabitants (Worldometer, 2020). The country is considered one of the most unequal countries in the world, with 60 % of households depending on governmental social grants and unemployment rates reaching 6,7 million (Statistics South Africa, 2019; Statistics South Africa, 2020). According to the South African Government (Government Communication and Information System, 2019) the caregivers of 12,5 million children receive monthly social grants. Sarah, a native South African, explains that most families whose children are placed in care, live in poverty and are dependent on social grants (Sarah, personal communication, April 28, 2020). Some of these families are unable to provide for and take care of their children due to poverty which results in an intervention from the government in form of a placement. In these instances, “they (the parents) are sometimes given situations (by an external social worker) where they can apply for jobs and have to prove that they are applying for jobs” (Sarah, personal communication, April 28, 2020). An external social worker is someone who either works for a child protection organization, a municipality or the Department of Social Development (Jamieson, 2013).

3.3 Children’s Act

Children's Act 38 of 2005 (Children’s Act 38 of 2005) was established by the Parliament of South Africa with the purpose to identify and regulate matters of importance for children. In Chapter 2 of the Act (Children’s Act 38 of 2005, 9(2)) certain rights for children are established, which are permeated by the principle that the best interest of the child should be foundational. The Act stipulates that for concerns of a child’s matter, a child’s view should, when applicable, be heard. It also regulates that a child is appointed as a major at the age of 18.

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3.3.1 The process of placement

The same day a concern emerges that a child could need care and protection, a designated (external) social worker makes an initial assessment if the child should be removed immediately to a temporary safe care (Children’s Act 38 of 2005, 151(9)). A child can be removed to a temporary safe care with or without a court order (Children’s Act 38 of 2005, 151(9);152(9)). Within 48 hours of the removal the court reviews the decision and there is an opportunity for the caregivers and children to challenge it. After the review, a 90-day assessment period begins where the child either remains at home or in alternative care, depending on the initial evaluation, until a decision is made by the court. During this period, a designated social worker has 90 days to investigate if the child needs care and protection and to give a report to the relevant provincial department of social development. Based on the report, a children’s court decides if the child needs care and protection. A court order is valid for not longer than two years at a time and after two years the order of placement is reviewed, and the possibility of reunification is considered. An option for placement is placing the child at a CYCC, which also requires an order of a children’s court (Children’s Act 38 of 2005, 156(9)). This alternative is a short-term solution, meaning that the aim is to reunify the child with his or her biological family (Department of social development, 2014). Before a court order regarding a removal of a child is made, a designated social worker creates a “permanency plan” for the child, which includes therapeutic and developmental programs and is approved by children’s court. Based on the permanency plan, the provincial head of social development decides a CYCC for the child that is as close to their family as possible and that can provide a residential programme determined by the court.

3.3.2 Children’s Act about reunification

The reunification process for a child in alternative care is assigned to a designated social worker (Children’s Act 38 of 2005, 157(9)). The designated social worker is required to investigate why the child was taken from their family, to take precautionary actions. Before and after reunification, the child and their family must be provided counselling by the designated social worker. The permanency plan includes reunification services in order to ensure reunification with their family or another suitable caregiver (Jamieson, 2013). Before a child’s reunification with the family or another suitable caregiver can be accomplished, the designated social worker responsible for the reunification process of the child must compile a report (Children’s Act 38 of 2005, 155(9)). The report is based on the best

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interest of the child and with the purpose to fulfil the development goals of the child. The report must be compiled in collaboration with the caregiver, the head of the child and youth care centre and the child and include a recommendation about if a reunification is a desirable option for the child.

3.4 Child and youth care centres

A CYCC is defined by the Children’s Act (Children’s Act 38 of 2005, 158(9)) as a form of residential care in terms of a facility including at least six children. According to CYCC social worker 1, there is at least one social worker at the CYCC’s who among other things, works with reunification services. Additionally, there are general staff who are responsible for cooking and cleaning. Child and youth care workers are another vital part among the staff, whose role becomes parental during the child’s stay at the centre. They work in the children’s life space and are responsible for looking after their needs. These are the core roles described by most of the social workers, but additional staff may also be present such as specialized therapists and a director, depending on the structure of the CYCC. Some centres only receive children of a specific gender, while others have both boys and girls staying there. According to Jamieson (2013) the ages of the children also vary depending on each centre’s regulations, but, by law, they are allowed to reside at the centre until the age of 18, unless the 18-year-old applies for an extension.

4. Previous research

In this section research regarding different success factors and challenges impacting the family reunification process will be presented.

4.1 Success factors

In terms of establishing a successful reunification, research points out the importance of collaboration between the parties involved in the reunification process (Lee, Hwang, Socha, Pau, & Shaw, 2013; Chambers, Crutchfield, Goddu Harper, Fatemi, & Rodriguez, 2018; Potgieter & Hoosain, 2018; Rasaili & Titus, 2007). This includes parental involvement, the child’s involvement, a functioning communication between the parties, and a lower caseload for the social worker. Programmes that implement family involvement in the reunification process were more likely to achieve a family reunion than if the parents were excluded (Geurts, Noom, & Knorth, 2011; Lee, Hwang, Socha, Pau, & Shaw, 2013; Chambers, Crutchfield, Goddu Harper, Fatemi, & Rodriguez, 2018). The

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research reveals that parents are sometimes excluded in the reunification process, which contradicts research stating that there are more benefits when involving the parents. Geurts et al. (2011) describe that parental involvement empowers the families and is substantial in reuniting the child with the family. This includes children in residential care, as well as in foster care (Rasaili & Titus, 2007; Lee, Hwang, Socha, Pau, & Shaw, 2013; Potgieter & Hoosain, 2018; Sauls & Esau, 2015). Parental involvement in the reunification process could likewise improve the child's behaviour before the actual move to their family has taken place (Scholte & Van Der Ploeg, 2000).

Children in placement tend to make a greater effort when they become involved and receive information about what the requirements are to be able to move to their family (Scholte & Van Der Ploeg, 2000). This is applicable to youths in group care, as well (Lee, Hwang, Socha, Pau, & Shaw, 2013). The research shows that youths appreciate receiving information about placement options and communicating with the family about what the future would look like after the reunification. When youths and their families meet, there is time to express their expectations of each other and make plans for the transition. According to the researchers, this in turn, creates better conditions for reuniting the youths with their families. Potgieter and Hoosain (2018) show that restrictions for limited contact between the two children and their parents affected the relationship negatively. Additionally, communication between the two parties is an important success factor in the reunification process (Potgieter & Hoosain, 2018; Sauls & Esau, 2015). Due to that these two studies were conducted in South Africa, it is interesting to see if our study in the South African context shows similar outcomes. In the study conducted by Potgieter and Hoosain (2018), the experiences of parents receiving family reunification services were collected. Our study is based on the social workers’ experiences of the reunification process in South Africa, which could provide another perspective on the subject of parents’ involvement.

4.2 Challenges

There have been several studies examining the different challenges impacting the family reunification process. Some of these challenges include parental substance abuse, mental health issues among parents, and different types of abuse such as physical, sexual and emotional (Fernandez, Delfabbro, Ramia, & Kovacs, 2019; Shaw, 2010; Martín, González-Navasa, & Betancort, 2020; Cheng, 2010). The caseworkers’ working conditions is another challenge that could hinder a successful reunification (Chambers, Crutchfield, Goddu Harper, Fatemi, & Rodriguez, 2018; Sauls & Esau, 2015). The most prominent factors

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presented in research, causing challenges in the reunification process were economic issues within the family, and parents’ neglect of their child (Lee, Romich, Kang, Hook, & Marcenko, 2017; Fernandez, Delfabbro, Ramia, & Kovacs, 2019; Martín, González-Navasa, & Betancort, 2020).

Financial difficulties within the family, such as living in poverty or in homelessness, is a reoccurring issue presented in the research as an obstacle for reunification. If the parent is unable to provide for the basic needs of the child, findings have shown that this can prevent a reunification from taking place. Several studies have found a positive correlation between low income and slower reunification (Wells & Guo, 2006; Courtney, McMurtry, & Zinn, 2004; Fernandez, Delfabbro, Ramia, & Kovacs, 2019). In contrast to these findings, another study made by Lee et al. (2017) pointed towards the opposite. The researchers’ reasoning for this result was that a parent maintaining a low-income job will often result in difficulties providing childcare, where these types of jobs sometimes include working night shifts and weekends. An unemployed parent with welfare assistance will not encounter this issue in the same sense according to the researchers. This issue is believed to be more common among single parents.

Another challenge for reunification that can be connected to economic factors is neglect. Fernandez et al. (2019) state that neglect is a type of abuse often linked with poverty, where an inability to attend to the basic needs of one’s child may put the child’s development at risk. Yampolskaya et al. (2007) showed in their study that neglect was the most common reason for placing a child in care. In comparison to children who were placed in care for other reasons, this group had a higher risk of a slowed reunification. One study (Cheng, 2010) implied that children who had been neglected, instead, had a higher chance of being reunified. This was the only type of abuse that had a positive correlation to a higher likelihood of reunification. The researchers emphasized that establishing reunification despite neglect was only possible when social workers actively encouraged parental involvement. This goes in line with the research described above that show the connection between family involvement and the probability of a reunification (Geurts, Noom, & Knorth, 2011; Lee, Hwang, Socha, Pau, & Shaw, 2013; Chambers, Crutchfield, Goddu Harper, Fatemi, & Rodriguez, 2018).

Communication between staff, families, and children/youths has been shown to be a critical factor for family reunification (Lee, Hwang, Socha, Pau, & Shaw, 2013; Chambers,

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Crutchfield, Goddu Harper, Fatemi, & Rodriguez, 2018; Potgieter & Hoosain, 2018). But to enable collaboration there are obstacles that need to be overcome, e.g., the staffs’ working conditions. Research describes how caseworkers’ working conditions with high caseloads make them inaccessible to families (Sauls & Esau, 2015; Chambers, Crutchfield, Goddu Harper, Fatemi, & Rodriguez, 2018; Potgieter & Hoosain, 2018). High caseloads and a lack of worker continuity make contact between caseworker and families decrease (Chambers, Crutchfield, Goddu Harper, Fatemi, & Rodriguez, 2018; Villiers, 2008). The Pomona Families First Project (Chambers, Crutchfield, Goddu Harper, Fatemi, & Rodriguez, 2018) incorporated lower caseloads for the caseworker and the principle that a child only had contact with one caseworker. The implementation enabled a larger degree of collaboration between caseworker and parents. The study also showed that 17.5 % of the children who had contact with more than one caseworker achieved reunification or permanent solutions, while 0.1 % of the children who had up to six or seven caseworkers had the same outcome. Among the children assigned to one caseworker, 74.5 % achieved reunification or other permanent solutions. These numbers show that the social workers work conditions highly affect the outcome of a reunification process, but it is addressed as a challenge. A challenge that the project of Chambers, Crutchfield, Goddu Harper, Fatemi and Rodriguez (2018) show there are possible solutions for.

The research that has been found about family reunification often identifies success factors and challenges in relation to the reunification, but it does not provide a further description of the process itself. Furthermore, there is limited research regarding the experiences of social workers of the reunification process, including the challenges and success factors that occur. In this sense further research on the topic could contribute to a deeper understanding of the reunification process.

5. Theoretical framework

In this section the theoretical framework will be presented and motivated.

5.1 Ecological systems theory

The ecological systems theory was developed by Urie Bronfenbrenner in 1973 with the purpose of understanding the factors that influence a child’s development (Bronfenbrenner, 1979). To understand human development, Bronfenbrenner emphasized the importance of examining the entire ecological systems in which an

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individual is located. The ecological systems that an individual is a part of consists of different levels that mutually affect and interact with each other. Even within each level there is a reciprocation where the actors involved affect one another in different directions (Shelton, 2019). Bronfenbrenner identified five levels of the ecological systems which an individual is affected by (Bronfenbrenner, 1979). The levels are modelled as circles around the individual where the most intimate, the micro level, is closest to the individual and is surrounded by the meso-, exo-, macro- and chrono levels. There have been three different phases of Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory during the period 1973-2006 (Rosa & Tudge, 2013). This study will apply the second phase of the ecological systems theory, which includes the time aspect, namely the chrono system.

5.1.1 The micro level

A microsystem is a system with which the individual has direct contact and where he experiences different relationships, roles and activities between people in a physical and material context (Bronfenbrenner, 1979; Shelton, 2019). Bronfenbrenner describes the family, peers, school and community as microsystems. The individual can thus be part of several microsystems simultaneously. The individual influences the microsystem and the microsystem influences the individual. Bronfenbrenner describes this two-way interaction between as bidirectional influences and it is the strongest in the micro level.

5.1.2 The meso level

The meso level includes the interactions and relationships between different microsystems where the individual becomes an involved participant (Bronfenbrenner, 1979). This means that what happens in the family affects the school and the other way around as well. Bronfenbrenner defined four connections between microsystems. The first one is “multisetting participation” which assumes that the individual is engaged in two microsystems that, therefore, interact with each other. The second one is “indirect linkage” that occurs when the individual does not actively participate in the two systems, but a third part functions as a link between persons in the systems. Bronfenbrenner describes the third connectedness as “intersetting communications” which has an intent to provide information between micro systems. The information can exist of direct messages face-to-face, writing letters or indirectly through links in the social network. The fourth one is “intersetting knowledge” and is gained from intersetting communications or external sources with relevance for that system, for example through library books. It is explained as the information or experience contained within one system regarding another one.

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Through this knowledge, attitudes of people in different systems can be created and maintained (Shelton, 2019).

5.1.3 The exo level

The exo level consists of structures that have an impact on the individual though the individual has no direct contact with them (Bronfenbrenner, 1986). The structures interact with the individual's microsystem which indirectly affects the individual. For example, it may be parents' workplaces, mass media, or social services such as parent training.

5.1.4 The macro level

The macro level is the outermost layer in the circle around the individual and can be described as the cultural context in which the other levels are located and imbued with (Bronfenbrenner, 1979). Bronfenbrenner includes a country's policies, laws and regulations but also values and norms in the macro level. The macro level influences the individual's development on an overall level because the individual is enclosed by its context.

5.1.5 The Chrono level

The chrono level can be explained as the time dimension, a timeline on which all systems rest (Bronfenbrenner, 1986). Bronfenbrenner developed the chrono level in the second phase of the ecological systems theory which includes changes in the environment, the historical context, and changes within the person, the chronological age. The socio-historical context in which the individual lives can include world politics and societal change. The chronological age and the time period in which the individual lives will affect all systems in different ways and to varying degrees.

5.2 Relevance for the study

During the sampling process, we learned that the reunification process not only includes events directly related to the child. To enable a successful reunification, the social workers describe that many factors need to be addressed at the same time. For example, the social workers urge that not only the children need interventions, but also the child’s parents need social services to be prepared for a reunification. At the same time, the relationships between the parties involved in the process seemed to have a significant role for the reunification to be successful. The reunification process is explained as dynamic and that the child is affected by circumstances although it is not directly linked to it. To understand how the different factors, mentioned by the social workers, affect each other in the

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reunification process, we needed to find a theory that would enable a broader perspective of these matters. By placing the child in the core, Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems insinuate that we can understand how different factors correlate and influence the child’s development (Bronfenbrenner, 1979). When applying Bronfenbrenner’s theory to our findings, the parties and factors involved in the reunification process are placed on different levels which could clarify how they are related to the child in the reunification process. The theory makes it possible to study how, for example, parents affect the children in the direct interaction but also indirectly in the form of social services. Thus, the theory enables a connection between the three research questions of this study which illustrates the complexity of the process in its entirety.

6. Methodology

In this section, the research strategy will be presented and motivated together with ethical reflections and considerations. The data collection that has been used will be presented together with factors that have influenced the process. Furthermore, the quality of the study is assessed with the concept of trustworthiness.

6.1 Ontological position

In terms of an ontological position, this study assumed the perspective of critical realism. This approach defines reality as existing and independent of the observer (Danermark, 2006). Yet, the knowledge obtained about reality is socially impacted. Critical realism aims to explain and seek understanding in how certain mechanisms in the social and material reality emerge, including how these are preserved and evolve through time. In this matter, the study aims to examine the reunification process from the perspective of external social workers and social workers at CYCC’s. By investigating the process from these different perspectives, a socially impacted reality is thereby presented.

6.1.1 A qualitative study

The aim of the study is not to generalize the results, but rather to examine the process of reunification, and the role of social workers in that process, through the perspectives of the interviewees. Therefore, a qualitative method was used in order to gain extensive and detailed data which could enable a profound analysis (Bryman, 2011).

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6.2 COVID-19 and its effects on the study

Due to the global Coronavirus-crisis, the scheduled trip to South Africa had to be cancelled a few days prior to departure. The situation with Covid-19 also led to South Africa entering a national lockdown, meaning the inhabitants were instructed not to leave their homes, with certain exceptions. These were the circumstances during the data collection. This resulted in certain consequences for the study. Firstly, it impacted the sampling process, which will be further discussed in “Difficulties during sampling process”.

Secondly, the missed opportunity of experiencing the South African culture and context affected our ability to understand certain terms and locations described by social workers during the interviews. To get a better understanding of these matters, one additional interview was conducted with a South African native who in this study is addressed as Sarah. The interview was largely unstructured, meaning that it carried an informal structure while the researcher roughly followed an interview guide (Bryman, 2012).

6.3 Data collection 6.3.1 Sampling

Prior to the scheduled departure to South Africa, our contact person in the country, which in this study is addressed as Caren, began assisting in the process of sampling. We had hired an organisation in South Africa which inter alia would help us with accommodation and to contact potential interviewees. Our contact at the organisation and her colleague contacted various social workers at CYCC’s, whom they had previous collaborations with. Through this contact two of the interviewees were found. The interviewees were selected with direct regard to the aim of the study in terms of exploring the perspectives of social workers at CYCC’s, which can be regarded as purposive sampling (Bryman, 2011). A majority of the interviewees were found by our contact person through Facebook groups including social workers in South Africa. In these groups, posts were made requesting participants for the study, where the aim for this study and some short information about us was presented. The information included school affiliation and nationality. This method of sampling could be viewed as convenience sampling (Bryman, 2011), considering our contact person addressing a larger population in comparison to the previous part of the sampling process.

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After these interviews had been conducted, some of the participants were contacted where we asked if they had any suggestions regarding other potentially interested social workers, who could consider being interviewed. Two of the participants responded and through this chain-referral sampling (Bryman, 2011), two more interviewees were found and interviewed.

6.3.1.1 Difficulties during sampling process

Before the sampling process begun, we had aimed to conduct the interviews with ideally ten social workers, with the majority working at child and youth care centres and some working as external/statutory social workers. Due to the global COVID-19 crisis resulting in a cancellation of the trip to South Africa and a national lockdown, this caused difficulties in finding interviewees for the study. Therefore, compromises had to be made in terms of only being able to interview social workers with access to wi-fi and Zoom or Skype. This meant that social workers being in lockdown without wi-fi had to be excluded from the study. Other difficulties that occurred was the delay or absence of response to the emails sent to potential participants. Because of time restrictions, this led to a search for other interviewees. In some responses it was made clear that certain social workers were unable to participate in the study due to heavy workloads caused by the COVID-19 crisis, while some simply no longer had the time or possibility to participate, despite first agreeing to an interview. All these issues resulted in there being seven interviews conducted, instead of the ten that we had planned for.

6.3.2 Interview guide

To understand the reunification process through the perspective and the experiences of the social workers, it was decided that a qualitative semi-structured interview would be the optimal method to achieve this. According to Bryman (2012) a qualitative interview is characterized by being flexible. It also allows the researchers to ask questions leading to responses richer in detail, in comparison to a quantitative interview. A semi-structured interview is characterized by the researcher following an interview guide containing a set of themes but is not required to ask the questions in a specific order (Bryman, 2011). This also enables the interviewee to express their responses more freely. The researcher is able to ask questions, both open and close-ended followed by so called follow-up questions (Adams, 2015). The questions in the interview guide used in this study were often precise, but during the interviews various follow-up questions were asked depending on the responses of the interviewees.

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After deciding the aim and research questions of the study, an interview guide was created reflecting the research questions in a less formal sense. Through discussion with our supervisor a more detailed interview guide emerged. This resulted in two interview guides, one more detailed for the researchers and the other with the main questions for the interviewees. Some questions were specifically aimed towards CYCC social workers, while others where aimed towards the external social workers, depending on their workplace circumstances. According to Bryman (2012) it is important to collect some data regarding the interviewee’s background and title in order to understand the context of their responses during the interview. Consequently, the first part of the interview guide was constructed of questions regarding the participant’s professional background such as education and years of experience. The second part included questions about the workplace of the social worker.

After asking questions with the intention to become more acquainted with the background of the social worker, the interview guide proceeded with the main part of family reunification. This section was introduced with asking the participant if they work for family reunification purposes. Depending on the response of the social worker, the remaining questions were divided into two parts; one based on if they responded yes and the other if the answer was no.

6.3.3 Execution of the interviews

Before a contact was established between interviewee and researcher, a majority of the participants’ contact information was provided by our contact persons in South Africa, after permission was given by the social worker. The social workers were in most cases contacted by email and in a couple of instances through social media. When sending the email or message to the participant, an information letter, a consent form and an interview guide were provided. These documents are found in appendices. After receiving confirmation of the social worker’s willingness to participate, an appointment was made, either by a scheduled meeting using Zoom or through Skype.

The interviews were done individually with one of the researchers with the purpose of saving time, but also by creating a more natural and comfortable setting for the interviewee. The interviews were conducted in English and were held virtually from the researcher’s home. According to Adams (2015) a semi-structured interview should be about an hour long at most, in order not to wear down the interviewee or researcher. The length of the

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interviews varied from between half an hour to an hour. The interviews were in turn recorded for transcription purposes and were stored securely on password-protected computers in the homes of the researchers.

The interviewees of this study consisted of seven social workers. Each participant was designated a number in the study to keep their identity anonymous, such as “CYCC social worker 1”. Five social workers were female and two were male. Two of these were external social workers, whereas one of them had previous work experience as a CYCC social worker as well. The external social workers in this study worked for child protection organisations. Two of the other five social workers were currently working at a CYCC and the other three had resigned within the last two years. One of these social workers had also previously worked as an external social worker. All the social workers had been or were currently working in southern South Africa, most of them being in the southwest. Each social worker had a bachelor’s social work degree while some had a master’s degree or a Ph.D. as well. Three of the social workers had 5 years or less of work experience within the field of social work, two of them had 10 years and two of them had between 10 and 20 years.

6.4 Transcriptions

After each interview, a transcription was begun. Due to the time-consuming process of arranging interviews, the labour of each transcription was divided in a sense where both researchers would be occupied with an equal amount of work. Sometimes this meant transcribing an entire interview alone or transcribing half an interview each. Padgett (2017) claims the interviewees’ right to have their say unedited. Each transcription, after completed, was read through with the audio recording of the interview, while corrections and alterations were made without editing the information gathered through the interview. This way it is the interviewees’ own words that reflect the data. This was done by the researcher who had not done that transcription themselves. By doing this, it enabled the other researcher to partake in the content of the interview, despite not participating. Only verbal expressions were noted due to several interviews lacking video on the participant’s behalf. Local places mentioned in the interviews were not included in this study to maintain the confidentiality of the interviewees.

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6.4.1 Technical advantages and difficulties

Transcription is often described as a time-consuming process (Adams, 2015; Bryman, 2012). The time taken to transcribe each interview depended on the length of the interview, but also depended on the technical difficulties that might have occurred. Out of the seven interviews conducted, five of the participants shared video and two did not. In the majority of the interviews, the Wi-Fi-connection was unstable, resulting in audio disruptions. The consequence of this meant sometimes losing certain details in the responses of the participants. This resulted in the researcher avoiding asking certain follow-up questions, with the technical difficulties being time consuming. In one interview, the video had to be turned off after a while due to reoccurring issues with the internet. In another interview there were obstacles in terms of the quality of the audio, creating difficulties in understanding the participant when their voice became distorted. When audio disruptions occurred in the interviews, assumptions were sometimes made about what was said regarding the context of the participant’s response. This was noted in the transcriptions with a question mark in parenthesis after that specific word or phrase. Six of the interviewees were at their home during the interview, which may have made them feel more comfortable expressing their views on the process than the interviewee who was at their workplace. Although, there were some short disruptions in two of the interviews that were in the home setting, consisting of their own children interacting with them.

A positive aspect to conducting the interviews virtually was that the participants’ anonymity could be secured more easily in comparison to having met in person. That entailed that the audio recordings of the interviews were not stored on any devices that may have risked being stolen while traveling to and from the locations of the interviews. Another aspect in regard to the virtual interviews, is that most of the social workers participated from home. This may have affected how the participants responded to the questions asked, such as being more comfortable to express themselves regarding certain topics.

6.5 Analytic process

A thematic analysis was used when analysing the collected data. In a thematic analysis, the researcher searches for recurring data to identify themes (Bryman, 2011). The analysis focuses on what is said and not on how it is said. As the researcher becomes acquainted with the collected material by coding and categorizing the data, recurring patterns are

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noticed (Braun & Clarke, 2006). Based on this, themes can be identified. The thematic analysis was made with an inductive approach to allow an empirically driven analysis where the research question emerges during the coding process (Braun & Clarke, 2006). During the initial coding, the ecological systems theory of Bronfenbrenner (Bronfenbrenner, 1979) was identified to enable a deeper understanding of the conducted data.

6.5.1 The analysing process

The collected data was analysed by both researchers first reading through all the transcripts. Then one of the researchers read through each transcript again, one at the time, and made an initial coding of the material by highlighting it in different colours. Each colour became a category that represented each interview question in the interview guide. In that way the collected data demarcated to relate to the research question. Some codes were placed in several categories as they touched upon different topics. According to Bryman (2011) the initial coding is the first step in the analysis process where meaningful units are discovered and analysed. Several interesting subjects were discovered during this initial phase. This resulted in new categories, which were not always necessarily related to the research questions.

Together with the supervisor the researchers decided what to focus on, namely the social workers’ experiences of the reunification process in relation to the child. Further, one researcher performed selected coding related to this category, which Bryman (2011) describes as testing the profitability and establish variation within the category. During the selected coding, the following themes were included: Challenges; Success factors; Steps in the reunification process; Laws and policies; Main duties of external social workers vs. CYCC social workers/the relationship between external social workers vs CYCC social workers; Specific work models/programs in their workplace; Children’s involvement; Parents’ involvement; Statistics of reunified children; Relationship/communication between child/parent; Manoeuvrability; Miscellaneous; COVID-19 effects. Within each theme, the ID-codes of each interviewee were included. Thereby, everything that one particular social worker said about a certain theme, was placed in codes under their ID-code, in order to distinguish what each social worker had expressed. During the selected coding, some categories from the initial coding such as “Challenges” and “Success factors” resulted in new categories such as “Relationship/communication between child/parent”.

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The categories were then compiled so that data from all interviews that, for example, referred to challenges in the reunification process formed categories. The researcher continued with an axial coding (Bryman, 2011) by comparing the categories among themselves to discover possible connections between them. To relate the categories to the research questions the researcher aimed to attempt to map the reunification process, while presenting the experiences of the social workers with the challenges and success factors that were described. Through discussion with the supervisor, the most prominent components of the reunification process were distinguished. The researcher observed that the time of placement was talked about by the social workers as the longest part of the process, where many of the challenges and success factors were deemed of whether a reunification would take place or not. By reviewing the codes from the theme “Steps in the reunification process”, two other components of the reunification process were recognized: the 90-day assessment period and the reunification. Further, the themes in terms of these components, including various challenges and success factors were distinguished and chosen to be presented in this study.

6.6 Ethical principles

According to Diener and Crandall (1978) four issues regarding ethics in research can be distinguished. Those are whether there is harm to participant, a lack of informed consent, an invasion of privacy and whether deception is involved. Harm to participant could include either causing them physical harm or stress. Bryman (2012) mentions that a lack of confidentiality can be regarded as a way of causing the participant harm. To avoid this in qualitative research, pseudonyms can be used to protect the identity of the participants, but it is stated that the risk is not eliminated by doing this. The author continues by explaining the importance of the participant being given the opportunity to make an informed decision whether to agree to participate or not. This can be done by the signing of a consent form. Invasion of privacy is closely related to the principle of informed consent. Bryman (2012) exemplifies this with the participant’s option to decline answering questions in an interview, where the response required might be seen as intruding on their sense of privacy. Lastly, the principle of deception is identified by the Social Research Association (2003) as a matter of establishing trust between researcher and participant. Here, the importance of using methods respecting human values is stressed. Using untruthful methods in order for the researcher to discover new findings could be seen as unethical and problematic.

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To ensure we maintain an ethical approach, the interviews were conducted by considering the four potential issues in the matter of ethics that may occur in research (Diener & Crandall, 1978). The interviewees received an information letter, an interview guide and a consent form through email before an interview took place. The information letter described the purpose of the study and provide detailed information of how the interviews would be conducted and what would be expected of the interviewees. Additionally, it includes the four ethical principles which inform that the participation in the study is voluntary, anonymous, that their data will be kept secured in order to protect their confidentiality, and that they can choose to cancel their participation at any time. The respondents were assigned an ID code so that their name is not associated with the data and remain anonymous. Participant data was be kept confidential except in cases where the researcher is legally obligated to report specific incidents. These incidents include, but may not be limited to, incidents of abuse and suicide risk. This issue did not arise during our study.

To guarantee that the interviewees had been provided with the information, we started every interview sharing the aim of our study and went through the consent form together. Because the interviews were done virtually, the consent was given verbally. The consent was given in the beginning of the interview, but after receiving information about the study. This to ensure a voluntary participation, which Bryman (2011) describes important regarding an ethical approach. The interviewees were informed that they were free to withdraw their consent at any time and without giving any reason. We put a limited time to 18 of May 2020 to withdraw their participation in the study, because it is not possible to withdraw the data once the thesis has been submitted.

6.7 Ethical considerations

The organization that was hired to arrange the interviews offered the interviewees 200 Rand each for their one-hour participation in our study. From an ethical point of view, this could be problematic, because it can be misunderstood as a bribe from our side. The consent claim raises the principle that the individual’s participation in research should be voluntary (Bryman, 2011). In South Africa, poverty is extensive. According to our contact person Caren, CYCC’s in South Africa receive about 40% of their costs paid from tax money (Caren, personal communication, 21 February, 2020). The remaining costs are entirely dependent on donations. This means that social workers within CYCC’s have

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relatively low wages and are very overloaded with work. Caren wanted their organization to act responsibly regarding this matter. Based on this information, it was deemed reasonable to give the interviewees 200 Rand for their time and effort.

Since South African legislation (Children’s Act 38 of 2005, 10(2)) explicitly says that children's voices always should be heard in matters regarding themselves, it would have been valuable to conduct research about the reunification process from the child’s point of view. Unfortunately, research including children can be problematic (CODEX, 2020). Children’s ability to consider certain consequences is limited which makes it questionable for researchers to receive an adequate informed consent from them. Additionally, the children at the CYCC are placed because of problematic home circumstances and are very likely more vulnerable than the professionals whom themselves have chosen to be at the CYCC. Kvale and Brinkmann (2014) emphasize that researchers should ensure that participants in scientific research are not subjects for harm in any way, which is more likely if interviewing children. Therefore, we chose to only do interviews with social workers.

6.8 Quality

In order to critically assess this study in terms of the qualitative equivalence of the quantitative validity, reliability and objectivity, the term trustworthiness can be used (Bryman, 2012). Trustworthiness in turn, is divided into four criteria including credibility, transferability, dependability and confirmability. The quality of this study will be assessed by applying these four criteria.

6.8.1 Credibility

The credibility measures if something is trustworthy and that there is no distortion of truth (Padgett, 2017) which in our case relates to the data collected through the interviews. When we conducted the interviews, it was noticeable that the interviewees answered and explained the topic and phenomenon in similar ways, which is an indicator that the data has credibility (Padgett, 2017). When analysing the data, there were no contradictions between the answers provided by the interviewees. Furthermore, there were similarities between the provided information and previous research about reunification. Although, there is a possibility that the different culture and language between the interviewees and researchers could have caused misinterpretations in the analysis of the data.

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6.8.2 Transferability

Since the study is made with a qualitative method the result cannot be applied in other contexts or settings beyond the specific situation where the interviewees take place (Bryman, 2011). The conclusions in our study are based on views and experiences from seven social workers in South Africa and are valid in that specific context. Therefore, the study’s transferability is limited. Although the interviewees are too few to generalize from, they indicate different tendencies that could exist even in other contexts.

6.8.3 Dependability

To fulfil the dependability, the research process needs to be described in detail without the researcher withholding anything (Bryman, 2011). Consequently, the method section describes all parts of the research process in detail, including difficulties and complications that have arisen during the process. Since the data collection was conducted in collaboration with our contact organization in South Africa, which in most cases initiated the first contact with the interviewees, evaluating this part of the process could be hard for the reader. To increase the dependability, the contact organization has reported how they proceeded which we in turn have presented.

6.8.4 Confirmability

Confirmability is when the result is based on the collected data and not intentionally have been affected by the researcher's own subjective interpretation (Padgett, 2017). Although full confirmability cannot be guaranteed, we have acted towards it (Bryman, 2011). The analysing and thematic process were made by one researcher in collaboration with the supervisor by discussing the data and its meaning to detect and prevent subjective interpretations in the result. The findings contain many quotes in order to present the interviewees' own formulations and to make the data accessible to the reader.

7. Results

The reunification process is described by CYCC social workers 1 and 3 as “difficult” and “lengthy”. CYCC social worker 3 states “It is not something that is simple and there’s no perfect recipe”. It is not possible to divide the process into specific phases. The process is dynamic, and the length of the process varies drastically depending on each case, sometimes ranging up to several years before the child is reunified.

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As previously described in the background, after an initial child welfare report is made, children can be placed in emergency care, alternative care or remain at home while the 90-day assessment period begins. In this thesis, the focus is on children placed in an alternative care, namely a CYCC. Through the interviews three main fundamental components were distinguished, that overlap. The first component is the 90-day assessment period, which is included in the time of placement. The second one is the time period of placement which is the largest component of the process and constitutes the time when the child is placed at the CYCC. The time period of placement has been categorized into three subthemes including the role of child and parent, the role of social workers and the role of resources. The third component is the reunification, which begins when the child is still in placement. With every component the social workers face challenges that might obstruct a reunification and success factors that facilitate it.

7.1 The 90-day assessment period

Before the child is admitted to the CYCC, CYCC social worker 1 explains that a meeting would be held with the child, family and social worker at the centre where they would discuss how to work towards a family reunification. During the 90-day assessment period, the social workers state that information about the child is collected and an individual development plan (IDP) is made including both child and family members, determining the plan of reunification. CYCC social worker 1 explains: “When a child was admitted we would

immediately look what is the plan for the reunification so that we don’t… We actively try to work toward it to avoid or prevent a child being institutionalized.” The social worker continues by describing

the consequences of an institutionalization:

They become so used to living in a facility that it’s difficult for them to adjust to a family environment (…) it really affects their behaviour and their emotional regulation and they don’t have meaningful relationships with people, adults, so they don’t trust people so it’s very difficult for them to… Even if you find a family they are so resistant to forming an attachment with that family because they are really institutionalized, they’ve cut, they’re detached.

To prevent this issue and prepare the child for reunification once admitted, the social worker at the CYCC is then responsible of providing the child with the necessary therapeutic, developmental, sports and-recreational programmes legislated in the Children’s Act, based on the child’s IDP.

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External social worker 1 talks about the difficulties that parents face during the first three months of the process due to having their children taken away. This is described to sometimes result in the parents disappearing, along with the motivation of caring for their child. The external social worker stresses the importance of parents not making promises and how it affects the child.

Because they can really mess them up, making empty promises and empty, ah, you know, making empty excuses for 4 or 6 years breaks a child. So we really from the start are very honest in terms of; this is what’s expected, please don’t do this, please be the best parent that you can be. And it actually works you know, their honesty, it works.

The parents are notified regarding the dates their presence is required at the social worker’s office and what is required of them in terms of getting their child back home. Thereinafter there are panel meetings held regularly, according to the social workers, approximately every three or six months, where the progress of both child and parents is discussed and reviewed.

7.2 The time period of placement

The time period of placement is portrayed as the longest phase and component in the reunification process, where the social workers do most of the work in order to enable a reunification. During this time, they work to prepare the child and the parents, facing various challenges along the way, but they also mention the crucial factors of establishing a reunification.

7.2.1 The role of child and parent

During the interviews, social workers speak about the importance of preparing both child and family for reunification. The CYCC social worker is specifically responsible for preparing the child, mainly in terms of therapeutic work, various programmes and ensuring that the child gets schooling. At some CYCC’s, specialized therapists are responsible for certain types of therapeutic work with the child, such as bonding therapy. External social worker 1 demonstrates the importance of adaptability when working with the child.

So it depends on your developmental age, how I’m gonna work with you. If you’re ready to really receive bad news. You can have a 16-year old and he’s not ready to discuss how bad it is with his mother, cause he’s not at that space

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yet. But, you can have a 5-year old that is very vocal about it. So it depends also on their emotional place they’re at. (…) So it’s very important to be mindful and take it softly. They are really hurting. Empathy.

CYCC social worker 1 explains that they look at whether the child is wanting contact with their parents or not. Several social workers state that most children want to go back home, but when this is not the case for certain children, the CYCC social worker continues; “then

we need to respect that, you know, and work towards the child wanting contact”. Some CYCC social

workers mention that many children have trauma that needs to be worked through before a reunification can take place, which is done through therapy. CYCC social worker 2 argues: “If the child is not recovered, it’s not advisable to place the child back to that same environment.”

It is described that certain things need to be in place in terms of the family home before the child can return. The social workers illustrate this by talking about preparation in form of practicalities, such as the parents attaining sobriety, proper housing and finding employment, but there is also a focus on therapeutic work with the parents. This is included among the external social worker’s duties, to refer the parents to the necessary services such as rehab or receiving personal counselling from an outside organisation or at the CYCC. CYCC social worker 4 gives an example: “You know, teaching the parents practically how

to discipline their children, how to bond with their children, how to maintain all those relationships.”

CYCC social worker 3 also mentions that it is the parents’ responsibility to change and not the children: “It’s the home situation and the parents who need to change and also they need to be

prepared efficiently to know that it’s not going to be easy.” Several social workers talk about the

need for parents receiving support and therapy, such as anger management and resolving their own traumas. CYCC social worker 4 talks about “intergenerational legacies” in terms of abuse and substance abuse which they claim can be broken in some cases by the parent receiving these necessary interventions.

The relationship and communication between child and parent are talked about as crucial types of work within the reunification process. In order to establish a successful reunification, several social workers argue that improving or rebuilding the relationship between child and parent is regarded as one of the key factors. CYCC social worker 1 states: “The parent child relationship is something that need to be looked at constantly, to strengthen that

relationship, because it’s often been a lot of damage done because of things that had happened.” External

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in the reunification process and explains: “So before the reunification process can take place, again,

mediation must take place, to first talk to the parties about what happened and they must rebuild their belonging and their trust with each other.”

The social workers also talk about how the challenges of a damaged relationship and lack of trust are approached. CYCC social workers 3 and 4 give examples of different types of therapy that are used such as “Bonding therapy” and “Theraplay”. They explain that these methods aim to re-establish the bond and relationship between the child and parent. It is also emphasized that the child and parent need to stay in contact during the child’s placement in order to maintain the relationship and communication. The CYCC social workers place a great focus on these matters in therapy. In some instances, the relationship and communication between child and parent might not be possible to work with due to psychosis from substance abuse, trust not returning to the relationship or simply by the parent not being involved in the process.

Parents being cooperative in the process and motivated to get their child back home is regarded as a crucial success factor for a reunification to take place, according to the social workers. CYCC social worker 2 expresses the following: “So, I think the readiness from the

parents. It does determine, you know, whether it will be easy or hard to reunify the child with them.”

CYCC social worker 1 states the importance of this factor: “Without that you are fighting a

losing battle”. When the family is involved in the process, their progress is reviewed on a

regular basis in form of family meeting assessments together with the CYCC social worker and the external social worker. At some CYCC’s, a multidisciplinary team will also be present which will include the child and youth care workers at the centre and everyone working with the assessment of the child, such as the nurse and the teacher. At each family meeting, the IDP is looked at and the social workers examine if any improvements have been made with the parents. Once the parents express that they feel ready for reunification, the external social worker will do home visits to assess the situation; if the family is truly ready and if the environment there can be deemed safe for the child to return to.

The social workers point out that some parents are not willing to change or do not feel they are fit to parent. A couple of social workers explain that this can sometimes be a result of a lack of support for the parents. In some instances, the parents are deceased or are simply not found by the social workers, which is described as making the process difficult, by CYCC social worker 2. Some examples are given by CYCC social worker 1 regarding

Reunification – A difficult and lengthy process : A qualitative study examining social workers’ experiences of the reunification process in South Africa