Crisis Management in Covid-19 : A study in decision-making process of a crisis management team

Crisis Management in Covid-19

A study in decision-making process of a crisis management team

MASTER THESIS WITHIN: Business administration NUMBER OF CREDITS: 30

PROGRAMME OF STUDY: Global management AUTHOR: Amber Askling & Thanh Phan

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Master thesis in Business Administration

Title: Crisis Management in Covid-19 – A study in decision-making process of a crisis

management team

Authors: Amber Askling & Thanh Phan Tutor: Michal Zawadzki

Date: 2021-05-24

Key terms: Crisis management, CMT, decision-making, Covid-19, Management Team

Abstract

Background: Covid -19 pandemic affects how organizations and people operate. This crisis

differs from previous ones due to its radical change. Organizations are threatened and struggling to cope with the pandemic and making right decisions. This has put more attention on management team to address the issue at hand. This thesis explores how individuals experience crisis and managing it by decisions.

Problem: Insufficient literature on how to make appropriate decisions in management team to

cope with Covid-19 crisis.

Purpose: This thesis purpose is to explore how crisis management team experience and cope with

decisions in the context of Covid-19. How individuals in a team overcome obstacles and make appropriate decisions. Risks, uncertainty, stress, and time are previously known challenges for management teams. We aim to explore how these aspects affect the decision-making process.

Research Question: How does crisis management team cope with Covid pandemic through

decision-making?

Method: This thesis has a qualitative research design and method of semi-structured interviews

carried out in a virtual environment due to Covid-19. Six informants have contributed to the empirical study. The empirical findings are presented in chapter 4 and analyzed by themes. Chapter 5 provides discussion on the theoretical background and thesis findings, and finally conclusion in chapter 6.

Conclusion: Crisis management encounters challenges with appropriate decisions for coping with

Covid-19. However, our findings suggest that risk, ambiguity, and time factors are not major challenge and contradict this. This is due to the process of having an established crisis and making decisions collectively on all stages of a crisis. The most important stage of a crisis is the pre-stage where information is limited and guides the outcome of the whole process.

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Acknowledgments

We would like to express our appreciation and gratitude to all those who have contributed to our thesis by input and a helping hand for this master thesis. First, we would like to thank our thesis supervisor Michal Zawadzki for guidance, support, and helpful comments. To our fellow students, we thank you for the feedback and fruitful discussions during seminar. We wish you the best in the future ahead.

Second, we owe great thanks to the crisis management team participating in this study. This would not have been possible without open and honest interviews. A huge thank you!

Third, we would like to thank Jönköping International Business School for the opportunity to carry out an academic research project.

Last but not least, we deeply thank our families and friends who have encouraged and supported us during our research project.

Amber Askling & Thanh Phan Jönköping- May 2021

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Table of content

1.5. Approach to literature review ... 5

1.6. Outline ... 6

2. Frame of reference... 7

2.1. History of decision-making theory ... 7

2.2. Existing definitions and concepts ... 8

2.2.1. Crisis management team ... 8

2.2.2. Crisis process ... 10

2.2.3. Crisis decision process ... 11

2.3. The quality of decision-making... 12

2.3.1. The quality of alternatives ... 12

2.3.2. The quality of decision-making process ... 13

2.4. Decision-making stages... 15

3. Methodology ... 22

3.1. Research philosophy ... 22

3.2. Research approach & methodology ... 23

3.3. Research strategy... 23

3.3.1. Case study ... 23

3.4. Primary data collection... 24

3.4.1. Selection ... 25

3.4.2. Interview design ... 26

3.5. Data analysis process ... 27

3.6. Trustworthiness ... 29

3.7. Reliability ... 29

3.8. Transferability ... 30

3.9. Credibility... 31

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4. Empirical findings and analysis ... 32

4.1. The quality of alternatives ... 32

4.1.1. Information quality ... 32

4.1.2. Objective articulation ... 36

4.1.3. Cognitive abilities ... 38

4.2. The quality of decision-making process during a crisis ... 39

4.2.1. Formalization ... 39

4.2.2. Politicization ... 40

4.2.3. Severity of the crisis... 41

4.2.4. Financial reporting ... 42 4.3. Decision-making stages... 43 5. Discussion ... 46 5.1 Stages of decision-making ... 46 5.2 Quality in decision-making………..48 5.3 Conceptual Model ... 50 6. Conclusion ... 52

6.1. How does crisis management team cope with Covid pandemic through decision-making? . ... 52 7. Contributions ... 53 8. Limitations ... 54 9. Future suggestions ... 54 10. References ... 55

List of figures

Figure 2. A conceptual model of crisis decision and implementation processes... 12

Figure 3. Factors that influence decision-making process within the organization. ... 15

Figure 4. Brainstorming process ... 16

Figure 5. The decision-making process. ... 17

Figure 6. Smart Decision-making process. ... 19

Figure 7. Phases of crisis decision-making. ... 21

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Tables

Table 1. Table of participants ... 26 Table 2. Crisis severity in decision-making. ... 51

Appendices

Appendix A. Informed consent ... 62 Appendix B. Interview guide ... 65 Appendix C. Summary of empirical findings ... 65

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1. Introduction

This thesis examines the role of decision-making in response to crisis facing organizations. This chapter introduces the subject through familiarizing the reader with the current global crisis and its conflicts. The conception of decision-making and CMT are discussed in the problem identification as well as in the purpose of this study.

1.1. Background

Covid-19 is challenging the world's economy. A lot of lockdowns have taken place in several countries of the world and the governments struggle with the spread of Covid-19. Many individuals have lost their jobs because businesses closed temporarily, permanently, or employees had to quit their jobs to avoid exposure to health risks (Michie, 2020). This also leads to the state of the unemployment rate of 2020 much higher than in recent years. Researchers in emerging economies anticipate Britain, Spain, and France to return to growth longer than Australia, Sweden, and the United States (The Economist, 2020). The Oxford Economics scorecard contains the 10 lowest ratings of advanced economies for European economies (The Economist, 2020).

Many large enterprises in the world have been temporarily suspended or shut down permanently due to the heavy impact of Covid-19 (Cloyne, 2020). Especially in the manufacturing industry, a percentage of reduction in the volume of world merchandise trade is forecast by the World Trade Organization (Deardorff, 2020). Many investors must close their factories in China to find other labor resources in neighboring countries where the disease is strictly controlled to limit risks and to recover from pandemic losses (Deardorff, 2020). Not only the manufacturing industry but also other industries suffered heavy losses from the consequences of Covid-19. For instance: tourism industry, sharing economy such as Uber, Airbnb (Hossain, 2021)

However, governments around the world are trying to find the right tools to protect their people and industries during the time of pandemic and to find ways to revive economic growth as health threats continue to decline. According to Smith (2000), intending to cope and manage crisis

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effectively and efficiently, companies are tending to operate a separate department which is called crisis management team (CMT). This department will contain key members of the company such as CEO, head of financial department, head of HR department, head of marketing department, administrator, etc. Each member understands its responsibilities and the decision-making authority in a clarifying decision-making process.

Therefore, the company will get through the crisis with a less damage, recover quickly from the crisis, and have a better preparation for the next crises in the future. CMT has gotten increasingly more attention due to Covid-19 and puts pressure on crisis management to make good calls. In the context of crisis, the decision-making process within a CMT is still a potential topic for many scholars in the world. Mostly, people acknowledge clearly about the corporative decision-making because it is the essential component that contributes to the success of many companies, especially, multinational companies. However, in a crisis, the decision-making process inside the operation of the companies will be different because of the effect of different components such as time, conflict, stress, etc. Therefore, in the context of the Covid-19 pandemic, the need of a beneficial decision-making with a high quality is rising by the organizations and researchers.

1.2. Problem discussion

The Covid-19 crisis differs from other crisis since it requires radical changes in a short time. The situation has the attributes of unpredictability and inability from organizations to predict and prevent threat. This level of danger requires fast reaction (Gostin & Wiley, 2020). Further research is needed due to this reason, crisis management in organizations has become an important part in manage crisis. The uniqueness of COVID-19 according to Hinojosa, Shaine, and McCauley (2020), scholars need to explore more within implications of crisis in research and theory in the management field.

We have found small amount of previous research in decision-making in the context of Covid-19. Especially in the Swedish context where strategies have been less invasive than many countries and no general lockdown (Ludvigsson, 2020). Mather (2020) found in their research that decision-making during a pandemic threat is influenced by unprecedent macroenvironment context, psychological decisions based on basic cognitive architecture. The factors are drawn from prior

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research and theory but still very new to the topic. Previous crises have had template to rely on response to. The unpredictable and uniquely global threat of Covid-19 calls for a new approach in managerial decision-making under threat. Previous existing decision-making literature in management focuses on prior knowledge, intuition, experience, and overcome biases (Mather, 2020). Foss (2020) explains that coping with Covid -19 through decision-making is challenging due to its nature of uncertainty and disruption. For instance, decision-makers are not statisticians and hard time understanding the consequences of scenarios and predictions. The Covid-19 disruption does not have a strong framework for dealing with uncertainty. There exist no good models to describe situations of high uncertainty where management techniques can be applied according to Foss (2020).

Angeli and Montefusco (2020) mention in their research that the decision-making process for the pandemic is inherently short-sighted and inaccurate. This is due to a high degree of complexity of the Covid-19. Unfamiliarity with the pandemic causes two effects which are it hinders learning and mental rehearsal. Mental rehearsal is a vital step in intuitive decision-making processes. Another finding was also that the pandemic is a non-linear phenomenon whereas humans are not used to non-linear thinking. For example, expectations are followed by small variations in causes trigger small variation of outcomes and vice-versa. Aon's (2020) research also mentions the non-linear view by also claiming the Covid-19 is not a non-linear event that progresses in a straight line. The pandemic is not a typical crisis event, which requires decisions made in high tempo, incomplete information, and no clear right answer. This new volatile crisis involves building a crisis team with representation across a company to ensure full view of decision-making.

Dwivedi et al. (2020) also in their research mention that one of the most vital challenges of Covid-19 is to make the right decisions for the right reasons. Decision-makers appear struggling to make effective decisions from a strategic level and operational. Characteristics of the pandemic are deep uncertainty, high risk, and urgent speed in the context of decision-making. Previous research (Gutwin & Greenberg, 2004; Rico et al., 2008; Roth, Multer, & Raslear, 2006; Waller, Gupta, & Giambatista, 2004) has focused more on constructing communication of information sharing or the outcome of team processes.

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Achieving both a feasible plan when the decision-making time is limited, and threating becomes more complicated is a challenge faced by CMTs (Huy, 2020). CMTs are established and deployed to counter crises faced in organizations. Teams are up against time pressure, high risk, and uncertainty and must adapt to circumstances. Sharing information and make several decisions are required for addressing a crisis (Bigley & Roberts, 2001; Smith & Dowell, 2000). CMTs have central roles in models of crisis management (Pratten, 2014; Jobidon, Turcotte, Aube, Labrecque, Kelsey & Tremblay, 2017). In practice, rational decision-making is seldom the norm, and the most objective decision-makers do not always make the most rational call for instance (Parnell & Crandall, 2020). Factors that can influence the decisions are, for instance, emotions, conflicts, effect of power, and stress (Sinclair,1992). The world is experiencing events of impact with complex nature and puts more attention on decision-makers and wise management from CMT (Al-Dabbagh, 2020).

The identified research gap of decision-making to cope with Covid-19 needs further investigation. Therefore, this thesis will explore how CMT individuals make appropriate decisions. Exploring the phenomena from decision-making in CMT on dealing with Covid-19 in the Swedish context will deepen the understanding and complement in the limited literature. Effective crisis management is a diverse process that extends beyond common decision-making (Pearson & Clair, 1998; Roux-Dufort, 2007; Parnell, Köseoglu, & Spillan, 2010)

1.3. Purpose

This thesis aims to explore the process of decision-making in organizations facing crisis. The focus is on how CMT individuals experience the situation of crisis and overcome challenges in order to make appropriate decisions. Further exploring into management practice is needed since the Covid pandemic has changed the norm of managing crisis. This thesis uses existing literature on management teams and decision-making in relation to our analysis.

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Research question:

To achieve the research purpose of exploring how the CMT copes with the crisis through the decision-making process within an organization, the following question is developed:

How does crisis management team cope with Covid pandemic through decision-making?

1.4. Delimitations

It is important not to confuse crisis management with management of natural disaster or referred as emergency management. Natural disasters that remain crises to an organization will be excluded in this paper. Nor will crisis management within hospitality and warfare be regarded. This study will focus on a smaller scale in which have a direct impact on the business, specifically in this case how CMT copes with Covid-19.

1.5. Approach to literature review

During the searching of literature, the database of primo library and web of science where the main tools which are using the most in this thesis. The main focus keyword is “crisis management team” giving 32 results in the web of science and 657 results in the primo library, showing this is an interesting topic but still under research. In selecting relevant documents, the articles were peer-reviewed.

Moreover, the current literature was collected by applying searching keywords such as crisis management team, crisis management, CMT, cope with the crisis, separated and combined with “decision-making” or “decision-making process”. Furthermore, to make sure the study will be connected with the major of authors, the literature was selected within a field that is related to business, economy, management, and leadership. The first concern about the CMT came from the disaster of the oil rig piper alpha in 1988 in Britain, and recently, the awareness of it is raising because of the huge pandemic: COVID-19. Therefore, the chosen literature was reviewed based on the context for their study, the methodology used, and the theory used, the findings obtained, and the guidelines for future research.

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1.6. Outline

This thesis explores the phenomena of decision-making in CMT in perspective of crisis management. Chapter 2 provides review of theoretical concepts and literature. It will elaborate on decision-making and its relation to crisis by drawing related concepts of decision-making process, quality, and stages. It will link how these conceptions link to each other. Chapter 3 has detailed research methodology. It will discuss its philosophical stance, inductive approach as well as qualitative research design. Chapter 4 displays the empirical findings of the case company. Focus is to put categories on decision-making, its process, stages, and accomplish this thesis purpose. Chapter 5 discusses the findings and contrasting the theoretical background. Chapter 6 to 9 concludes the theoretical and contributions while also making suggestions for further research and limitation of the thesis.

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2. Frame of reference

This chapter presents the theoretical foundation for this thesis. First, it will introduce the existing concept of crisis, CMT, and decision-making. Next, it will inform the relationship of crisis and decision-making. Finally, this chapter will conclude with existing concepts of the decision-making process, quality, and stages.

2.1. History of decision-making theory

Decision-making theories have been widely studied in the history that shows early signs as in the 1970s. Theoretical models of decision-making have been an interest from scholars throughout history. There are many models of decision-making, and some are listed below to show that many scholars have illustrated how to make the right decisions and what factors to take into consideration. For instance, the Rational model (1977) incorporates intelligence, choice, review, and design. A study made by Turpin and Marais (2004) on six prominent individual decision-makers showed evidence of acknowledgment of the decision-making theories below. The Recognition decision model showed strong support since it uses gut feeling and intuition in its process.

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2.2. Existing definitions and concepts

There are many definitions and terms regarding crisis and leadership. In this thesis, researchers will not define all terms of crisis management because they are too broad, and narrowing it down to be suitable with the study’s purpose is necessary. Therefore, this thesis will introduce briefly the concept of organizational crisis and crisis management. The concept of organizational crisis in the most realistic way which is pointed out by Pearson and Clair (1998). Scholar's state organizational crises are an array of situations that are difficult to identify the causes and the consequences are unpredictable. Moreover, an organizational crisis can have direct or indirect influences on the survival of the business and may affect negatively the safety and health situation of the organization’ workers and also probably cause a huge impact on partners or stakeholders of the company (Mitroff & Anagnos, 2001; Pearson & Sommer, 2011). These crises can have a low chance of happening; however, its appearance may cause a serious threat to the organization. Sometimes, it will happen suddenly and the personnel in the company are not able to have enough time to respond. Low probability, high impact organizational crisis that threaten an organization and its stakeholders requires a decisive response (Haibing, Jinhong, Qi, & Wilbur, 2015).

2.2.1. Crisis management team

Crisis management team (CMT) is described as a variety of factors aimed at fighting and reducing the damage caused by the crisis. From emergency preparedness literature, crisis management consists of four intertwined factors: prevention, planning, reaction, and analysis (Coombs, 2015). These aspects are integrated with a usual three-stage strategy, which defines crisis management as three stages. The period before the crisis which is the prevention and preparedness stage, crisis stage, and post-crisis stage which are learning and revision. Coombs & Laufer (2018) explain clearly about three stages of a crisis in their research, the first stage which includes the actions and behaviors that the leaders should conduct and prepare for the crisis to help the organization reduce the losses or damage caused by the crisis. The crisis stage which is focused on how the leaders cope with the crisis based on the situation and stakeholders’

responses (Coombs & Laufer, 2018). And the last stage indicates the learning and experience that the leaders observed after the crisis ended.

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The CMT is a department in an organization with function to manage problems or issues which are generated by major events that have a bad impact on the company (Smith, 2000). Therefore, this team will respond quickly and bring some solutions to help the organization recover from the event and meet dynamic and urgent demands effectively and immediately (Moon, Sasangohar, Son, & Peres, 2020). Moreover, individuals in CMTs are selected based on their skills which are in accordance with demands connect with potential crises the leaders of CMTs chose their subordinates who have personalities associate with tasks and team’s cohesion (Smith, 2000).

CMT usually consists of various sub-teams organized in different subject areas, one each responsible for specific aspects, such as situation analysis, action planning, operations, logistics and supply, finance and administration, or press and media relations. Crises can be mastered with structures of teamwork, creative foresighted problem-solving. Employees have support from the team, leader, preparation, and training (Tieclsch, Röseler, Kirch, Lamers & Hertel, 2021). Factors that may influence team effectiveness in crisis management are prior interactions, team composition, task knowledge, leadership ability, organizational culture. Teams' composition, knowledge level, individual attitudes, and member diversity might also influence the

effectiveness. consider using hypothetical scenarios. The significance of the CMT cannot be underestimated. Encourage ethical practices and display a responsible behavior have an increased chance of returning to a normal state. CMT are faced with stress and perhaps the survival of the organizations. The key factor is confidence and able to speak their mind freely. (King, 2002; Robert & Lajtha, 2002).

Organizations must take a proactive approach to crisis and establish plans to counter. Support from senior management is required, training and simulation exercises are highly valuable for preparation (Massey & Larsen, 2006). Everyone in the CMT should know their roles and responsibilities. The realistic goals and the instructions are established carefully to avoid confusion which are obstacles to the solution-finding process in crisis. Lastly, the company cannot allow strangers to participate in the CMT (Kessel & Masella, 2016).

Two types of crises at team level, the locus of the problem such as internal and external, and the nature of the problem for instance economic, technological, organizational, or human crises. Important to delicate balance with manager intervention and team empowerment for an urgent

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problem. It allows so the organization can maximize its readiness and team capacity for addressing crises. The objective for organizations is to further enhance the capability of preparedness and response to unimagined risk and manage conflicts. Tools used for CMT are assessment, training, equipment, practice, and testing (Sapriel, 2003). Self-organizing teams have been suggested as an alternative to more functional teams as they are more adaptive and

reconfigurable. Results showed that greater variability in role allocation inside the team was related to poorer performance and coordination. Flexibility in roles can be beneficial but too much variability is associated with ambiguity and negatively affects a crisis teams' ability to reach its goals (Jobidon et al., 2017). Cognition can be done in a CMT method as multi-level device connection. In addition, cognition in a CMT’s system as system capacity can be applied collectively perceived, diagnosed, and modified. The CMT as a cognitive mechanism for

perceiving diagnose and adapting knowledge, providing the means for operationalizing cognition inside and through cognitive systems within a system of CMTs, advancing the theory of the people data processing system and the theory of ITC to the system of system level (Moon et al., 2020).

2.2.2. Crisis process

Crisis has structural similarity dimensions of severe, normal, human/social, and technological/economical. Five phases of crisis management are signal detection, preparation/prevention, containment/damage limitation, recovery, and learning. Crisis management is complex and requires organizations to have a permanent trained CMT. Two assumptions are that organizations do not create crises they encounter, it just happens and the second is that organizations create crises due to early warning signs, prevention. There are two kinds of crises, those that can be managed and those that manage you. The prevention stage is often overlooked. Core for this stage is appropriate information systems, planning procedures, and decision-making. Having a strategic forecasting, contingency planning, issue analysis, and simulation may help to avoid and encounter crises (Kash & Darling, 1998; Kessel & Masella, 2016). Companies that are crisis prepared are generally better equipped to anticipate, detect, manage and do adequate decisions in events of crisis. For that reason, crisis preparedness has an importance and influence on business (Labas, 2017). A crisis response from organizations deploys established techniques which are quick to apply.

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2.2.3. Crisis decision process

The benefits of making decisions in critical times have been that members might learn from one another, integrate all available information differently, and better decisions. To improve

decisions in hidden profile situations, teams usually need to take their time to bring up and integrate available information. Team decisions during crises have three stages, deliberate, decide and Persist (Thürmer, Wieber & Gollwitzer, 2020). Crisis management systems help in making effective decisions. A suggestion is that organizations utilize a strategic plan that includes relevant items, employees require empowerment and prepared for crisis situations and events and organizations should hold crisis management training sessions for teams, leaders, and all employees. All involved actors need knowledge of an action plan is necessary to deploy. Emphasizing on being prepared and having the whole organization involved in the process. Training and action plan are important for an impending crisis. Everyone in the CMT should know their roles and responsibilities. (Taneja, Pryor, Sewell & Recuero, 2014). A strategic decision is made from people and those are dependent on human perception and evaluation. A team with various backgrounds brings necessary inquiry for quality in decision-making (Greening & Johnson, 1996).

Fast strategic decisions in extreme context and time pressure have significant impact on a company's internal and external stakeholders. These decisions occur in management teams at work, and it is that groups process and confidence to act (Herbane, Elliot & Swartz, 2004; Herbane, 2010). When time is limited, prompt action and complete focus from the team for operational outcome. Unforeseen events test the adaptability of organizations, rules, routines, and regulations for new situation (Cornelissen, Mantere & Vaara, 2014). Fast decision involves top management team who are aware of potential options for dealing with a situation and it also improves the decision quality. Previous research has pointed out that emotions are bad for CMT in a context of unforeseen events. This view can be misleading. According to Netz, Svensson and Brundin (2020) emotions can increase the awareness of the situation and better cope with disruptions from events.

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2.3. The quality of decision-making

2.3.1. The quality of alternatives

Smart and Vertinsky (1977) point out that the quality of alternatives relies on three factors which show in figure 2: information quality (box G), Objective articulation (box I), and decision-making cognitive abilities (box H). This model can be applied to decision-making process of a CMT. Alternative quality or decision quality is inverse to four categories of decision errors: the rejection of the right path, accepting an improper solution to a problem, solving the wrong problem and lately solving the right problem. Generating high quality decisions is essential for decision-makers before they start implementing the alternatives to control the crisis.

Figure 2. A conceptual model of crisis decision and implementation processes, (Smart and Vertinsky, 1977, p.02)

The sharing of information among members is one of the key components that lead to the effective quality of making in CMTs. The efficiency of information inputs into the decision-making process depends on the system's ability to efficiently consume information flows, thereby avoiding overloads (box E) and decrease noise (unnecessary information) in communication channels. The gap between units in the company (box K) depends on the noise. The overload of

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information leads to the dysfunctional selection, information retention, and delayed communication flows, and subversion. "Groupthink" (box B) also introduces pathological filters in information processing by the special dynamics of group decision-making under crisis conditions (Smart and Verstinky, 1977).

Objectives and fidelity are essential to the decision-making process when determining alternatives. The ability to maintain the proper disposition of the risk and isolate this posture from the effects of short-term situations is particularly important for the research. The main impacts are group thinking that introduces a risk bias and cognitive abilities that affect the scope of the objectives.Cognitive abilities are the decision-making unit's ability to understand data or knowledge, also create imaginative solutions, calculate alternative courses of action and select the appropriate between them. Changes in cognitive capacity during a crisis are primarily due to groupthink (box B) and stressful situation (Box C).

2.3.2. The quality of decision-making process

Varma (2019) points out that there are several factors that affect the decision-making process which he also calls it as the strategy development process during a crisis. These factors are showed in figure 3 which are: politicization, formalization, financial reporting, and severity of crisis. Varma (2019) suggests that decision-makers utilize their ability to overcome conflict in the face of pressures from external groups by using negotiations. As always occurs, a team that seeks for ready-made solutions or creates custom solutions is charged with responsibility for crisis management (Hale, Hale, & Dulek, 2006). Also, if individual options are not suitable to the group, solutions can be chosen based on group negotiations. In certain cases, a greater authority may approve or dismiss the decision when politicization affects the quality of decision-making process. Furthermore, if the crisis is scrutinized by the public, the media or the government, those attention will add stress on the decision-maker to make those decisions. Decision makers may other times be confronted by public activists whose priorities may be threatened by the crisis. In such cases, the only methods of resolving the crisis will be negotiation, use of power, and interacting with public activists.

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Furthermore, Varma (2019) shows that a process of crisis decision-making is formal. Most organizations include lateral and hierarchical collaboration formal structures. The establishment of crisis management teams is the formalization of the decision-making process during a crisis. Coombs (1999) and Laye (2002) argue that the crisis management teams aim to help organizations take decision and speed up decision-making process. Pearson and Clair (1998) and Witt and Morgan (2002) suggest that while the development strategy process in crisis stays with a crisis management team instead of a single entity that allows companies to achieve more effectiveness.

In addition, when finding solutions during a crisis, decision-makers consider financial statements (Varma, 2019). Moreover, a situation needs substantial financial resources either to be committed to disciplinary measures, to fund financial settlements or to handle contingencies such as the expenses of litigation. Dutton (1986) indicates that decision-makers use enhanced resource levels during the crisis, improve control over the solution of problems, and raise the problem-related clarification. Financial reports do seem to allow decision-makers to inform and explain the financial results to the stockholders and the others influenced by the organization's performance. Crisis-perceived conditions are related to financial reporting activities. Enhanced financial reporting can manage a situation more effectively (Varma, 2019). Moreover, since a crisis requires large resource investments, substantial financial losses could be happened obviously, and financial reporting may provide decision-makers an approach to handle that.

Besides that, it was seen that the effect of the crisis has a major role to play in developing decision-making strategy on damages to the economy, loss of human life, financial condition, harm to human health, danger to stable business processes and information technology as well as the reputation of the organizations. It is suggested that decision-makers are inclined to resolve a crisis that triggers interruptions of operations and disruption to the plant and machinery differently from a crisis that results in loss of human life or serious environmental harm (Varma, 2019). It means that the process and the quality of the decision-making will be influenced by the crisis's severity. A disaster that has permanent consequences (such as loss of life, irreversible damages in the environment) can impact the decision-making process during a crisis on a long term, and harm the viability of an organization. In the other hand, less reversible and relatively short-term crises (such as operation breaks, plant, and machinery destruction) also have an influence on decision-making,

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but the contents of the strategy will be distinct in that varying effects will lead to various approaches and strategic decision-making processes. Varma (2019) argues that the severity of the situation has to be evaluated according to its long-term impacts, its irreversibility, and, eventually, whether it impacts the organization's own viability. Also, the effect of a crisis is more widespread than reputational harm and affects the development of the decision-making process.

Figure 3. Factors that influence decision-making process within the organization, (Varma, 2019). Source: own

2.4. Decision-making stages

It is essential to retain the brainstorming process (operating as a feedback circuit within the team) throughout the CMT management process and to ensure that adequate time is spent on this operation. The presence, as indicated by Edwards (1988), in a gradient of authority would have a significant impact on ensuring that the brainstorming process is allowed sufficient time. There was

Quality of

decision

making

process

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an experiment which was conducted to observe the operation of a team, it was apparent that the Chairman did not have the power to ensure that a systemic review process was carried out. Rather, one technically focused employee emerged as a leading power, which has led to the debates being skewed towards technological concerns with the potential lack of more strategic problems (Smith, 2000). The brainstorming process of Smith (2000) which is showed in figure 4, has four steps: data search and acquisition, analysis and encoding/decoding, decision-making, and implementation. The first step is collecting and seeking for needed information. Then, members of the group start to analyze the information which was collected at the moment.

All information should be considered by all members of the CMT and the mission of the manager is to make sure that everyone has the same source of information. Solutions are suggested after analyzing carefully all information then the CMT will choose the finale solutions collectively. The last step of decision-making process is implementation, after deciding the solutions, all members start to conduct that to reduce the effect of the crisis. However, not every decision is the right choice. They can be wrong because of many aspects, for instance, everyone does not have the same information or limit of time to conduct the solutions. Therefore, after implementation, the CMT can go back to the third step: decision-making to choose the solutions again. It can be a loop between step three and step four and it will stop until the right solution is conducted.

Figure 4. Brainstorming process, (Smith, 2000). Source: own

Data search and acquisition

Analysis and

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To further understand how decisions are made in CMT, previous research by Bartosikova (2014) categories the decision problem into four categories for assessing the optimal selection.

1. Well and ill structured decision problems. 2. Decision-making under uncertainty and risk

3. Dependent and independent decision-making processes. 4. Other types of decision problems.

Key attribute is to view decision-making process as multistage with possible options, risk and uncertainty. Solving the problem for decision requires identification of problem areas. Decision-makers can be represented by a group of people. Aim is to achieve quality management decisions and avoid problems (Fotr & Svecova, 2010). The model is relevant due to illustration of how the decision-making process could assist in coping with crises for companies. Dependent variables for instance structuring, conditions and style.

Figure 5. The decision-making process, (Fotr & Svecova, 2010, p. 1480)

Strategic thinking is another perspective in the theoretical dimension of decision-making process introduced by Martin (2016). The center circle is the three situational states in the center of the model, current state, future state and transition state. It is here that the makers of decision ground their thinking and three different situational conditions of mental state. The current state represents the mental image of the decision maker is facing at that moment. Future state represents a situation

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where the decision-maker mental state is concerning anticipated future. The third mental state is transition and it occurs by journey and becomes important in later in decision-making process. A current state situation can represent a problem or an opportunity. If the current state demands action, the decision-maker must engage in thinking toward future situation.

Next circle regards to the five-step model of decision-making process and are viewed sequentially. Each step requires information and analysis of that information in order to reach an output. For instance, reaching decision in step 1 (what situation needs change?) then serves as foundation for step 2 (challenges in the situation needing change). If the input information is faulty or poorly analyzed will affect the result. The five-step process explain types of requirements for execute overall of decision-makers. The third and outer circle refers to the remaining part of explaining seven thinking formats that can be carried out. This decision-making paradigm extends the traditional models of decision-making by new analyses and thinking improvements to make the whole process better by transparent and explicit. Gaining transparency and explicit in decision increases the real understanding of the hard and mental work for a successful decision.

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Figure 6. Smart Decision-making process, (Martin, 2016, p. 4)

The stages of the decision-making process could be divided into five phases according to Al-Dabbagh (2020) where each stage has its procedures and steps that needs to be followed. The purpose is for the individuals to reach correct decisions that leads to good results and consequences. One of the most important stage is the defining and diagnosing the problem. It is a sensitive stage since making an error here will lead to failure in future steps that follow. Level of accuracy and how severe the problem is an important part. The diagnose of the problem can vary from an urgent problem or a routine problem. Alternatives in the right decision consist of obtaining large amount of data and acknowledge the problem, the process of choosing alternatives begins.

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Collecting available information and studying options regarding advantages and disadvantages is made in this stage. Information can be in form of both quantitative and qualitative. Numbers and statistics from quantitative information and while qualitative information emerges from experience and opinions. Scientific evaluation of alternatives stage are decision-makers more familiar with all the positives, negatives, strengths, and weaknesses of the alternatives. Rational decision is based on the alternative with more advantages and fewer faults based on measuring and forecasting every alternative. Choosing the appropriate alternative is proceeded when all the requirements are fulfilled and solving the problem result in more benefit and less harm. Implementing and evaluating the appropriate alternative begins and the effect from the result arises. This final stage shows evidence of efficiency of the result. Have the strengths, weakness, and meeting the requirements been fulfilled. In an event that the desired result has not been achieved, correction takes place in form of filling the gaps and finding alternatives and appropriate solutions again.

This process of several stages to solve a problem or facing a crisis such as Covid-19 can be implemented for organizations according to Al-Dabbagh (2020). Decision-makers require patience and wisdom since the work consist of what has happened and what has not yet happened. The aim of crisis decision-making process is to choose the best alternative or the most suitable solution for achieving the goal of a situation.

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3. Methodology

This section outlines the philosophical considerations including research strategy, research design, data sources and data analysis. Its qualitative exploratory choice as well as case study strategy. The following section will close with trustworthiness and ethical considerations.

3.1. Research philosophy

The aim of this study is to understand how decision-makers cope with crisis with ambiguity and risks. The purpose is to gain understanding of the experience and knowledge from those decision-makers. Therefore, we need to interact and connect with them. In order to get higher understanding on the topic, we need to take an ontological approach. An ontology defines as an understanding of the nature or reality while epistemology refers to the view of valid and legitimate knowledge (Saunders, Lewis & Thornhill, 2019). Relativist approach states that the reality is finite with subjective experience, therefore the reality is defined from human experiences (Levers, 2013). Our informants will construct and interpret their reality based on the context of their view and perception. The facts are dependent on the observer's point of view and there are more than one truths (Easterby-Smith et al., 2018). Relativism consists of socially constructed meanings and there is not one shared reality, rather series of alternative social constructions (Ritchie, Lewis, McNaughton Nicholls & Ormson, 2014).

In regard of the chosen ontology of relativism, the appropriate epistemology is social constructionism. Epistemology concerns acceptable knowledge and how the social world should be studied (Bryman, 2012). Social constructionism has led to the reality is built through social experience. Social actors partly construct common senses and realities (Saunders et al., 2019). The constructionism meaning uses people's life stories to understand experiences and social constructions. Our participants will describe their experiences in the context, the result depends on their individual interpretation of the reality. In other words, the reality is influenced by social, cultural and language context of individuals in their experiences. Both chosen relativism and social constructionism describe interviews method as a generation of data from verbal communication and perception from informants. In return, its interpretation is based on the researchers. We aim to adopt a neutral position and transparent as possible, in order to reduce personal influence during the process (Ritchie et al. 2014).

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3.2. Research approach & methodology

The three most commonly research approaches are induction, deduction, and abduction (Easterby-Smith, 2018; (Hair, Page & Brunnsveld, 2020; Reichertz, 2007). This study has adopted an inductive reasoning. This type of reasoning is characterized by identifying patterns from the data set for reaching conclusions and build theories. This study aims to explore the phenomenon of decision-making in CMT in context of crisis (Hair et al. 2020). The theory is the outcome of this research from observations and findings. Case study inquiries that it investigates a contemporary in real life context where boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clear. Case study as research strategy can include both single and multiple case studies. Case study can be used to explore situation were the no clear single outcome. It is important that there is a study question, and, in this study, we have a question in terms of ‘’how’’ (Yin, 2003; Smith, 1990). Three types of studies are explanatory, exploratory, and descriptive (Saunders et al., 2019). This study seeks to explore how CMT make decision to cope with crisis in the initial stage. Therefore, a qualitative research method is appropriate. This is due to qualitative research relates to detailed descriptions of people, events, interactions, feelings, experiences, and illustrations (Patton, 2015). Also, qualitative research is usually linked to making sense of a complex social phenomena. The timeframe of this research design can be defined as cross-sectional which means this thesis study a particular phenomenon at a specific time. Other type of study is longitudinal which was excluded since it measures over time (Saunders et al., 2019).

3.3. Research strategy

3.3.1. Case study

Theory development is an essential part of the design and this study’s purpose. The full range of theories for theory development is individual theories, group theories, organizational theories, social theories and illustrative theories. Decision-making theory is related to illustrative type and for instance involves individuals, organizations or social groups. In order to overcome barriers in illustrative type of theories, reviewing literature is necessary. The design of this study follows a case study to challenge or extend the theory of decision-making. Other type of case study is multiple case design which was not chosen due to extensive resources required and time

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consuming. This case study investigates in a real-life context. (Yin, 2003). The phenomenon of decision-making in a context is the main focus of this case study. A qualitative case study allows researchers to conduct exploration in-depth of a phenomenon with specific context. This method is widely used in academia in qualitative research. (Rashid, Rashid, Warraich, Sabir & Waseem, 2019)

The phases of case study methods are foundation, pre-field, field and reporting. Foundation phase is the research philosophy and relates to ontology and epistemology. This helps as a basis for the research (Wilson, 2014). Pre-field phase refers to designing research question, research method, analysis and gathering of evidence. Field phase is the actual contact and interaction with informants and ensure participants contribution to the research. Last phase is reporting and involves empirical material interpretation and analysis (Rashid et al., 2019). In our study, we have a foundation phase with chosen relativism and social constructionism with an inductive approach. Pre-field phase with questions was made with semi-structured and ethical consideration was made with participants. All participants were noticed of their contributions to the study and were given full anonymity and the organizations. No names and data were protected during and after the research process. A consent form and information sheet were sent out to all participants. During the process, no deception was evident in any stage of the research process and participants were completely aware of what was expected. Field phase has done by interviews online and followed protocol surrounding experience and events. Reporting phase was referring to conclusion and meeting the research objectives. A conclusion of the case, fact and finding are presented. The study has followed the step-by-step guide of case method by Rashid et al. (2019) as a guiding tool.

3.4. Primary data collection

For the empirical component of this study, the primary data was gathered. The objective of this thesis is to build a conceptual structure that generates new theories for future research to evaluate on a hypothesized basis from an empirical and detailed analysis approach (Saunders et al., 2019). The research is an inductive research approach to analysis. The quantitative and-or qualitative methodology is two socially appropriate types of study design. The exploratory essence of research questions of this thesis demanded a qualitative approach by which interpretative theory constituted the foundation of this research as mentioned in the first section of this chapter. Due to

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the complex existence of risks and emergencies and the scarcity of relevant academic literature, predefined questions for quantitative surveys could not be developed to satisfy any perceptions. To acknowledge the numerous phenomena of CMTs, qualitative and insightful interviews have been conducted so that almost the unconstrained issues of CMTs can be examined systematically (Saunders et al., 2012). Communication is a highlight as an integral part of the knowledge in detailed interviews. It also allows reflections on the relevant reactions and responses of the interviewees to be made, covering one part of data as well as those reported in an interview (Flick, 2014).

3.4.1. Selection

Exploratory study is also linked to the non-probability of selection, where the chances are not known if each case is chosen from the population. Statistical intervention regarding the characteristics of the population cannot be made for the non-probability selection. Alternatively, a suitable sample for analysis was used for subjective assessments (Saunders et al., 2019). Non-probability selection also enables widespread demographic surveys, and in-depth research, concentrating on a very limited number of cases in order to obtain information-rich theoretical perspective are argued to be an appropriate method (Saunders et al., 2019).

A group of potential interviewees was selected in a branch of a big company in Sweden. This company has many branches throughout Sweden, each branch has its own CMT. A final selection was a CMT of a company’s branch in Jonkoping. The members in the CMT in Jonkoping area hold the important positions in the branch such as head of operation, head of finance & business planning, head of human recourses, etc. After a comprehensive review of the CMT, we sent out the requests to all members through email. All interviews were conducted with a total of six participants of CMT. The CMT participants were chosen to ensure the consistency and width of the research and to compensate for comparative actions for the purpose of this paper. The emails were sent out on March 19, 2021. A brief summary of the study was given for the preservation of the research ethics of qualitative experiments and the understanding that strict secrecy/confidentiality will apply to sound recordings and notes taken during the interviews (Flick, 2014; Saunders et al., 2019). In addition, it was obvious that the scientific presentation complied with the agreement's anonymity requirement.

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Participant Number Position Interview Date Interview Length

P1 Manager March 25th_{,2021 1h 25min}

P2 Manager March 29th, 2021 1h 13min P3 Manager March 29th 2021 1h 50 min P4 Manager March 30th _{2021 50min}

P5 Manager March 31st _{2021 1h 22min}

P6 Manager March 31st _{2021 1 h}

Table 1. Table of participants.

3.4.2. Interview design

The research interview consists of three distinct categories such as strongly structured, semi-structured, and in-depth (unstructured) interviews (Easterby-Smith et al., 2018; Bryman, 2012). Saunders et al. (2019) pointed out the flexibility of data collection is needed in exploratory research. Therefore, semi-structured or unstructured interviews more useful for researchers, these two categories may contribute to gathering more responsive responses than the other. Moreover, according to Easterby-Smith et al. (2018), the semi-structured interview allows continuity, order, and stability in each encounter of individual participants in pre-formulated questions. In order to gain new perspectives, develop new dimensions of CMT and decision-making in the sense of a crisis, researchers select semi-structured interviews as the best way to perform. According to Morse and Field (1995), semi-structured interview is suited for an exploratory study as it makes possible to obtain statements where research is not able to estimate the answer.

Each interview started with a short explanation of the field of study in order to obtain consent and credibility from the participants. The discussion continued with a comfortable dialog in which the goal was to ensure that the informant was confident in a conversation. The interviews were all

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opened on the same day, but according to what the respondents felt was important the remaining portion of the conversations varied. As an answer to what was reported by the respondent, open and closed questions, as well as many probing questions were articulated as clearly as possible. a shorter break has been taken in every interview to try to get the interviewee to expand his statements (Saunders et al., 2019). The interviews ranged about 50 minutes and approximately 1 hour and 50 minutes, and most of the interviews were conducted on Zoom due to the complexity of Covid-19 and convenience. The participants were asked to turn on their camera during the interview because the presence of the participants on camera that possibly help researchers to raise follow-up questions and to deal with problems such as monosyllabic responses, conversations, and answers outside the field of study (Saunders et al., 2012). Collecting evidence through interviews is one of the most important information from case study design. Interviews were guided conversations rather than structured queries. Key respondents were asked about their opinion in events and situations. Their role was considered more of an informant than respondent (Yin, 2003).

3.5. Data analysis process

The collected data have been analyzed by thematic analysis technique, an inductive approach that can be used in a social constructionist way (Easterby-Smith et al., 2018). It is used for a number of data forms including written, voice, and so on. Thematic analysis has supported researchers investigate various types of interview transcripts (Saunders et al., 2019). It also helps in specific and general discussion, as researchers can gather information on various specified themes which lead to the main conclusions (Saunders et al., 2019). Researchers establish the themes after coding the data in the thematic analysis process. These themes are important to examine, clarify, and eventually address the specified questions and objectives of the study. The search would provide a compelling systemic perspective into the gathering and research subject by integrating this kind of data analysis (Saunders et al., 2019).

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Figure 8. The process of thematic analysis, (Saunders et al., 2019). Source: own

According to Saunders et al. (2019), there are a series of instructions to conduct thematic analysis, the process (figure 8) includes four factors: “becoming familiar with data; coding data; searching for themes and recognizing relationships; refining themes and testing propositions”. In the first step, the researchers will begin to familiarize themselves with data as they conducted interviews or observations, or when they read papers or journals and study visual images through the transcripts. Although it is laborious to transcribe a data item, researchers will build their familiarity. In this way, researchers should also create summaries, self-memos, or notebook entries to support their study (Saunders et al., 2019). In the second step, coding is used for categorizing significant data that have similar meanings. Coding entails codes that symbolize or summarize that context of an extract, labeling each data unit a data item (a transcript or document). When carrying out this step, the aim is to make available for further study any piece of data in which researchers are interested. Qualitative databases are massive and diverse in content.

A qualitative database may include information on behaviors, actions, values, circumstances, activities, ideas, experiences, findings, policies, strategies, relationships, etc. the researchers will struggle to understand all significances of the data which they are involved in without coding. Coding is this an essential way to handle data in order to allow researchers to rearrange and collect data within the appropriate codes (Saunders et al., 2019). The third step – searching for themes and recognizing relationships – can be seen as a different stage after the coding, although the researchers will search for themes, patterns, and connections within the data while collecting and

Becoming familiar with

data Coding data

Searching for themes and recognizing relationships Refinning themes and testing propositions

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encoding it. Producing summaries of process, summaries of transcript, summaries of document, self-notes or entries in the study notebook of researchers that will help them to enhance their ideas about possible themes, connections, and patterns in the data. After researchers have coded all their data gathering, the search for themes continues to be completed.

There will be an extensive list of codes for researchers to understand and derive significance from their data (Saunders et al., 2019). The last step – refinding themes and the relationships between them is perhaps an important element of the analysis process. In order to provide researchers with a well-organized research process, the themes are established by the researchers must become part of a cohesive set. When the researchers develop themes, their coded data that are extracted should be reorganized according to the theme or sub-theme. This will support researchers assess whether these coded data are collectively significant and whether themes are meaningful in terms of one another and the database. This step could be a developmental process by re-reading and rearranging the data. As the researchers examine the data continued, the code used and the themes designed to organize their coded data in order to answer their research questions, these themes would be refined.

3.6. Trustworthiness

Reliability and validity are common important factors when obtaining trustworthiness in a qualitative study (Kumar, 2014). Reliability is defined as to what extent the empirical findings are independent of unintended circumstances in research, while validity relates to which degree the findings is interpreted in a correct way. (Kirk & Miller, 1986). Following this reasoning, trustworthiness is different between quantitative and qualitative research. Validity in qualitative research relies on its credibility and transferability. For this studies trustworthiness, aspects included are reliability, transferability and credibility in the following sections.

3.7. Reliability

Saunder et al., (2019) mention issues for instance participants bias, participants error, researchers bias, and error could impact negatively on reliability. Participant bias involves informant's reluctance to provide information or answer all the questions. Participant error refers to the external factors that may influence the informants and their answers. The researchers' bias and error refer

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to factors that may impact interpretations of information provided by study subject, whereas bias refers to biasing of responses given (Saunders et al., 2019).

For avoiding reliability issues, this study engaged case organization that agreed to participate in this research and signed willingness to share information beforehand. The interview agenda was scheduled for informant's consideration and conducted online at a place and language preferred. Informants were given option of choosing Swedish or English for the interview, whereas all informants comfortable picked English. It was tried to achieve a pleasant interview atmosphere and limit the occurrence of participant error and bias. Even with these efforts, this study may not be fully free from participant bias and error. The set-up of the interview's location was beyond researcher's control. For instance, people walking in and out of the room or for one case where the telephone notice was occurring. This might have been disturbance in the interview and leading to participant error. To enhance and further reliability, questions and scenarios discussed during the interviews were open and in non-leading way. Informants were given time to enhance their answers and examples. The informants were fully anonymously, and therefore able to speak their mind without negative consequences and fear. While Swedish was the mother tongue of the informants, some information could be slightly distorted. Choosing English as the language for the interview has it advantage in the transcript of interviews. In order to minimize researcher bias and error, all the interviews were recorded and approved by informants. Collected information was discussed among researchers and minimizing potential bias. Still, interview responses can be viewed and interpreted differently from researchers which implies that error might not be fully ruled out.

3.8. Transferability

Saunders et al. (2019) define transferability as it is necessary to provide a complete overview in the project report of study issues, structure, meaning, observations, and conclusions. This encourages another researcher to plan a similar research project for another, although appropriate, research setting. In the context of this study, the empirical findings can be applied to develop new theories about the performant or the decision-making process of the CMTs in the organizations. A case study analysis does not concede for statistical generalization. In this case, analytical generalization according to De Massis and Kotlar (2014), refers to generalizing to theory from

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empirical findings rather than a population. This study’s empirical findings can help in information and develop theories about decision-making and its process in a group for organizations who face similar situation.

3.9. Credibility

Credibility parallels with internal validity and ensures that the research is carried out in good practice and submitting research findings for the social world. It is an important factor in trustworthiness in qualitative study since it addresses the relation between the social world and findings. Using semi-structured or in-depth interviews can score a high level of credibility when conducted clarifying questions, exploring responses from various perspectives, and carefully (Bryman, 2012). A study’s credibility can be strengthened by development of early familiarity with the culture of the participating organization before first data collection takes place (Shenton, 2004). This study contacted the case company a few weeks. before actual start of interviews and empirical data was collected. Research informants were informed about the topic and freedom do deny their participation. Only genuine willing informants were prepared to give insight and data freely in the sample. The research informants were given anonymous treatment. Doing so enhanced to voice their opinions freely and avoiding possible negative impact from their peers. Besides the precautions for data collection, the research study was under scrutiny under feedback sessions. This according to Lincoln and Guba (1985), and Shenton (2004) allows improvement in credibility in flaws of the execution and possible flaws in research design. Credibility is also enhanced by transcription of interviews through cross-comparison and research notes (Shenton, 2004). All interviews in this study transcriptions have been sent to informants before using their statements in the analysis part of this study. This allows enhancement of both empirical findings and credibility of interpretations.

3.10. Research ethics

The researchers' architecture and study, access to organizations and individuals, collection, analysis, management, and reporting will inevitably lead to ethical issues. In research, ethics refers to the rules of ethics that guide or influence the conduct of researchers in relation to the rights of the persons involved in their work (Saunder et al., 2019). A variety of factors will drive behavioral

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standards. Increased societal standards of behavior shall affect the appropriateness or acceptability of the actions of a researcher. A social standard shows the type of behavior an individual can take in a specific situation. According to Diener and Crandall (1978), there are four main areas or ethical principles in social research such as harm to participants, a lack of informed consent, an invasion of privacy, and deception.

As the central theory to be taken into account when studying the interview process, protecting the rights of interviewed people is described as the key important (Bell and Bryman, 2007). Before the interviews, informants were approximately informed of the intent of the studies and were requested to register and transcribe consent. In terms of the scholarly elements, the interviewee is well informed of all the important terms of the topic. Although the authors also request that participants choose to open the video call feature in order that the authors can monitor their experiences like they have done all interviews via an online request, including Zoom.

4. Empirical findings and analysis

This chapter introduces the empirical findings from the conducted interviews. We present the data categorized by themes and codes emerged in order to show the findings.

4.1. The quality of decisions

4.1.1. Information quality

When all members of CMT recognize a crisis is happening, the manager of the group will inform all participants through their own communicating channel. Every CMT meeting usually starts with information collection. According to interviews, most of the participants agree that information is essential when making decision. Namely, at the beginning of the crisis, the lack of information is possible, however, collecting as much information is not a suggestion in CMT meetings. Those collected information may include some unnecessary details that will make the information flows in the process become overload. P3 emphasizes information should be selected and filtered which provides clear picture of the current crisis through communication process. It could be short, but it must let the team access to the core problems where they need to solve, which departments are affected by the crisis, who has a good knowledge in the area that can suggest some better solutions, and where they at in the process.