“
I like to envision the whole world as a jigsaw puzzle … If you look at the whole picture, it is overwhelming and terrifying, but if you work on your little part of the jigsaw and know that people all over the world are working on their little bits, that’s what will give you hope.
”– Jane Goodall But sometimes...
“ I sometimes feel like a hypocrite . Because I want to be sustainable but sometimes it is impossible.”
- Engineer You found this gem, congrats! You are probably really smart.
Thanks for showing interest in our thesis!
Gustav & Daniel 2020-06-03
Thank you!
To finalize a Master thesis is something you, most often, only do once in your life. The purpose is to show your academic competences after five years of study. However, an insight both authors got while writing this thesis how interconnected the research processes is. Even if this thesis aim is to show our competences we would not be able to produce the finalized version alone. Finalizing this thesis has left us feeling grateful and we have a few special thank you to deliver.
Firstly, we would like to thank our academic advisor, Professor Kerstin Sahlin. You have pushed our reasoning and questioned us in a constructive manner. But perhaps more important, you have encouraged us to dare to think in new ways and formulate our own ideas.
Thank you for your commitment and all your help!
Secondly, the members of staff at the redacted company. You have been instrumental in providing us with the access needed to finalize this thesis. Without your insights and inputs in the challenges you face, this thesis would not be what it is today. Thank you!
Thirdly, Professor Glen Dowell at Cornell University. You helped us during the fall semester 2019 when this thesis was choosing what direction to take. Thank you for acting as a sounding board when we initialized this thesis.
Finally, peers who have given constructive feedback throughout the process. Without your insightful and constructive feedback, we would not be able to finalize this thesis as it is presented today. Thank you!
Gustav Hansson & Daniel Zätterqvist 2020-06-03, Uppsala
Abstract
Sustainability has become an important topic in many parts of society. However, companies struggle to translate it into their processes. If an individual values sustainability but is not able to fulfill these values an individual may feel a discrepancy; it may force individuals to feel an (in)congruence in their identity, leading to the question, How does sustainability identity (dis)congruence affect commitment? To answer the question a theoretical model was developed from different nuances of identity theory and organizational commitment. A mixed-method was used to capture the data. The results indicate that dependent on commitment style, the organization may override their personal sustainability identities. Our observations indicate that affective committed individuals choose to justify both personal and organizational actions in order to mitigate value incongruent behaviors. The thesis ends with a chapter of managerial recommendations.
Keywords
Affective Commitment, Continuance Commitment, Ideal Self, Normative Commitment, Organizational Commitment, Organizational Identity, Role-Identity, Salience, Sustainability Consciousness, Sustainability Identity, Undesirable Self, Work-Role Identity, Engagement.
Contents
1. Introduction 3
1.1 Background 3
1.2 Problematization 3
2. Theory 5
2.1 Organizational Identity 6
2.2 Organizational Commitment: The early stages 7
2.2.1 Affective, Continuance & Normative Commitment 8
2.2.1.1 Affective Commitment 9
2.2.1.2 Continuance Commitment 9
2.2.1.3 Normative Commitment 10
2.3 Role-Identity 10
2.4 Sustainability Consciousness 12
2.5 Affective Commitment and Sustainability Consciousness as identity proxies 13 2.6 Identity (in)Congruency and the effects of the undesired self 13
2.7 Contributions & Theoretical Limitations 14
3. Method 16
3.1 Methodological overview 16
3.2 Selection 18
3.3 Quantitative design and analysis 18
3.3.1 Selection for quantitative survey 19
3.3.1.1 Survey design and delivery 19
3.3.2 Factor analysis 20
3.3.3 Reliability - Cronbach alpha 21
3.3.4 Spearman’s correlation 22
3.4 Qualitative design and analysis 22
3.4.1 Quantitative selection for qualitative interviews 22
3.4.2 Interview design and mode of analysis 23
3.5 Merging the Results 25
3.6 Ethical Statement 25
3.7 Limitations 26
4. Empirical findings 27
4.1 Quantitative Results 27
4.1.1 Descriptive statistics 27
4.1.2 Factor analysis 27
4.1.3 Correlation Matrix 30
4.2 Qualitative Selection Results 32
4.3 Qualitative Results 32
4.3.1 Organizational Identity 33
4.3.2 Organizational Process 34
4.3.3 Personal Identity 35
4.3.4 Ideal & Undesired Self 36
4.3.5 Work-Role Identity 37
4.3.6 Qualitative Model 38
5. Analysis & Conclusion 39
5.1 Quantitative Analysis & Conclusion 39
5.2 Qualitative Analysis & Conclusion 40
5.3 Merging the Results & Conclusion 41
6. Discussion 43
7. Managerial Recommendations 44
Bibliography 45
Appendices 52
Appendix A - Survey letter 52
Appendix B - Survey 52
Appendix C - Interview & Question Structure 55
Appendix D - Survey Foreword 59
Appendix E - Interview Foreword 60
Appendix F - Disclosures & Data Protection Summary 61
Appendix G - Correlation structure 64
Appendix H - Data Structure 65
1. Introduction
1.1 Background
Greta Thunberg famously spoke the words “I don’t want your hope, I want you to panic…because the house is on fire” (World Economic Forum, 2019). A narrative that has swept across the globe and is currently encouraging millions to reflect on their own lifestyle and to take action for a more sustainable future. In November 2019, the European Union declared a state of emergency and called for all members to align policy work towards an emission-free future by 2050 (European Parliament, 2019). The emergency statement aligns with the UN International Panel on Climate Change (2018) narrative that calls for climate action by countries, businesses and other organizations. The Swedish survey company Novus (2019), reported that 68% of Swedes think that climate change is an acute question. However, businesses are struggling to answer this pressure by implementing sustainability in their core processes. Scandals involving companies, such as Volkswagen are numerous (Lundin, 2015).
It reveals a discrepancy between a sustainability conscious population and the challenges businesses have in implementing sustainability in their processes.
High awareness of sustainability is not automatically transferred to commitment for sustainability in an organizational setting. Ashforth (2016), argues that the organization's identity is contingent on complex relationships between the self, the taken for granted assumptions in the organization and the colleges. Which means that even if the individual values sustainability, it is not given that the organizational context will allow such behavior.
Elsbach and Dukerich (2016a) describe the relationship between organizational identity and the member’s self-concepts. If the individual experiences differences between the desired and actual self it leads to incongruity. If an employee regards sustainability as an important idea but does not have room to fulfill this in the workplace, she might feel a discrepancy between who she is and who she wishes to be. Hence, an undesired version of herself which might lead to disappointment and detachment from the organization, i.e. de-commitment (ibid).
Employees that are committed to their workplace have shown to have e.g. greater performance (Bou-Llusar, 2007), job-satisfaction and job-involvement (Meyer et al., 2002).
Highly committed employees generate greater utility for their organization; but how have they internalized sustainability in their work?
1.2 Problematization
In 1971, Philip Zimbardo conducted the Stanford Prison Experiment (SPE). The purpose was to examine how “normal” people would behave in a prison role environment; the participants were divided into guards and prisoners. However, the experiment was planned to run for two weeks but had to end after six days as “the inhumanity of the ‘evil situation’ had totally dominated the humanity of the ‘good’ participants” (Zimbardo, 1983, p. 62). Hence, the participants suppressed their own beliefs in favor of fulfilling the role. The self consists of various sets of reflexive identities connected to certain roles. The identities connected to these roles are defined by both collective and subjective interpretations derived from the social environment and the individual’s own cognition (Stryker, 1968; Burke, 1980). However, an identity is constantly changing and James (1890) described its complexity well.
I am often confronted by the necessity of standing by one of my empirical
handsome and fat and well dressed, and a great athlete, and make million a year, be a wit, a bon-vivant, and a lady-killer, as well as a philosopher; a philanthropist, statesman, warrior and African explorer, as well as a “tone poet” and saint. But the things are simply impossible. The millionaire’s work would run counter to the saint’s; the bon-vivant and the philanthropist would trip each other up; the philosopher and lady-killer could not keep house in same tenement of clay. Such different characters may conceivably at the outset of life be alike possible to a man. But to make anyone of them actual, the rest must more or less be suppressed. So the seeker of his truest, strongest, deepest self must review the list carefully, and pick out the one on which to stake salvation.
- William James (1890:1910, p. 310)
Callero (1985), researched the probability of identity activation by examining blood donations. He found that if an individual identified herself as a blood donor, there was a higher probability that the individual would give blood more frequently; a translation of who I am to what I do. Similarly, Cogut, Marans and Callewaert (2019) found that greater sustainability awareness constitutes increased sustainability behavior. However, in a work environment, especially in large institutions, one needs to consider the environment in which the organization operates (e.g. Greve, 1998; Ashforth, 2016). Because, taken for granted ideas in a company will reflect and interact upon the work-role (Kraatz, Phillips and Tracey, 2016; Kreiner and Murphy, 2016; Suddaby, Foster and Trank, 2016). Thus, acting as a potential formal and informal barrier of personal influence and expression. Kreiner et al.
(2006) found a similar relationship as they examined priests' work-identity. They found that some priests coped with identity discongruity by ‘flipping the switch’ between their roles as priests and their personal roles. However, at the same time expressing a deep internalization of the priest identity.
At this point, I feel that who I am as a priest and the role associated with that and who I am are the same. The human Tom and the priest Tom are so intertwined generally that I cannot separate them.
-Episcopal priest (Kreiner, Hollensbe and Sheep, 2006, p. 1031)
Relating the aforementioned to an individual who has strongly internalized a sustainability conscious identity; it is feasible to predict that the institutional barriers of an organization may force disconguency between the work-role- and the sustainably conscious identity.
Researchers in the field of organizational commitment define, in part, organizational commitment as the linkage between the individual's own identity and the organization; and the shared integration of goals and values between the individual and the organization (Hall, Schneider and Nygren, 1970; Sheldon, 1971; Meyer, 1987). Meaning that the consequences of identity discongruence, when the ideal self is not aligned with one's actions, i.e.
decommitment (Elsbach and Dukerich, 2016b).
The problematization describes the organizational processes as a mediator between the work-role and the sustainability conscious identity, and whether or not they can be congruent.
Furthermore the (in)congruence then acts as a predictor for organizational commitment. Our interest thus lies in examining; How does sustainability identity (in)congruence affect organizational commitment?
- End Chapter -
2. Theory
The purpose of this section is to describe different theoretical concepts that can help explain why and how organizational identity can affect which identities that may become explicit.
The section will be composed of, Organizational Identity, Organizational Commitment, Sustainability Consciousness, Role-Identity, and Identity (in)Congruence. However, we will first conceptualize the Theoretical Model.
For our intended purposes Organizational Identity is viewed as our external forces affecting which identities contained within an individual that may become explicit. The internal preferences is composed of Organizational Commitment alongside Sustainability Consciousness; that through the acts of self-identification and behavior can be viewed as an extension of an individual's identity and that may become explicit. Salience is the vessel where the internal and external identities interact and negotiate which of the identities that will become explicit. Identity (in)Congruence is the consequence of that particular negotiation.
Figure 1. Theoretical Framework.
According to role-identity theory, salience equates to the identities that can be expressed by an individual through identity activation. Within the conceptualized ‘Vessel’ of multiple salient identities it exists a natural ranking (salience hierarchy); an order of importance that the individual implicitly has placed upon each identity. However, role-identity dictates that identity is a constantly changing construct based upon contextual factors. Meaning that the salience hierarchy and environment are subject to change and can suppress activated identities as well as activate suppressed identities. But between the two there is an implicit negotiation between which identity is suitable to be activated for the situation at hand.
The model suggests that organizational commitment and sustainability consciousness are proxies for different identities that can be contained in an individual's salience vessel
expressed through the work-role. Both the individual and the organization negotiates the contents held within the work-role and a collective perception of an identity is formulated.
The activation of this identity in contrast to the salience hierarchy’s natural state would result in a role-identity that is either congruent or discongruent with the individual's self-image.
2.1 Organizational Identity
Organizational Identity (OI) can be understood from three dominant views, the social actor, social construction and institutional perspective (Gioia and Hamilton, 2016).
The Social actor perspective “[organizations] define who they are by creating or invoking a classification scheme and locating themselves within it” (Albert and Whetten, 1985, p. 267)
The social construction perspective “an organization’s member’s collective understanding of the features presumed to be central and continuous, and that distinguish the organization from other organizations” (Gioia, Schultz and Corley, 2000, p. 64).
The Institutional perspective: “membership in a social category or collective identity at the level of the organizational field ” (Greenwood et al., 2011, pp.
346–347)
All three perspectives have different definitions that all describe the taken for granted notion of who we are. In Gioia and Hamilton’s (2016) review, they discuss identity as an entity versus a process. Hence, the solidity and durability of the OI. Tsoukas and Chia (2002, p.
577) argues that the organization acts as a frame that continuously changes human action;
identity is the result of a process where stability can be linked to a fluid. Depending on the context, it can either have a fast- (i.e rapid change) or slow-flow (i.e. slow change). Asforth (2016), describes the multi-level linkages process of OI. He describes a flow of ideas that diffuse from I think - we think - it is, from both a top-down and a bottom-up process. The organizational identity can thereby have different meaning depending on where in the process one observes it. Thus, the organizational identity is based on multiple changing and nested identities.
The OI frames the individual to act according to expectations and norms (Kreiner and Murphy, 2016). Dejordy and Creed (2016) argued that individuals are embedded in a highly complex environment. Hence the personal- and organizational identity are highly interlinked and separate simultaneously. Figure 2, illustrates Dejordy and Creed’s (2016) model that describes the different relationships between the organization, the individual and the external environment. The triangle within the organization is a metaphor for a ‘reversed prism’ where the organization consolidates external institutional pressures and tries to diffuse these to the individual identities.
Figure 2. Composite model of personal and organizational identity in a pluralistic institutional context. Adopted from (Dejordy and Creed, 2016, p. 383).
2.2 Organizational Commitment: The early stages
Previous researchers mainly defined organizational commitment in one of two ways, behavioral- or attitudinal commitment. Behavioral commitment suggests that the actions of an individual is an expression of the degree of commitment the individual has towards the organization (Becker, 1960a). Whereas attitudinal commitment refers to the linkage between the individuals own identity and the organization and/or congruent motivations in terms of values and goals that are integrated and shared between the individual and organization(Hall, Schneider and Nygren, 1970; Sheldon, 1971).
This binary approach towards organizational commitment was addressed by Mowday, Steers
& Porter (1979, p. 226) of whom defines organizational commitment as “...the relative strength of an individual’s identification with and involvement in a particular organization” .
The authors theorize that organizational commitment is reinforced and upheld by three interwoven factors. The first factor is the individual's belief and approval of the organization's goals and underlying values. The second outlines a disposition to exert individual work effort on behalf of the organization in question. The last factor underlines organizational membership and the individuals wish or desire to retain such a membership.
“When defined in this fashion, commitment represents something beyond mere passive loyalty to an organization. It involves an active relationship with the organization such that individuals are willing to give something of themselves in order to contribute to the organization’s well being.”
(Mowday, Steers and Porter, 1979)
Mowday et al. (1979) suggest that the psychological attachment and self-recognition of one's self in the organization will express itself through behavior. Meaning that behavioral manifestations is a consequence of attitudinal commitment, which can be observed through the three stated factors of organizational commitment. The researchers tested this conceptualized model through the development of the Organizational Commitment Questionnaire (OCQ). The conclusions drawn from the questionnaire is that it is internally consistent and reliable in terms of test-retest ability (Ibid). Independent evaluation of the
own distinct construct from other attitudinal measures (satisfaction & involvement). While also confirming the claims made by Mowday et al. (1979) regarding the OCQ (Brooke, Russell and Price, 1988). Furthermore, additional conclusions made from the OCQ is that it’s correlated to turnover, employee absenteeism, tenure as well as job-performance. However, while these relationships are observable they are on the other hand small. As a consequence, the researchers suggest that other measures are in play that also affect behavior and by extent the degree of organizational commitment that the individual expresses towards the organization. (Mowday, Steers and Porter, 1979)
Building upon the research produced by Mowday et al. (1979) , Meyer and Allen attempts to bridge the gap in regards to what other elements constitute organizational commitment (Meyer, 1987; Allen and John P. Meyer, 1990; Meyer and Allen, 1991; Allen and Meyer, 1996; Meyer et al., 2002). The researchers conceptualize a model based on a synthesis of previous research made on the topic of attitudinal commitment and thereafter delineated the concepts that materialized (Meyer, 1987). The findings of Meyer and Allen show the emergence of the three distinct concepts, “Affective Attachment”, “Perceived Costs” and
“Obligations”, of whom is later referred to as “Affective-”, “Continuance-” and “Normative”
Commitment (Allen and John P. Meyer, 1990).
2.2.1 Affective, Continuance & Normative Commitment
The following section’s primary function aims to deconstruct and explain the individual constructs contained within Allen & Meyers three factor model of Organizational Commitment, namely affective-, continuance and normative commitment. Each sub construct will be expanded upon by going deeper into the theoretical background and thereafter exemplified in a colloquial manner. Lastly, the models application and theoretical findings will be examined.
Allen and Meyer describes affective-, continuance and normative commitment as the antecedents of organizational commitment, i.e. the fundamental building blocks that an individual exhibits, in varying degrees, when formulating a committal relationship to an organization (Allen and John P. Meyer, 1990). This variation in the different types of commitment is in later research described as a commitment profile (Wasti, 2005). E.g. one individual could be affective dominant while another individual could exhibit a cognitive state aligned with a continuance dominant profile.
As conceptualizations of the constructs have been made, measurements of these constructs have also been developed and shown favorable results for the theoretical claims made(Allen and Meyer, 1996). A meta-analysis of the three factor model containing affective-, continuance- and normative commitment measurements showed that the three concepts are related yet discernible from each other. The three variables showed to be negatively correlated to turnover and a state of cognitive withdrawal in an intra-organizational context.
Additionally affective commitment had the strongest correlates between positively associated organizational behaviors such as attendance, on-site performance and organizational citizenship (Meyer et al., 2002; Wasti, 2005). Furthermore, the three factor model of organizational commitment and its corresponding commitment profiles have been found to be stable across time and even under organizational change (Kam et al., 2016).
2.2.1.1 Affective Commitment
Affective commitment refers to the affective- or emotional bond an individual has towards a particular organization or entity. The authors have in large chosen to define affective commitment in accordance with previous researchers such as Kanter (1968), Buchanan (1974) and Mowday et al. (1979).
“Commitment, then, refers to the willingness of social actors to give their energy and loyalty to social systems, the attachment of personality systems to social relations which are seen as self-expressive.” - (Kanter, 1968, p.
499)
“Identification - adoption as one's own the goals and values of the organization, Involvement - psychological immersion or absorption in the activities of one's work role and Loyalty - a feeling of affection for and attachment to the organization.” - (Buchanan, 1974, p. 533)
“Organizational commitment was defined here as the relative strength of an individual’s identification with and involvement in a particular organization. It can be characterized by at least three related factors: (1) a strong belief in and acceptance of the organization’s goals and values; (2) a willingness to exert considerable effort on behalf of the organization; and (3) a strong desire to maintain membership in the organization.” - (Mowday, Steers and Porter, 1979, p. 226)
The common denominators being the willingness of the individual to attach to the organization and align its own goals and values with the organization in question. Meaning that the previous section describing organizational Commitment as defined by Mowday et al.
(1979) and its accompanying research effectively slots into the category of affective commitment.
Example: Through the alignment of identities between the individual and organization, the individual expresses a desire to commit to the organization as the individual interprets it as an extension of oneself. Affective commitment is the desire to commit to an organization.
2.2.1.2 Continuance Commitment
Continuance commitment relates to the individual subjective perception of the utility value a relationship between the individual and the organization has. Meaning that if the perceived value is deemed too costly to abandon the individual will actively maintain and show comital behaviors towards the organization; the inverse suggests that a perceived low utility between the individual and the organization would lead to a low degree of continuance commitment (Meyer and Allen, 1991). Becker (1960a) theorizes that one factor of commitment is the accumulation of “side-bets” that would be lost if the individual chooses to sever ties with the organization. The implicit assumption being that with tenure more and more “side-bets” are placed and therefore the individual becomes even further committed to the organization.
According to Becker (1960a), a side bet can take on multiple forms, however, with the common denominator of a “side-bet” being non-recuperable and transferable. E.g. acquiring extended skills in processes unique for the organization. Expanding on the concept further, Rusbult & Farrell (1983) suggests that investments made as well as possibility of exploring
low maintenance costs and lack of alternatives lead to highly committed employees (Ibid); of which showed a negative correlation with employee turnover.
Example: While receiving a high wage the individual has an expensive mortgage and lacks alternative employment options, therefore the individual feels the need to commit to the organization in order not to experience the personal costs associated with leaving or being fired. Continuance commitment is the need to commit to an organization.
2.2.1.3 Normative Commitment
Normative commitment is commonly referred to the sense of obligation one individual has towards an organization (Allen and John P. Meyer, 1990). Early research on the topic suggests that attachment to an organization is predicated on internalized normative values exerted from the organization onto the individual, as well as the socio-cultural environment that shapes and defines the moral framework i.e. what is construed as right- and wrong behavior (Wiener, 1982; Meyer and Allen, 1991). One such norm that has garnered attention is the act of reciprocity, where the incurrence of fictional debt is expected to be repaid. Scholl (1981) and Eisenberger et al. (2011) argue that reciprocity can act as a mechanism powerful enough to maintain individuals connected to an organizational system even though favorable alternatives might exist. This due to the reciprocal norm dictates that one should aid those that have aided you as well as one should not harm those that have aided you. Applying the underlying logic to an organizational context suggests that because the organization provides rewards such as wage, training, benefits or a sense of purpose the individual receiving such rewards feels obligated to return the favor by performing (committing to) objectives that is deemed beneficial to the organization, even if it comes at a personal cost.
Example: A company has chosen to cover all expenses associated with an individuals higher level education. The individual feels an obligation to reciprocate by internally relocating instead of seeking external relocation despite knowing external wages are significantly higher. Normative Commitment is the sense of obligation to commit to an organization.
2.3 Role-Identity
The concept of Role-Identity (RI) can be defined as a social object that acts as an extension of oneself. RI implies that it is collectively perceived i.e. socially recognized, and accompanied by action. According to Stryker (1968, 1980), RI can be viewed as the link between society and the cognitive sense of self. One main difference between RI and other traditional viewpoints is that the role is not constrained by societal expectations and neither limited to the individual subjectively defining the role through its own psychological state. RI rather suggests a mix between the two, where the social (External) and individual (Internal) aspects both interplay in defining the corresponding identity.
The psychologist William James (1890) and sociologist Charles H. Cooley (1902) were both early explorers of RI suggesting that the concept of (self) identity is a fluid and interchangeable concept that manifests itself in varying degrees depending on social and other contextual factors. Reminiscent of the era, the argumentation provided by both James and Cooley is philosophical in nature, thus the following researchers sought to formalize the concept further.
Stryker’s (1968) & McCall’s (1977) research deconstructed RI and came to similar conclusions as that of James (1890) and Cooley (1902) before them. While the terminology differs, the aforementioned researchers describe the concept of “identity salience” as a crucial factor of identity expression. Stryker (1980) suggests that identities are cognitively organized according to a structure of importance, where the likelihood of an identity becoming explicit is connected to its placement in a hierarchical salience structure. These claims have also garnered empirical support from Callero’s (1985) study regarding RI Salience in blood donors. Individuals that identify as a blood donor to a higher degree act in accordance with the expectations set on a blood donor i.e. frequently giving blood.
Stryker and Serpe (1982) defines identity salience as the following:
“Identity salience represents one of the ways, and a theoretically most important way, that the identities making up the self can be organized.
Identities, that is, are conceived as being organized into a salience hierarchy. This hierarchical organization of identities is defined by the probabilities of each of the various identities within it being brought into play in a given situation. Alternatively, it is defined by the probabilities each of the identities have of being invoked across a variety of situations.
The location of an identity in this hierarchy is, by definition, its salience” - (Stryker and Serpe, 1982, p. 206)
The application of a salience hierarchy implies that the level of salience brings with it degrees of consequences for the Role-Identity. Callero’s (1985) synthesis of previous research suggests that these consequences manifest themselves in three distinct areas, Self-definition, Social Relations & Behavior.
Self-definition in RI Salience refers to the perceived importance of the different identities manifested in the individual. Meaning that the individual orders them into a hierarchical structure from which the individual draws upon and defines himself as according to the order of importance. The significance of self-definition is that it helps govern the sense of self, and thus more salient identities also reflect an increased scale and desire for positivistic evaluation of the self against subjectively and collectively defined role characteristics i.e.
self- & role congruency.
An additional consequence derived from RI Salience is “Social Relation with Others”
inferring that the degree of salience impacts the individual’s outlook and how they identify and assess others. Vice versa, where others identify and define oneself based upon the most prominent salient Role-Identity rather than an individual’s dormant identities. Stryker (1981) suggests that a salient RI creates stable relationships predicated on the premise of set role-identities for each part, which then also acts as a predictor of when and with whom a social relationships will form. E.g. a doctor and patient relationship would be considered a stable relationship in a healthcare context. However, when applying a different context where one or both has shed their previously salient identities a new relationship will effectively destabilize and reshape the previous relationship to fit the new context. Implying that individuals prone to role-identity fluctuation also to a higher degree fluctuate between stable and unstable relationships with others.
Lastly, behavior. As RI at its core is defined by action, the salient identity should also express and reflect behavioral variance based upon where the role-identity is placed in the hierarchal salience structure. Evidence of such is presented through the study of Santee & Jacksson (1979) of whom found support for RI Salience having an effect on church attendance.
When applying the aforementioned theory to a profession or work-role we conclude that identity formulation and activation is a multistage process. Identity formulation requires both input from the individual and other external sources, such as an organization. When this input is collectively recognized and is also accompanied by action an identity has been created. The work-role identity is thereafter placed within the salience hierarchy according to an order of importance the individual has placed upon the identity. In order for the identity to become salient it requires both stable relationships and activation ques. Hence, recurring contextual factors surrounding the work-role can be seen as the “arena” for when and where activation of the work-role identity may occur.
2.4 Sustainability Consciousness
Sustainability is a widely debated topic, partly the meaning but also the practices connected to it. The World Commission on Environment Development (WCED) definition “… a development that meets the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (WCED, 1987, p. 41). The World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) later developed the definition“… improving the quality of human life while living within the carrying capacity of supporting ecosystems” (IUCN/UNEP/WWF, 1991, p. 10) . When the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) were presented it was framed as “as a universal call to action to end poverty, protect the planet and ensure that all people enjoy peace and prosperity by 2030” (UNDP, 2015). Hence, the general conception of sustainability entails a long term perspective and care beyond the self now and in the future.
But how is the idea of sustainability translated into behavior? Similar to Becker’s (1960a) logic of dividing commitment into attitudinal and behavioral, sustainability consciousness researchers have done comparable conceptualizations.
Cogut, Marans and Callewaert (2019) found that greater awareness of waste prevention on University campus leads to increased waste prevention behavior. Hence, greater sustainability awareness constitutes an increase in sustainability behavior. Too and Bajracharya (2015) found similar trends as they studied University campuses. Sarkissian et al (2012) argued that the following pillars needs to exist to facilitate commitment:
1. Sustainability (the ultimate overall goal);
2. Communities (the means to achieving sustainability)
3. Community engagement (method for which to mobilise the community to participate actively in sustainability programmes).
cited through (Too and Bajracharya, 2015) Hence, ideas regarding sustainability needs to be regarded as valuable in the situational context for communal commitment to occur. Hahn and Aragón-Corra (2015) argues that companies need to focus on empowerment, organizational climate and decentralization to enhance sustainability awareness and behavior. To act sustainable inside the organization, the ideas must be given room in the organizational setting.
Relating Sarkissian’s (2012) pillars for sustainability commitment to organizational commitment we see that they are interrelated as they share affective- and normative factors.
One driver of community engagement is a fundamental understanding of the consequences of one's behavior and a willingness to align one’s goals and values with a sustainable agenda (Jobber and Follows, 2000) i.e. the identification process described in affective commitment.
Additionally Too and Bajracharya (2015) suggest that an important factor to building community engagement is public perception and their absorption of sustainable causes. Of which can be related to the normative commitment factor as the social environment helps shape and formulate the moral framework that we operate within.
Much like organizational commitment, sustainable commitment is predicated on attachment to, identification with and alignment of goals, values and norms with a larger governing body or set of ideas.
2.5 Affective Commitment and Sustainability Consciousness as identity proxies
As previously explained, RI Salience is accompanied by consequences. One of these consequences is ‘self-definition’ where the individual's awareness, alignment and attachment to a particular identity is internalized which then takes expression in the form of behavioral consequences. What helps define the details contained within a role-identity is the individuals own cognition as well as a larger, external social environment of whom exerts its vision of what values and behaviors should be contained within the role-identity.
Similarly, affective commitment (and through mediation sustainability consciousness), requires awareness, attachment, alignment and identification to a set of goals and values that a larger entity has put in place. Much like role-identity, expressions of commitment are showcased through behavioral acts.
We suggest that these two, self-definition and affective commitment, are more alike than dissimilar and thus chose to align the two. Meaning that affective measurements in other constructs, such as those highlighted in organizational commitment and sustainability consciousness, as well as observed behavior can be seen as proxies for a salient identity.
2.6 Identity (in)Congruency and the effects of the undesired self
Much like role-identity theory, the concept of an ideal-, real- and undesirable self has a long history in identity research. James (1890:1910), Cooley (1902) and Mead (1934) all suggest that internal disappointment stems from the notion of not reaching an idealised version of themselves, often exemplified as an heroic archetype. Meaning that the comparison between who you are and who you want to be and the relative distance between these two gives the individual a mode for self assessment and in turn a valuation of the individuals self worth (Scitovsky, 1976; Ogilvie, 1987).
Example: I want to be a successful engineer that can help change the world, yet here I am, struggling with the most basic of equations - I am worthless. The antithesis being I am a successful engineer that helps save the world - I am happy. As the distance decreases between the actual- and ideal self, the sense of fulfillment increases.
(Ogilvie, 1987). The theoretical explanation being that the individual has an easier time conceptualizing a negative self-image based upon past experiences unlike the abstraction of the ideal self, as that in many cases is a distant, unreachable reality unlike its counterpart (Sullivan, 2013). Ogilvie (1987) investigated the dynamic between the undesired self and the actual self. They contrasted the actual with the idealized self and found evidence for that the undesired self is in fact the reference point for which individuals assess their self-worth, while also providing intrinsic motivation for what not to become.
Example: I am an engineering student of whom is struggling with the most basic of equations, yet I have not failed - I am happy. The antithesis being I am an engineering student of whom is struggling with the most basic of equations, and I have failed - I am worthless. As the distance increases between the undesired- and actual self, the sense of fulfillment increases.
Zajonc (1980) suggests that affective reactions, liking or disliking, are instinctual and more often occur at a faster rate than a reflective, cognitive process that evaluates the potential outcomes. Hence perception and interpretation of a subject is geared towards the affective process. Therefore a distaste for our own worst versions of ourselves (Ogilvie, 1987) is an important concept when evaluating relationships. E.g. when an individual assesses an organization.
An organizational identity can be viewed as a positive attribute often associated with rewards and prestige for those the organization in question but also for those whose identity align with the organizational identity (Ashforth and Mael, 1989). However an organization that actively pursues a strong organizational identity may also alienate those that do not identify with the implicit and explicit goals and values associated with that identity. Elsbach and Dukerich (2016) suggests that organizational identities may impose the undesired self among its members leading to negative consequences, such as, role reshaping and -distancing, motivation and organizational affective decommitment.
2.7 Contributions & Theoretical Limitations
The main contribution is the suggested theoretical model, presented in figure 1, as it combines research within Organizational Identity, Organizational Commitment and Role Identity. The model can potentially work as a framework of how to analyze identity congruence. A revised version will be presented at the end of the thesis.
The main criticism towards Allen and Meyer's organizational commitment three factor model has been directed towards normative commitment, suggesting that normative commitment converges too often with affective commitment and thus requires further delineation or redefinition (Ko, Price and Mueller, 1997; Bergman, 2006). Addressing the concerns of a heavily intertwined concept Meyer and Parfynova (2010) sought to clarify the concept by proposing that normative commitment could be viewed as being composed of two factors,
“... either as moral duty or a sense of indebtedness” , that activate and act independently from each other based upon the individual's commitment profile (Wasti, 2005).
While being problematic and a justified concern, the criticism lies in what the normative factor entails and not the model perse. As the body of thesis work revolves around identity, i.e. affective factors, the researchers, despite prior concerns, deem the three factor model to
be a valid concept able to discern identity alignment between the individual and the organization.
- End Chapter -
3. Method
The Method section will be divided into Methodological overview, selection, quantitative design and analysis, qualitative design and analysis, merging the results, ethical statement and limitations and delimitations.
3.1 Methodological overview
How do one go about researching identity? Pratt et al., (2016) argues that identity is one of the most fundamental concepts in social science and has a rich theoretical heritage from multidisciplinary fields e.g psychology (Williams, 1890:1910; Erikson, 1968), social-psychology (Tajfel et al., 1979) and sociology (Goffman, 1959). Hence, the question of how identity relates to the self and its environment is a well studied phenomenon. Foreman and Whetten (2016) made a meta- review of the methods used in the field of organizational identity. They found a compartmentalized field with five distinct clusters . In their 1 recommendations for future research they argued for complex research designs. Hence, studies where multiple methods are used. This thesis is using a multi faceted identity lens to understand how sustainability is absorbed in the work-role. However, mixed methods are also advocated by scholars outside the organizational identity field, e.g. (Hesse-Biber and Johnson, 2015). Creswell (2015) defines a mixed method as follows:
“Mixed methods is an approach to research in which the investigator collects, analyzes, and interprets both quantitative and qualitative data (closed- and open-ended information), integrates or combines the two approaches in various ways, and frames the study within a specific type of design or procedure.” (Creswell, 2015, p. 59)
This thesis will use a mixed-method approach. In figure 3, the methodological process is presented. The first phase is quantitative. The purpose of this phase is to establish a proxy for both the identities, Sustainability Consciousness and Affective Commitment. It is used as a basis for interview selection. The second step was qualitative and entailed semi-structured interviews that were conducted in order to examine open-ended questions in relation to the framework with the purpose of gathering high resolution data.
1 The different methodological clusters: Narrative/Discourse Analysis, Grounded Theory, Case study method, Survey Data Analysis, Secondary Data Analysis (Foreman and Whetten, 2016).
Figure 3. Methodological process according to the Theoretical Framework.
This methodological design follows Creswell (2015, p. 63) Explanatory Sequential Design (ESD) logic where the researchers use quantitative results to help explain the qualitative results (figure 4). Hence, get a deeper understanding in how the quantitative results relate to the qualitative. Creswell (2015, p. 65), lists three potential threats to validity for an ESD study:
●Assess array of possible quantitative results to follow-up.
●Determine who can best provide qualitative follow-up.
●Make sure that qualitative explains the quantitative results.
Figure 4. Explanatory Sequential Design (Creswell, 2015, p. 63).
Based on the ESD logic, the investigation of the research question will be answered according to figure 5.
Figure 5. Methodological process - in detail.
3.2 Selection
To examine the research question access was granted to a large multinational organization within the transport industry. The transport industry is currently shifting its core processes towards electrification to adhere to the pressure to become more sustainable. Access was given to a unit that develops new technologies.
The examined population was mainly engineers that worked with product development. The company has an outspoken focus on sustainability both in their external and internal communication. Furthermore, sustainability is anchored as a key strategic objective during 2020 and onward. Hence, the development engineers will be a key stakeholder in the development and implementation of the strategy. Thus, interesting for the research question.
Defining what type of case depends on the level of analysis the study has (Yin, 2014). From a meta perspective this thesis used a large multinational company. Although, within the company there are subsets of nested levels that, each, can provide a singular case. Yin (2014) argues that multiple cases are better than a single case design. Gerring (2006) lists different techniques for choosing the right case and given the methodological design, a most-different logic was applied. Most-different case selection looks at how variables x and y covary, as reference to the midpoint, as a basis for selection to explain other plausible factors (ibid). For this thesis, the quantitative results of Sustainability Consciousness and Affective Commitment will work as the basis for identifying individuals for the interviews.
3.3 Quantitative design and analysis
The quantitative part of the study will mainly be used to identify different cases of combinations between sustainability consciousness and affective commitment. Hence, four potential combinations cases can be derived (figure 6).
Figure 6 - Potential cases from the quantitative survey
This matrix is the framework of identifying and selecting relevant individuals for the qualitative phase.
3.3.1 Selection for quantitative survey
The selected group were compounded by 778 development engineers spread geographically between Sweden, France, United States and India. The gender distribution & the geographical spread of the population is unknown. The survey was distributed via email with two reminders (appendix A).
3.3.1.1 Survey design and delivery
The surveys were adopted from previously validated research. Sustainability Consciousness was adopted from Gericke et al (2019) short version of the Sustainability Consciousness questionnaire (SCQ-S). The survey is divided into three dimensions, Sustainability Knowingness, Sustainability Attitudes (SA) and Sustainability behavior (SB). Based on Becker (1960b) logic of attitudinal and behavioral commitment, sustainability knowingness was excluded from this study. Gericke et al (2019) found that the reliability of SA (α=0.78) and SB (α=0.72) were both acceptable (Esiasson et al., 2017). The SCQ-S revealed acceptable construct validity (RMSEA= 0,041) through a factor reduction process (Gericke et al., 2019, p. 44). The SA and SB questionnaire uses a five point likert scale.
Organizational Commitment was operationalized from Allen and Meyer(1990) measurement of affective, continuance and normative commitment. In their early study the three factor dimensions were derived through a varimax rotated factor analysis (exploratory factor analysis). Affective commitment explained 58,8%, normative commitment 25,8% and continuance commitment 15,4%. Culpepper (2000, p. 607) revised the previous item pattern.
He found that some items , across studies, loads weakly with their factor and are suggested to2 be deleted for better fit. However, three factors construct are consistent across studies (Culpepper, 2000); although there have been reports of some cross-correlation between affective and normative commitment (Ko, Price and Mueller, 1997; Bergman, 2006). The Organizational Commitment questionnaire uses a seven point likert scale.
Alongside these questionnaires, ten sustainability identity statements were developed based on the theoretical framework:
1. I have formal decision-making authority in the work I conduct.
2. I identify myself as an informal-leader.
3. My workgroup(s) and I actively work towards the company’s sustainability goals.
4. When sustainability is discussed I actively partake.
5. I wish I could incorporate sustainability more in my work.
6. My manager encourages me to challenge existing processes.
7. I have the ability to integrate sustainability in my work.
8. I perceive myself to be the same person at work and at home.
9. My role description entails sustainability related tasks.
10. I perceive that sustainability is a large part of the organization.
See appendix B to read the complete survey.
3.3.2 Factor analysis
Hair et al., (2009), argues that the starting point of a factor analysis is to condense the information to feasible constructs. Hence, to validate latent constructs (e.g. Organizational commitment) based on the survey questions (items). Hair et al., (2009, p. 95), defines a six step way to make an factor analysis.
In the first step, one should make a concrete aim with the analysis. Hence, deciding if the analysis should be confirmatory or exploratory. The difference is that confirmatory is based on proving already existing constructs given a certain theory; exploratory aims to reduce a number of items to explain latent constructs dependent on the answers. This thesis used an exploratory approach.
In the second step, Hair et al, (2009) argues, if one wishes to summarize characteristics, one should use a correlation matrix of the items to determine the convergent and discriminant validity. It is also important to have large enough sample size in order to conduct an EFA.
The authors argue that the sample size need to follow these guidelines:
• The minimum absolute sample size should be 50 observations.
• Strive to maximize the number of observations per variable, with a desired ratio of 5 observations per variable (Hair et al., 2009, p. 100).
In stage three, it is time to make both conceptual and statistical assumptions. Conceptually, if an EFA is made you need to assume that there is an underlying structure. Statistically, it is important to ensure that the variables are intercorrelated to the factors. This can be tested by Bartlett test of sphericity that examines the correlations among the items. To accept the test, it needs to be significant (sig. < .05). Another test is measure of sample adequacy which is an index that ranges between 1 and 0 and should be determined as follows:
Value Meaning
Below 0,5 Unacceptable
0,5 Miserable
0,6 Mediocre
0,7 Middeling
0,8 and above Meritorious
When both the variables are specified and the correlation matrix is analyzed decisions regarding the extraction method should be made; where either common factor analysis or component analysis will be used. Hence, stage four. Component analysis summarizes most of the original information in the minimum number of factors (Hair et al., 2009, p. 105).
Common factor analysis is mainly used to identify latent variables (ibid). Which one should one choose? Here, the discussion divides into two different strains.
“Some authorities insist that component analysis is the only suitable approach, and that the common factor methods just superimpose a lot of extraneous mumbo jumbo, dealing
with fundamentally unmeasurable things, the common factors. Feelings are, if anything, even stronger on the other side.” Hair et al. (2009, p. 106)
However, empirical research finds that both methods arrive at essentially the same results (ibid). Common factor analysis was chosen as latent variables are explored.
Step five regards rotational methods. In this stage, one firstly gets the unrotated factor matrix.
It contains factor loadings for each item and factor. Factor loadings represent the correlation between each variable and the factor. However, the unrotated solution is hard to interpret.
There are two major rotational methods orthogonal and oblique (Hair et al., 2009). The major difference between the two is that orthogonal assumes that the different factors are uncorrelated where oblique let the factors correlate with each other. It is common that items are deleted due to bad significance and fit. Hair et al., (2009, p. 115) conclude a table of different factor loadings significance dependent on sample size (figure 7).
Figure 7 - Adopted from Hair et al., (2009, p. 115)
The optimal structure is when items have high significant loadings on one factor with low or no cross-loadings. Items should generally have communalities greater than .50 to be retained.
In stage six, the last stage, concerns validating the analysis. To validate a model one, generally, moves towards confirmatory perspectives such as confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). However, it requires more complicated software (e.g. LISREL) and analysis. Another way to validate the result is to split the dataset into two randomly allocated sets and make separate analysis of both. If similar structures emerge the constructs are valid (Hair et al., 2009).
3.3.3 Reliability - Cronbach alpha
To determine quantitative reliability, Cronbach Alpha (ɑ) will be used. Reliability is assessing the internal consistency of a construct. Hence, if the questions are measuring the same thing, they should correlate. Hence, higher Cronbach Alpha, higher reliability. The general rule of thumb is that a value over ɑ: .7 is an acceptable value in general research (Hair et al., 2009).
3.3.4 Spearman’s correlation
Spearman’s rank-order correlation (rho) will be used to generate a correlation matrix between the suggested factors and sustainability identity questions. Rho is a non parametric test that ranks the different variables before the correlation is computed. Significance is held on a 5%
level or below (Dahmström, 2011).
3.4 Qualitative design and analysis
3.4.1 Quantitative selection for qualitative interviews
The interview candidates were selected based upon their Affective Commitment- (AC) and Sustainability Consciousness (SC) scores.
The objective of the interviews was to contrast the extremities against each other. The selected extremities were limited to High Affective Commitment and High Sustainability Consciousness as well as Low Affective Commitment and High Sustainability Consciousness. Thus two distinct groups are to be determined. In order to reduce selection bias, a selection method was developed.
The Sustainability Consciousness and Affective Commitment scales were mapped according to a coordinate system, thus allowing two-dimensional plotting and measurements of relative distances. The origin point was fixated to the center point (X,Y) of each measurement scale (Sustainability Consciousness Scale 1-5: X=3 ; Affective Commitment Scale 1-7: Y=4).
The selection of the extreme groups were based upon their relative distance from the origin point according to the hypotenuse formula.
SC: Sustainability Consciousness. AC: Affective commitment.
The assumption of underlying normal distribution thus suggests that with increased distance the individual becomes more extreme. The aforementioned logic is represented in figure 8, where fictitious examples are presented.
Figure 8 - Visualization of extreme selection Criteria Extreme Group 1:
SC Score > 3; AC Score > 4; Distance in descending order from the origin point.
Criteria Extreme Group 2:
SC Score > 3; AC Score < 4; Distance in descending order from the origin point.
3.4.2 Interview design and mode of analysis
The primary mode of qualitative data collection is made through interviews. A semi-structured interview process was selected, as the interview design allows for in-depth data collection, validity and reliability testing as well as a structure to adhere to (Barriball and While, 1994).
A standardized order and wording of the questionset is argued to elicit a favorable comparability scenario and thus increases both validity and reliability measures (Gorden, 1975). This is due to the fact that the stimulus is remaining constant throughout the series of interviews. Any deviations in interviewee output is thus a consequence of differing interpretations and perceptions rather than variations in stimuli delivery performed by the interviewer (ibid).
The inherent nature of a semi-structured approach allows the researcher to deviate from the set structure and further probe the interviewee. As described by Barribal and While (1994), probing further increases the reliability of the research as it seeks to (1) clarify uncertainties, (2) discover inconsistencies and (3) unveil additional valuable contributions.
All interviews will be conducted through either telephone or online voice-calls. The benefit usings this method is the ability to have a global reach at a low cost compared to face-to-face interviews. The drawbacks of an asynchronous interview location is that the interviewer can not control the interviewee’s environment, as well as not receiving any visual cues, such as of uncomfort, impatience or other bodily behaviors explicit in the interviewee (Opdenakker, 2006).
While face-to-face interviews were considered in preliminary design, the unfortunate occurrence of the rapidly spreading COVID-19 pandemic (a lethal influenza virus) took hold of the world (Roser, Ritchie and Ortiz-Ospina, 2020; World Health Organization, 2020). In order to ensure the physical safety of all involved participants an active decision was made to limit physical exposure. See section 3.8 for a more detailed overview of its implications on the thesis.
The questions asked are derived from the theoretical model’s distinct concepts. The questions seek to establish a baseline for each concept and then thereafter the interplay between them.
The questions asked are consistent in the terms of wording and order. The questions are conditionally structured, meaning that a follow-up question is predetermined dependent on the answer given (Appendix C). However, the researcher may probe the interviewee for clarification or further details on the subject at hand.
The data will be subjected to a framework that seeks to implement qualitative rigor into the conducted research. Qualitative research has been criticized for lacking scientific grounding, where the conclusions drawn can be construed as subjective interpretations rather than being objective truths (Mays and Pope, 1995; Gioia, Corley and Hamilton, 2013). Mays and Pope (1995) describe several aspects that qualitative research has to consider in order to be considered rigorous. Such as, a detailed account of the theoretical framework and sampling strategy, utilizing quantitative evidence where applicable and enabling independent analysis ensuring reliability. Whereas the theoretical framework, sampling strategy and quantitative evidence have previously been made explicit, the subject of qualitative reliability remains unaddressed. The Gioia methodology (Gioia, Corley and Hamilton, 2013) is intended to address potential reliability issues while also grounding the theory.
Gioia et al. (2013) developed a structured approach that catalogues and connects qualitative, unstructured data with higher order concepts, concepts to themes and themes to dimensions.
Gioia et al. (ibid) argues that concepts are qualities in one or several statements that describe a theoretical phenomenon. Themes are groupings of concepts describing a phenomenon of similar nature. Likewise dimensions are groupings themes of related nature. Thus creating an inductive path from observation to construct creation.
Gioia et al. (ibid) argues that a data structure in itself is static and thus must be accompanied by visualizations of a dynamic relationship between concepts, themes and dimensions.
Meaning that in order to ground the theoretical concepts observed one has to create a model where the concepts, themes and dimensions are present and well represented. One of the main
benefits of utilizing the Gioia method is the ability to create theoretically grounded models.
The value of the Gioia Method for this thesis is that deductive theoretical models can be directly contrasted against an inductive model based on grounded observations. Meaning that proposed constructs and their corresponding interactions in the deductive model should also be observed in the inductive model extrapolated from the data structure. Thus through model comparison, model validity is tested. Reliability issues can be addressed through independent analysis and data structure creation. Meaning that similarities between the two data structures indicate data and model reliability.
3.5 Merging the Results
The choice to have this study as a mixed method results in a complex data analysis. To combine quantitative and qualitative datasets, Yin (2015) argues that analysis often occurs in e.g. sequential design. Hence, letting the different datasets complement each other. Creswell (2015) argues that inorder to validate the results to make sure how the qualitative results explain the quantitative. He also argues that to combat the ambiguity is to think about the two data strains as joint displays. Where the quantitative results are presented in e.g. charts (descriptive statistics) and correlation matrix to compare with the qualitative themes. The idea is that the datasets can be compared side by side to draw conclusions from both sets of data (ibid).
3.6 Ethical Statement
The aim of the thesis is to adhere to a set of ethical research principles. The following section will describe areas of ethical concern, motivate why they are under consideration as well as describe the actions put in place in order to adhere to the ethical principles. Diener and Crandall (1978) describe four areas of particular importance that a researcher may come across; Harm to participants, consent, privacy invasion and deception.
Harm to participants. Diener and Crandall (ibid) states that harm may come in varying degrees and forms, such as physical, psychological and social. The researchers deem that the data collected from each participant may harm their social interactions. This due to that the answers given may contain organizational and/or personal criticism and thus acts of retribution could be possible. In order to mitigate this particular risk the researchers have chosen to limit raw data access from the investigated organization, anonymize the dataset and anonymize participant participation. Furthermore, where applicable unique identifiers have been masked. Participant participation could lead to physical harm. Face-to-face meetings increase the general risk of transmitting the COVID-19 virus. In order to minimize the risk of transmission the researchers have limited and replaced face-to-face contact with telephone interviews.
Consent. Erikson (1967) argues that research cannot guarantee that it will not cause harm to the participant and the participant should have the option to subject oneself to potential harm voluntarily. The data collected from each participant can potentially cause harm if used maliciously. The researchers secure consent by requiring affirmation prior to each individual step in the research design (Appendix D; Appendix E).
Privacy Invasion. The questions seek answers to personal viewpoints and emotions and thus may be perceived as sensitive to the participants character. The researchers ensure
