Växjö Universitet
Institutionen för samhällsvetenskap
Abstract
The study investigates South Africa’s actions and efforts within environmental and climate issues in relation to the country’s hosting of the 2010 FIFA Soccer World Cup. The investigation is conducted by applying idea analysis on the empirical material in order to highlight what ideas South Africa might have when it comes to environmental and climate related measures in connection to the World Cup. The two theories of Behavioralism and Rational Choice are to be compared in order to reveal the true reasons for South Africa’s environmental actions. In addition, an own-formulated hypothesis which claims that measures within environmental issues are improved due to the 2010 World Cup is tested against the empirical material. Results are presented as a review over what is being done today within environmental and climate issues in South Africa and these answers are then connected to the World Cup as it is analyzed concerning how the event affects the country’s policies and efforts within these areas. Finally, a concluding discussion states what role environmental and climate issues have in connection to a major sporting event such as the 2010 FIFA World Cup and how South Africa administers this opportunity to act accordingly and present itself to the rest of the world.
Table of contents
Abstract...1
List of abbreviations...4
1. INTRODUCTION 1.1 An environment friendly 2010 World Cup? ...5
1.2 Aim and research questions...6
1.3 Disposition ...6 2. THEORY 2.1 Behavioralism...7 2.2 Rational Choice ...8 2.3 Hypothesis...8 2.4 Analytical framework ...9 3. PREVIOUS RESEARCH 3.1 South Africa and climate...10
3.2 South Africa and sports...11
4. METHOD AND MATERIAL 4.1 Idea analysis ...11
4.2 Material ...12
4.3 Definitions...13
5. RESULTS 5.1 Perception and priorities ...14
5.1.1 The Climate Change Response Strategy...14
5.1.2 The Kyoto Protocol...15
5.2 Measures: emissions and transports...16
5.2.1 Air quality improvement ...16
5.2.2 Air quality information system...17
5.2.3 Transports...18
5.3 The environmental agenda ...18
5.4 The 2010 FIFA World Cup: a triggering factor ...20
5.4.1 Green Goal programme...20
5.4.2 Project 2010...21
6. ANALYSIS 6.1 South Africa and climate change...22
6.2 South Africa, emissions and transports...23
6.3 The triggering factor ...25
7. CONCLUDING DISCUSSION 7.1 Behavioralism and Rational Choice ...27
7.2 Own hypothesis ...27
7.3 Concluding remarks...27
List of abbreviations
DEAT – Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism DOT – Department of Transport
FIFA – Fédération Internationale de Football Association GCIS – Government Communication and Information System IPCC – Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
NCCC – National Committee for Climate Change SAAQIS – South African Air Quality Information System
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 An environment friendly 2010 World Cup?
”Since the day FIFA awarded South Africa the rights to host this prestigious soccer showpiece, the nation has been hard at work, ensuring that no stone is left unturned in preparing for what we believe will be the best World Cup ever.”1
The South African government’s spokesperson for the 2010 FIFA Soccer World Cup is not very modest in his statement on the preparations for the country’s hosting of the mentioned event. The text containing the quote gives examples of the South Africans’ commitment and interest in this great sports event and it is repeatedly mentioned that this World Cup will be the best and the most successful ever. Most interesting within the text and the quote above is however not the commitment in the football as such, but instead the statement that “no stone is left unturned” in connection to the preparations for this event. Which so called stones have really been turned in order to make the 2010 World Cup the best ever, and could this event be said to affect the politics of South Africa within other areas? Surely, the country is affected in many different political aspects. This essay will only focus on one of these, however, the aspect which might be of most interest to the rest of the world, namely environmental and climate issues.
Africa as a continent is usually not associated with work for a better environment and is not considered to be a continent where you could find solutions for the well-debated climate threat. Environmental and climate issues are rarely mentioned in connection with African countries, instead it is firstly the European Union and the rest of the western world which is more or less expected to carry out improvements within environment and climate. Not said that African countries do not have an active agenda for environmental and climate issues. As one of the more developed countries in Africa with several larger cities and many popular tourist attractions, South Africa constitutes a suitable location to focus upon and by doing so move away from the western world when it comes to environmental and climate issues. In order to reconnect to the opening quote; South Africa could be said to have certain reasons for an active environmental and climate policy with its hosting of the 2010 FIFA World Cup coming up.
So, the interesting question at this point is whether or not the wish to host the best World Cup ever does not only affect the building of new football arenas and contributes to increases within the transport sector,
1
but also is seen as an opportunity to promote South Africa within other areas as well. The environmental and climate aspect is highly topical and constitutes an area within which it is rewarding to act and show commitment. The notion environment and climate here regards issues concerning the threat of climate change, emissions and transports.2 Many countries have currently very ambitious environmental goals and reduced emissions are particularly being prioritized. Measures for an improved environment, and especially within the emissions sector, are seen as very positive in a major part of the world. With this, this essay will investigate what measures South Africa takes for the environment/climate, and if the FIFA World Cup could be a reason for these measures, by answering the following over-riding question:
Are South Africa’s current measures within environmental and climate issues an effect of the country’s hosting of the 2010 FIFA World Cup?
1.2 Aim and research questions
The aim of the study is to investigate if and how South Africa’s hosting of the 2010 FIFA World Cup affects the country’s environmental and climate agenda. South Africa’s actions within environment and climate are investigated mainly from May 2004, when the country was awarded to host the World Cup, up until November/December 2008 as this is where we are today.
In order to achieve the study’s aim and thereby answer the over-riding question; the following research questions will be investigated and answered:
i. What is South Africa’s perception of climate change and are climate issues traditionally prioritized in the country?
ii. What measures are being taken today within the emissions and transport sectors in South Africa? iii. Are current measures to consider as a replacement for a more traditional environmental agenda? iv. Could the 2010 World Cup be seen as a triggering factor for environmental and climate efforts?
1.3 Disposition
The essay’s next chapter presents a theoretical background and an analytical framework on which the study is based. Chapter three shortly presents previous research on environment/climate, South Africa and sports issues and chapter four holds a precision over how the study has been conducted by a presentation of used method and material. Chapter five then offers structured answers to the above presented research questions, as well as a few introductory analytical notes and chapter six presents the main analysis of these empirical answers. The final chapter includes a concluding discussion over the study’s results.
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2. THEORY
The essay is based upon two theoretical/analytic approaches, which will both be compared in order to reveal which theory that best explains South Africa’s actions. These two approaches will be separately accounted for below. Further, the study will also consider my own hypothesis which will be tested against the empirical material. This hypothesis will be developed and accounted for below and all three analytical tools are concluded in an analytical frame final in this chapter.
2.1 Behavioralism
The social and political analysis approach Behavioralism accounts for people’s different behavior in different situations. Behavioralism investigates questions regarding why people behave the way they do and the approach has a history of investigating, among other things, leadership behavior and actions taken by leaders. In different contexts, according to David Sanders,3 the central and most important questions for behavioralists are “what do the actors involved actually do and how can we best explain why they do it?”4 Behavioralists investigate the behavior of individuals and institutional actors as well as nation states. Further, behavioralists believe that the focus of analysis should be on observable behavior and also that behavior should be empirically falsifiable. This connects to the behavioral view on theories, as it is essential within Behavioralism that theories should explain something, as well as being falsifiable and, in the words of Sanders, “be capable, in principle, of being tested against the world of observation”.5
A problem for this approach and also a subject for critique within Behavioralism is interpretation. Behavior might in some cases be interpreted in completely different ways and it is therefore difficult to establish a correct analysis and one that can be falsified. Behavioralism has also been criticized for only investigating the behavior of certain actors in certain situations without taking surrounding social or political changes into account. Behavioralists meet this argument by pointing out that the larger context is the domain of other social theorists and that it is up to them to explain this context, while Behavioralism focuses merely on the behavior of an actor in a certain matter.
The essay will study the South African government as one actor and by applying Behavioralism the aim is to map out governmental actions and the reasons behind these actions. The approach is useful in order to clearly see what measures South Africa has takes within environmental and climate issues and most importantly to see obvious reasons and thereby explain why the government has acted the way it has.
3
Professor of Politics and Pro-Vice chancellor at University of Essex
4
Sanders (2002) p. 45
5
2.2 Rational Choice
The mainstream variant of the theoretical approach Rational Choice is based upon the assumption that “individuals have all the rational capacity, time and emotional detachment necessary to choose the best course of action, no matter how complex the choice”.6 With this, the approach is primary used in order to analyze and explain individual actions, but can also be useful when explaining political phenomena as governments and alike are constituted by individuals. Within mainstream Rational Choice, individuals are said to be more or less self-interested and thereby perform actions based on own beliefs and preferences. Used as such, the approach could be functional in order to discover and analyze self-interested decision taken by a government.
Rational Choice has however been criticized in several different contexts. Individuals have for example been said not to make rational and self-interested decisions based on different options, but rather make choices that fit into certain structures and norms within society. Government officials are said to be following rules rather than making active choices when decisions are being made. As a form of counterargument towards this; Hugh Ward7 states that he does not believe that “practising rational choice theorists typically exhibit much desire to squeeze out structure: rather they often seek to illuminate how choices are made within structures”.8
In this essay, Rational Choice will be applied on the South African government with the aim of revealing possible rational and self-interested decisions which have led to measures within environmental and climate issues. It will be investigated whether what the government chooses to do is not essentially to protect the environment and climate, but instead for the country’s own sake and image and thereby to make South Africa look favorable in the eyes of the rest of the world.
2.3 Hypothesis
I have formulated a hypothesis which I aim to test against South Africa’s current agenda within environmental and climate issues. The hypothesis is as follows; that South Africa’s efforts within its
environmental and climate agenda have improved because of its hosting of the 2010 FIFA World Cup.
With the formulation of this hypothesis I have reasoned around the possibility that a sporting event which engages a major part of the world, and which brings focus to South Africa, might influence the country’s environment and climate politics. I consider it to be likely that a country deliberately improves itself in issues like these in order to present itself in a favorable manner towards the rest of the world. Efforts
6
Ward (2002) s. 68
7
Reader in Political science at University of Essex
8
towards an improved environment would be beneficial for South Africa to present to the rest of the world and would thereby be something to be proud of in connection to the World Cup. My hypothesis is somewhat based upon Rational Choice theory as I find it plausible that the South African government has made an active choice concerning climate and environmental issues in connection to the 2010 World Cup.
Additionally, my hypothesis has some grounds in China’s hosting of the 2008 Summer Olympics. These games were announced as the first “green” Olympic Games and ambitious environmental goals were put up which would contribute to Beijing becoming a more environment-friendly city and also show China as a country protecting the environment. However, in order to achieve these goals, last minute and drastic measures were taken and it could be stated that Beijing’s somewhat cleaner air was not a result of an active, long term environmental agenda, but rather a very short term improvement only in connection to the Olympics. A Leader in the magazine The Economist commented as such on the improvement; ”Rather it will be the result of desperate measures introduced in recent weeks: production cuts by polluting industries, or simply closing them down; and the banning from the road of half of Beijing’s cars.”9 On this basis I’m hoping for an outcome of my empirical material which will support my hypothesis.
2.4 Analytical framework
The above presented theoretical approaches, my own hypothesis and also how they will be applied in this study is presented in the analytical framework below. Behavioralism and Rational Choice are to be compared with each other and tested against the study’s empirical material in order to find which perspective best explains South Africa’s actions within environment and climate. My own hypothesis is to be tested against the empirical material to find if it can clarify the reasons behind South Africa’s actions.
9
Economist (August 2008) p. 11
Behavioralism Rational Choice Own hypothesis
Explanatory factor Explanatory factor To be tested
3. PREVIOUS RESEARCH
This essay will be positioned in a rather extensive scientific context as a substantial amount of research on environmental and climate issues has been carried out before. Recently, mainly the well-debated climate change has been present in many different contexts and discussions, however all sorts of environmental and climate matters are of interest also within other research. Additionally, sports issues have previously been of interest within different research.
3.1 South Africa and climate
South Africa in particular in relation to environment, climate and climate change has previously been investigated in several different contexts. The Swedish Environmental Protection Agency has published a report10 concerning South Africa and its obligations under and relation to the Kyoto Protocol.11 The report was issued in 2005 and examines South Africa in relation to greenhouse gas emissions and future ways to address climate change. South Africa is examined on the basis of being a developing country, as the participation of developing countries in future actions to prevent climate change is considered. The report concludes that South Africa “has the potential to provide instrumental leadership in implementing sustainable development policies”.12
Continuing, research has also been made on South Africa’s ability to integrate climate change responses along with other priorities on the local level in certain of the country’s more rural areas.13 Two villages14 particularly vulnerable to climate change and its possible effects have been examined and it is made clear that local and governmental opinions not always coincide. Climate change responses are said to have great support at governmental and policy level, however the ability to act on the ground is not as great and not much is actually being done. Climate change is only one of many issues which require great attention in rural South Africa and it is as such not particularly prioritized in these areas.
10
Naturvårdsverket (2005)
11
The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in 1997 and entered into force 2005; it is an international agreement which commits 37 industrialized countries and the European community to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. The protocol is linked to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) which is an international treaty dealing with global warming and increased temperatures.
12
Naturvårdsverket (2005) p. 28
13
Ziervogel & Taylor (2008)
14
3.2 South Africa and sports
The possible effect of different sports and sports events on for example employment in different cities and countries have been somewhat researched upon previous. In the case of South Africa, it has been investigated on sports and its ability to work as a reconciliation factor, contributing to forgiveness and integration after South Africa’s apartheid. South Africa is said to be particularly interesting to investigate “because it has made deliberate efforts to transform the sports sector through national development programmes”.15 Further, the 2010 FIFA World Cup is considered to hold additional opportunities for making the South African identity even stronger in the entire Africa.
4. METHOD AND MATERIAL
The study has been conducted mainly by gathering and reading of written material. Texts from unprinted sources such as relevant internet based websites, as well as printed material on South Africa, environment/climate and the 2010 FIFA World Cup have been read thoroughly. The goal has been to find in the different texts that information which has been relevant to this study, namely facts concerning South Africa’s environmental and climate policy and what is being done on these issues. In the texts concerning the 2010 World Cup, relevant facts have been those which one way or another connects to environmental issues and also some short facts concerning what is generally being done in preparation for the major event. Also, the study is supported by information from the director of future environmental and greening projects in South Africa in relation to the 2010 FIFA World Cup, with whom I have had email-contact.
4.1 Idea analysis
The method used in performing this study has been idea analysis. Idea analysis concerns different ideas and ideologies within society and social phenomena. The notion of an idea intends a “construction of thought” which, unlike for example attitudes, has a certain continuance and which could regard both a perception of reality as well as a view on how one should act.16 In this study, South Africa’s environmental and climate policy in relation to the 2010 World Cup is considered as an idea. The idea analysis method is useful within critical studies of political texts and ideas/policies and it can be used from several different orientations, for example when studying general ideas of society or ideas within an argumentation.17 In this study the idea analysis has been used mainly with an explaining purpose and from the so called functional orientation. The study has also been conducted from an actor central point of
15
Höglund & Sundberg (2008) p. 806
16
Bergström & Boréus (red.) (2005) p. 149
17
view, meaning that the entire study is based upon South Africa’s actions and reasons. The country thereby constitutes the actor whose ideas are being studied and analyzed throughout. South Africa’s actions are first to be described, then explained.
The functional orientation within idea analysis focuses upon the effects and origins of ideas, namely what effects ideas can possibly have on society and also what grounds ideas themselves are originally based upon.18 This form of functional idea analysis is also helpful when focusing upon political parties and governmental ideas and messages. According to Ludvig Beckman,19 the purpose of a functional study is not to decide whether such messages are true or not, but rather to focus upon the relation between the message and the motives and reasons behind the message.20 In this study, the functional idea analysis has been applied in order to discover the reasons behind South Africa’s policy and measures within environment and climate and to uncover if those ideas are in fact related to the 2010 FIFA World Cup.
Additionally, the idea analysis method can be useful for discovering both manifest and latent meanings of a text. This has been particularly useful in this case as the study is aimed at finding both what is obviously being stated in different texts, as well as revealing underlying messages which gives clues to as why South Africa has taken certain measures within environment and climate.
4.2 Material
The study is based upon written material, mainly from a number of internet based websites. Firstly, these include the South African government’s website (South African Government Online/Information) and the website for the country’s environmental and tourism department (Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism). In addition the study is very much based on information from a certain website concerning issues within environment/climate (State of the Environment) issued by the Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism. Further, the website for the country’s air quality system (South African Air Quality Information System), websites from individual host cities within South Africa and relevant material at those parts of the governmental website treating background information concerning the World Cup (Issues – 2010 FIFA World Cup) have been used. Additionally, websites made especially for the 2010 FIFA World Cup in South Africa and also the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change website has been of use. Articles and books on South Africa, environment/climate and the 2010 World Cup have also been of some relevance, however have not been very easy to find. The search for such
18
Bergström & Boréus (red.) (2005) p. 156
19
Political science Ph.D at Stockholm University
20
material has had its starting point in those accessible databases and search engine available through the Vaxjo University library website and has generated a rather limited number of results.
In addition, the studied material has been subject of criticism, as it is essential to ensure that used sources are in fact authentic and thereby telling the truth. The various homepages as well as articles and books have been examined in order to ensure their authenticity, independence, contemporaneity and tendency, which are the four rules of criticism of sources.21 As most of used information has been issued by South Africa itself, it has been of utmost importance to approach this information with a very critical and analytical mind.
4.3 Definitions
The basic concepts for this study are those shortly mentioned in the introductory chapter, namely the
climate change threat, emissions and transports. The climate change threat concept has been chosen as it is essential to identify the history of South Africa’s climate policy in order to grasp the country’s current measures. The concepts of emissions and transports have been chosen as they represent major environmental concerns in relation to the hosting of an event such as the 2010 FIFA World Cup.
Issues concerning climate change concentrate on how this threat is considered in South Africa and what is being done in order to prevent it. Emissions intends issues concerning carbon dioxide emissions from factories, industries and power stations, total emission levels in South Africa, the governmental view on emissions and lastly what is being done in order to reduce emissions. Transports also have to do with carbon dioxide emissions, however in this case from car and flight traffic. Transports also concern how the South African traffic is to be organized for the 2010 FIFA World Cup.
21
5. RESULTS
Below follows a presentation of the study’s empirical material in form of answers to the four research questions on which the study is based.22 Under this chapter, a few introductory analytical notes are also made.
5.1 Perception and priorities
“The key emerging environmental issue is climate change. Worldwide, it is thought to be one of the most important environmental and development issues facing society. Most scientists and governments recognize that, while uncertainties exist, there is strong evidence to suggest that human activities, notably greenhouse gas emissions, are changing the earth’s climate and that further change is inevitable.”23
This quote from South Africa’s Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism (DEAT)24 indicates that the country’s perception of the threat of climate change is that it is an ongoing occurrence which requires immediate attention. Climate change is thereby highly acknowledged and also defined as an “emerging issue”, an issue which needs to be responded to quickly. In order to do this, South Africa has two main strategies in dealing with climate change; a so called Climate Change Response Strategy and also participation in the Kyoto protocol.25 South Africa has along with the Kyoto Protocol also adopted the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).
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South Africa’s National Climate Change Response Strategy has been developed by the DEAT and is based upon South African Country Studies reports as well as a report issued by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC).26 27 The response strategy aims to, among several other key issues, adapt to climate change, to integrate climate change response in relevant government departments and to compile inventories of greenhouse gases and air pollutants. In order to achieve this, the strategy outlines several key actions through which South Africa “will avail itself of the potential advantages that could
22 See 1.2 23 DEAT (2005a) 24
As DEAT stands for most of South Africa’s work within environmental and climate issues; its measures, ideas and policies will throughout the study represent South Africa as a whole.
25
DEAT (2005b)
26
DEAT (2004) p. iii
27
stem from international action on climate change, whilst at the same time minimising its vulnerability to such events”.28 Such actions include setting up databases on climate change research and introducing legislations concerning emissions, among many others.
The response strategy has been active since 2004 and is considered to be only a first step towards further actions within environmental and climate issues. The strategy is aimed at government level; however it is made clear that the South African government alone cannot defeat climate change. Also private and non-governmental sectors are to be integrated in the strategy in order to make it fully functional. Thereby the strategy is not completely rigid in working against climate change, but rather gives the opportunity to further develop a successful response.29 The strategy was first thought of in 1997 in connection to South Africa’s ratification of the UNFCCC; however climate issues had been present in the country since the creation of the National Committee for Climate Change (NCCC) in 1994, also managed by the DEAT.30 Further, the country has a certain Minister focused upon climate change issues for which the NCCC was initially meant to act as a support and which also makes visible South Africa’s sincere apprehension for these issues. All together, South Africa’s main response to climate change has its foundation within the Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism.
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In 2002, South Africa acceded to the Kyoto Protocol which today constitutes the country’s second main response to climate change. The protocol puts the main burden of the reduction of greenhouse gases emissions on already developed and industrialized countries, as these have a history of industrializing activities which contributes to the world’s high levels of greenhouse gas emissions.31 Under the protocol, South Africa is recognized as a developing country and is at present not required to make any such reductions within its emissions levels. Even so, the country has certain obligations under the protocol at present, namely responsibilities in the “reporting of South Africa’s greenhouse gas emissions on a sectoral basis and the formulation of adaptation plans”.32 South Africa is also recognized to play a more significant part and possibly need to make reductions in its greenhouse gas emission during the next commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol beginning in 2012.
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As mentioned, the NCCC was created in South Africa as early as in 1994, which indicates that the country’s awareness of climate related issues was aroused quite some time ago. Climate issues are today highly prioritized as the effects of climate change over the next 50 years are estimated to hit South Africa with significant force. 33 The country’s water resources as well its plant and animal biodiversity, among other things, are considered to be threatened by potential effects of climate change, as stated in South Africa’s Initial National Communication under the UNFCCC.34 As South Africa ratified the UNFCCC in 1997, climate issues can be said to not only be prioritized today, but have been so at least since 1997. The environment in general is highly important in South Africa and information issued by the country expresses a will to keep and nurture its environment. Thereby can climate issues be said to be traditionally prioritized in South Africa.35
5.2 Measures: emissions and transports
Another of South Africa’s so called emerging issues is atmospheric pollution. With this also comes the state of the country’s national air quality. Four main atmospheric sources connected to increasing emissions are recognized by DEAT; road vehicle exhaust emissions; coal-fired power stations; airport releases and lastly poorly controlled industrial operations.36 Again, the country’s realization of its own impact on the environment and its own contribution to global warming is present in information coming from the DEAT. In order to reduce emissions and counteract environmental changes, DEAT has extensive plans for upcoming projects concerning carbon emission and already today several measures are taken as to improve the country’s air quality. For example, South Africa has implemented a certain information system monitoring the country’s national air.
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First of, South Africa has a new air quality legislation anno 2004, which, among other things, includes actions such as “decentralizing air quality management responsibilities” and “setting ambient air quality targets as goals for driving emission reductions”.37 This legislation falls under the National Environmental Management: Air Quality Act (NEMAQA), which also is responsible for local management and monitoring of air pollution as well as the creation of air quality and emissions limits. Further, South Africa has certain sector-specified air quality controls which aim to reduce emissions from fuel burning,
33
DEAT (2005a)
34
South Africa’s Initial National Communication (2000) p. iv
electricity, energy and vehicles. This is however currently mainly being researched and investigated upon. Also measures with the specific intention of reducing vehicles emissions are being developed at present. Vehicle emissions are to be reduced “through technology and fuel specifications stipulated by national policy and through the implementation by local authorities of traffic management measures”.38 This is to take place during the next ten years; however emissions are expected to increase rather than decrease during this time, as there are not set any future controls to make sure that the implementation actually occurs as planned.
Further, the director of the DEAT:s Greening 2010 project39 states that the department has currently established a carbon offset working group and is at the stage of identifying projects in order to offset carbon emission.40 These are most likely to be renewable energy or energy efficiency related projects, but at present there is no further information to gain regarding the nature of these projects. There has however been made a carbon footprint for the 2010 FIFA World Cup; an estimation of the effects on the environment from the main activities of the event and also what the significant sources of greenhouse gas emissions related to the World Cup are expected to be.41
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Although perhaps not so much a measure within South Africa’s emissions sector, the country, or rather again the DEAT along with the South African Weather Service, is currently developing a certain South African Air Quality Information System (SAAQIS) which shortly ought to be mentioned here. According to the DEAT issued website, the purpose of the system is to provide “accurate, current, relevant, complete and accessible information” to decisions makers by 2010 and beyond to make sure that these are fully informed to make decisions regarding the national air and atmospheric quality of South Africa.42 The system also helps hosting events on climate change and provides news of what happens in South Africa concerning environment and climate. The system’s projects and workshops dealing with management plans and pollution issues are quite frequent and extensive and thereby the SAAQIS provides an important future aspect of South Africa’s work for decreased emissions and a better national air quality of the country. 38 DEAT (2005f) 39 See further 5.4 40 Badul (2008) 41
Carbon Footprint for the FIFA 2010 World Cup (2008)
42
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In order to “ensure the smooth movement of fans, FIFA officials, associates and media”43 and also to successfully “yield a lasting legacy of quality transport services, infrastructure and systems”44 in connection to the 2010 FIFA World Cup, South Africa’s Department of Transport (DOT) has developed a so called 2010 Transport Action plan. The action plan has been developed exclusively due to the country’s hosting of the World Cup, however it is as indicated also meant be a foundation to South Africa’s future development of its transportation systems. The Action plan is aimed at improving the country’s current transport and aviation sector and to contribute to a long lasting upgrade of for example the country’s road infrastructure. The vision of the DOT concerning transport services and infrastructure by 2010 is that it “must meet the efficiency, safety, quality and cost-effective requirements of the modern era, and must be accessible to all, visitors and residents alike”.45 The Action plan does however not present any concrete measures in order to achieve the wanted goals, instead it is more of a steering document which summarizes and encourages what needs to be done within the transport sectors. Transports in connection to the 2010 FIFA World Cup are expected to be very extensive and brings strains to the transportation in South Africa as well the environment. The development of the Action plan has thereby been necessary in order to host the event, especially as FIFA requires certain standards to be fulfilled.46 The Action plan accounts for the increased transports in connection to the World Cup, but reducing emissions from these transports does not play a significant part in the document and it does not seem to have been taken very much into consideration; instead the plan is mainly focused on questions concerning infrastructure and availability. This Transport Action plan constitutes most of South Africa’s measures within the transport sector today.
5.3 The environmental agenda
Through South Africa’s Department for Environmental Affairs and Tourism, the country has a history of environmental and climate awareness. South Africa has goals within a number of environmental and climate related issues, for example are areas such as the country’s water quality and availability, along with the status of the ozone layer and the country’s biodiversity said to be of great importance to act within and to do so fast. South Africa’s vulnerability to environmental changes, such as droughts threatening food security as well as floods causing great damage to informal settlements, contributes to an
43 GCIS (2008) 44 DOT (2006) 45 DOT (2006) 46
increased need for policies and actions within environment and climate.47 Droughts and floods are like climate change and atmospheric pollution both considered to be emerging issues; that is “issues that may pose challenges to South Africa over the next five to ten years”.48 This reveals that although the awareness within environmental and climate issues has been present in the country for quite some time, concrete actions are a rather resent phenomena. Actions within these areas are also expected to expand over the next few years. Current measures within environment and climate has been decided upon in rather recent times, both within and outside South Africa’s borders. For example, South Africa’s own National Climate Change Response Strategy was completed in 2004 and the international Kyoto Protocol didn’t enter into force until 2005. Thereby current measures concerning climate and emissions does constitute a rather natural continuation to South Africa’s agenda within environmental and climate issues.
Consequently, the current climate agenda in South Africa could not be said to be a replacement to a more traditional agenda, as it in fact is the traditional agenda which is carried out more or less as projected. The National Climate Change Response Strategy and the Kyoto Protocol have not been created or altered at present or in connection to the 2010 FIFA World Cup, instead they continue along the line drawn by DEAT concerning these issues. Also the agenda within the emissions sector which concerns South Africa’s air quality follows a traditional line and does not replace any other outlined measures. Also measures for reduced emissions could be said to follow the traditional environmental agenda as they are today mainly positioned at a development stage. No measures considered as replacements for any other actions are taken within this area today, however reduced emission actions could be expected to increase rather rapidly the closer it gets to the World Cup.
5.4 The 2010 FIFA World Cup: a triggering factor
“The 2010 FIFA World Cup gives Cape Town an opportunity to show the world how it can successfully host major events that also leave a positive environmental legacy. To achieve this, the city is implementing Green Goal 2010, the official 2010 FIFA World Cup greening programme that aims to make the event as environmentally friendly as possible.”49
With this statement from Cape Town’s 2010 FIFA World Cup website, the event can indeed be seen as a triggering factor for environmental and climate related efforts. Cape Town is one of several host cities for the 2010 World Cup and has developed its own Green Goal Action Plan which aims to perform projects related to energy, water, transports and sustainable development. The Green Goal Action Plan is a part of DEAT:s Greening Project for 2010 which is very much triggered by the World Cup.
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DEAT:s 2010 Greening Project, also called the Green Goal programme, includes environmental targets set especially for projects related to the 2010 World Cup50 and is a continuation of the FIFA-endorsed Green Goal programme initiated for the 2006 World Cup hosted by Germany.51 The set targets in general concern projects on stadiums, fan parks and transportation systems. More environmentally, the programme also concerns projects on waste reduction, water reuse and efficiency and protecting biodiversity52 as well as it includes “a campaign to raise awareness on environmental issues”.53 Additionally, the already mentioned carbon footprint estimated for the 2010 FIFA World Cup and also the upcoming energy efficiency related projects54 belong to this extensive Green Goal programme/Greening Project. Further, Cape Town’s own Green Goal Action Plan states that the challenge for South Africa and especially Cape Town is to “stage an event which has a significantly improved greening profile”.55 Greening is stated to be an important part of international events today and it is thereby not acceptable for South Africa to host the World Cup with “a poor environmental profile” as such an event “would simply not be called ‘world-class’”.56 As such, the plan outlines actions to achieve greening as well as social and economic development in connection to the 2010 FIFA World Cup.
49
City of Cape Town (2008)
50
GCIS (2008b)
51
Host City Cape Town (2008) p. 1
52
Republic of South Africa (2008) p. 32
53
GCIS (2008)
54
See 5.2
55
Host City Cape Town (2008) p. 1
56
5
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Further, a so called Project 2010 homepage attests that much is being done within several different areas in South Africa, within as well as outside the environmental aspect, with the 2010 FIFA World Cup at hand. Project 2010 includes projects, plans and information aimed at preparing South Africa for the hosting of the 2010 FIFA World Cup, as well as preparing the country “for the world”. 57 The homepage concerns all kinds of issues and news, such as telecom, security, electricity, tourism and environmental information. As such it can be stated that the 2010 FIFA World Cup also triggers actions and efforts outside the environmental and climate aspect, however many of these actions has great effects upon the environment. Such actions are taken in several South African cities and concerns, for example, stadium construction, airport development and railroad upgrades.58 These concerns are necessary to attend to as they are more or less required in order to host a functioning World Cup. Extensive governmental preparations are as such carried out in a number of different areas in order to host the previously announced best World Cup ever.59 Preparations are, as somewhat previously indicated in this study, particularly extensive within the transportation sector. The World Cup has triggered upgrades and actions within this area which are most likely to not have taken place at all if it wasn’t for the event. Preparations are in addition extensive within tourism and accommodation, which also falls under the management of the DEAT.
Accordingly, the 2010 FIFA World Cup can be seen as a triggering factor for certain South African environmental efforts, such as the like of the mentioned Green Goal programme and Cape Town’s own Green Goal Action plan. Obviously, the World Cup triggers actions which are taken especially due to the event, namely actions, measures and the development and implementing of transportation and environmental plans which would not have occurred otherwise. Looking at the notions of climate, emissions and transports, it is mainly within the transports sector for which the World Cup acts as a triggering factor. Climate work and efforts for reduced emissions are not connected to the World Cup in the same way as transports and does thereby not generate the same attention.
57
Project 2010
58
Republic of South Africa (2008) p. 14
59
6. ANALYSIS
This part of the study presents the analysis of the empirical results from the viewpoint Behavioralism and Rational Choice as well as from my own hypothesis.
6.1 South Africa and climate change
The climate change issue and the country’s own impact and effect upon the environment and climate are traditional concerns in South Africa. South Africa has evidently taken a stand in the climate debate and the country has acknowledged climate change as an actual and ongoing occurrence. The country perceives itself as particularly vulnerable to climate change and all the environmental changes which this phenomenon is predicted to bring. This vulnerability is frequently recognized in information issued by the country itself and also within reports from outside actors. It is easy to see that South Africa takes quite extensive measures in order to prevent, or at least ease the effects of, climate change and that this in fact has been an issue in the country for several years, as well as climate awareness which has a rather long history in South Africa. Although previous research concludes that policies on governmental level not always reach down to the local level, it seems that the South African government truly wishes to protect the whole country from environmental changes and strains. Both the Climate Change Response Strategy and the Kyoto protocol are aimed at doing this; however both responses could also bring international advantages. The Response Strategy document clearly states that South Africa is expected to “avail itself of […] potential advantages that could stem from international action on climate change”.60 Of course the need and wish to diminish the effects of climate change on South Africa is also stated in the document, however that DEAT has taken the advantages in consideration in the development of the Strategy is far more interesting and it unveils the kind of intentions which this study seeks to discover.
South Africa’s own Climate Change Response Strategy and the country’s participation in the Kyoto Protocol are however not directly connected to the 2010 FIFA World Cup. These responses and South Africa’s work within climate change issues generally cannot be said to be motivated by or depend upon the sports event. That does not mean, however, that South Africa doesn’t benefit from an active climate policy in relation to the 2010 World Cup. In fact, international participation on an issue like this might instead have improved South Africa’s chances of becoming the host of the event in the first place. As South Africa now is elected to host the 2010 FIFA World Cup, its climate related work is all positive as it shows the rest of the world a climate conscious host, as well as it helps protect the environment from the
60
strains brought by the World Cup. South Africa’s history of climate work has made the country ready for hosting international events like the 2010 World Cup.
South Africa’s actions on this matter are to a certain extent favorably explained by Behavioralism. It is obvious how South Africa’s has acted on climate change related issues and it is also clear why the country has behaved the way it has. In texts issued mainly by DEAT it is made clear that South Africa’s actions and the increased attention on climate issues are because of the country’s certain vulnerability and the wish and need to protect South Africa from possible effects of climate change. Thereby climate change is stated to be an emerging issue and thereby the country has developed two main response strategies to climate change.
However, when it comes to certain decisions regarding these responses to climate change, I believe that they indicate a Rational Choice behavior. Decisions leading up to the development of the National Climate Change Response Strategy, and also decisions connected to entering the Kyoto protocol, has been taken in order to reach the best possible outcome for the country itself. It is of self-interest to develop responses to climate change as South Africa is benefitting from doing so. The country’s environment becomes more protected from the threat of climate change and the country might also gain something internationally by being active on an issue like this. Thereby, an active and rational choice seems to have been made when deciding upon responses to climate change in South Africa.
Behavioralism and Rational Choice separately explains certain parts of South Africa’s climate change policy. My own hypothesis has however little to do with this particular area of South Africa’s environmental and climate policy as this does not directly connect to the 2010 World Cup.
6.2 South Africa, emissions and transports
system to monitor the national air quality and texts from DEAT suggest that measures to reduce emissions and such are also still at a developing stage.
Measures for monitoring and reducing emissions could be said to be traditional environmental related matters, although judging by texts from DEAT, these issues do not have the same history as climate issues and nor does transport related issues. All these do however constitute a great deal of South Africa’s current environmental agenda, but by doing so they can’t really be said to replace other matters but instead constitute a rather natural and expected continuation to South Africa’s environmental agenda. The exception here would be the transport sector, with the development of the Transport Action Plan which has been only in connection to the 2010 FIFA World Cup. This could surely be said to replace other transportation related actions on South Africa’s more traditional environmental agenda. It is somewhat surprising that this Transport Action Plan does not concern reduced emission in connection to the 2010 World Cup.
The reasons for improvements within South Africa’s transports sectors are quite easy to establish, as current improvements would not have occurred to the same extent if it wasn’t for the 2010 FIFA World Cup. Measures have been taken in order to present well-functioning and modern transportation to visitors and also to live up to the standards that are required by FIFA. As the Transport Action Plan issued by DOT has been developed in connection to the World Cup, is it easy to see that South Africa takes this opportunity to upgrade its transportation system as it benefits the country in more than one way. Not only is it great thing for the country to have for example its road infrastructure improved and developed, but it is also most favorable in the eyes of others for South Africa to have an advanced transportation system to offer its many visitors in connection to the 2010 World Cup.
I believe that South Africa’s actions on transport matters gives support to my own hypothesis. My hypothesis suggests that South Africa’s efforts are improved due to the World Cup, something which has occurred as efforts and measures within the country’s transportation sectors clearly have improved in connection to the event. However, I am not sure if these improvements actually fall under the category of environment, as they are not specifically aimed at reduced emissions or such. Instead they focus more on smooth and modern transportation. Measures within the emissions sector are surer to be connected to environment, but the efforts within this area have not been as significantly improved.
Measures within emissions and primarily transports have been necessary in order to host the 2010 FIFA World Cup, both when it comes to requested and necessary standards and also concerning being a good and prepared host in the eyes of rest of the world. Even though decisions leading to, for example, the development of the Transport Action Plan seem to have been made with the best possible outcome for the country at heart, I do not believe that a Rational Choice has been made. Decisions have not been made in order to simply look good and because the actions benefit the country in the end, but instead because these measures have been indispensable in order to host the World Cup.
At present it seems that most of the country’s actions and policies, both within and outside the environmental aspect, are one way or another related to the 2010 FIFA World Cup. The event brings further strains to the South African environment and it is thereby natural that the country’s current agenda within the area is related to the World Cup.
6.3 The triggering factor
The 2010 FIFA World Cup is indeed a triggering factor for various environmental measures as well as environmental awareness in South Africa. Information issued by the country and its host cities, such as City of Cape Town’s Green Goal Action Plan, undoubtedly shows that the World Cup triggers and contributes to environmental efforts. South Africa seems to take this great opportunity to be internationally assertive and present itself and its environmental awareness and achievements to the rest of the world. Although some of South Africa’s environmental measures, such as its work for a better climate, are most likely to would have been taken and continued as projected either way, the World Cup does appear to have hastened and certainly enhanced some of South Africa’s environmental work. The awareness for environmental and climate issues has long been present in the country, but with the World Cup coming up, this has taken actual shape in various plans, documents and increased efforts.
I believe that Behavioralism is most useful in determining and explaining why South Africa, and also Cape Town’s, has triggered environmental actions due to the World Cup. As the Greening project/Green Goal programme is a continuation of the FIFA endorsed Green Goal programme firstly initiated for the 2006 World Cup held in Germany, it is quite natural that it is being implemented also in South Africa. Greening in connection to major sports event is being more and more in demand today and it seems to be expected by South Africa to carry on this begun programme. Green Goal actions can thereby be said to be implemented because they are expected and more or less supposed to be implemented. It is as such clear
why South Africa makes greening efforts and also how they do it.
Rational Choice might also be used in a favorable way concerning these issues, at least in order to explain Cape Town’s own Green Goal Action plan. It appears that a choice has been made by Cape Town to really embrace the opportunity which the 2010 FIFA World Cup brings to show that it is indeed a city aware of and friendly towards the environment. The action plan is quite filled with “big” words on how important the environment and the concept of greening actually are, but the only reason for these efforts is the World Cup. A choice has been made to develop and present this fancy action plan to show the rest of the world that Cape Town and South Africa indeed care for the environment.
7. CONCLUDING DISCUSSION
7.1 Behavioralism and Rational Choice
Behavioralism and Rational Choice together best explain South Africa’s policies, actions and measures within environmental and climate issues in relation to the 2010 FIFA World Cup. In some cases it is quite obvious what has been expected and demanded from South Africa and also how and why these demands have been fulfilled, which indicates Behavioralism. In other cases there seem to have been made an active choice which has led to certain measures. These active, and rational, choices can be determined to have been made with South Africa’s best interest, and also with the intention of how to best present South Africa towards the rest of the world, at heart. Both theories have thereby been useful in analyzing South Africa in connection to the World Cup and it has also been possible to look at South Africa from different angels using the two approaches. I do not believe that one explains better than the other, rather that the two theories complete each other and highlights different aspects of South Africa’s actions, measures and efforts.
7.2 Own hypothesis
My own hypothesis has throughout the study received some support, however not as extensive as expected. Instead South Africa has proved to be most important within, for example, climate related issues for quite some time. Thereby the country has not been “forced” to improve itself additionally in connection to the 2010 FIFA World Cup, although some improvements clearly have occurred. South Africa seems to have taken the opportunity of the World Cup to show that it is an environmental friendly country which takes these matters seriously and which wishes to be world leading when it comes to environmental and climate issues. I believe that South Africa has taken a few rational choices within these matters with the intention of presenting itself in a favourable way to rest of the world.
7.3 Concluding remarks
Emissions constitute an emerging issue in South Africa, however measures in order to reduce emissions are not as developed as could be expected. Nor do they constitute a very great part of the environmental agenda in the country. It is very interesting that the Transport Action Plan does not concern how emissions from the increased transports in connection to the World Cup are to be treated. It is also very interesting that monitoring and regulations of future emissions levels are being installed, although rules are not expected to be followed and emissions are expected to increase rather than to decrease. It appears that actual measures for reduced emissions are not being prioritized at the moment, but this is probable to change as South Africa are expected to soon have further responsibilities under the Kyoto protocol.
Transports have proved to be an issue within which South Africa has put much effort for the 2010 FIFA World Cup. The Transport Action plan constitutes a major effort and improvement exclusively in relation to the World Cup, however this has been necessary in order to host the event. Nonetheless, transports is one of the areas within which South Africa acts and improves itself the most for the upcoming 2010 World Cup.
With all this information revealed, the study’s over-riding question can be answered as such; yes, South Africa’s current measures within environmental and climate issues are partly an effect of the country’s hosting of the 2010 FIFA World Cup.
With this stated, the most interesting questions at this point is whether or not South Africa’s environmental work and all its plans and measures will continue and still be implemented also after the 2010 FIFA World Cup? Will South Africa stick to its extensive plans and keep all policies regarding transports, environment and greening even when the event has ended and the attention of the rest of the world has been turned elsewhere? For the moment there is no way to be sure, but time will tell. These questions could also pose as subjects of future studies.
In order to conclude this study, I turn to Cape Town’s Green Goal Action Plan and its statement on how South Africa and the whole continent of Africa will take advantage of and hope to be seen in connection to the 2010 FIFA Soccer World Cup:
“The time has come to use the 2010 FIFA World Cup to change perceptions and reposition the continent in a positive light with South Africa as the theatre and Africa the stage”.61
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