To Empower Ethiopian Women

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To Empower Ethiopian Women

A Minor Field Study of how the Gender Reforms of the

Ethiopian Government impact on Non-Governmental

Organisations work with Women Empowerment

Author: Frida Tegnell

Supervisor: Staffan Andersson Examiner: Karl Loxbo

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Abstract

Ethiopia is a country that for centuries has been dominated by men. However, since 2018, the Prime Minister Abiye Ahmed has introduced gender reforms, including a gender balanced cabinet. The purpose of this study is to evaluate how the gender reforms affect three non-governmental organisations (NGOs) in their work to empower women. The paper focuses on the following research questions: 1) How do non-governmental

organisations work with women empowerment in Ethiopia? 2) To what extent and how have non-governmental organisations been affected by the gender reforms of the Ethiopian government that took office in 2018? 3) How have Ethiopian women been affected by the gender reforms of the Ethiopian government that took office in 2018 according to

non-governmental organisations? The paper follows the theoretical framework by Dibie and Dibie, and Bratton as analytical framework. The methodological framework that has been used is a qualitative method, conducting semi-structured interviews. The NGOs main approach in relation to women empowerment is Self Help Groups (SHGs) and Women Watch Groups. The NGOs are unanimous that the gender reforms have improved NGOs

relationship with the government due to a new law that was implemented in relation to the reforms. Finally, the NGOs have a positive image of Ethiopian women’s future and argues that the gender reforms empower women.

Key words

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Acknowledgments

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List of Abbreviations

ANPPCAN - Ethiopia - Association for National Planned Program for vulnerable Children And in Need

CSO Law – Civil Society Organisational Law

CoSAP - Consortium of Self Help Group Approach Promoters EPRDE – Ethiopian People’s Revolutionary Democratic Front FGM – Female Genital Mutilation

JeCCDO - Jerusalem Children and Community Organization NGO – Non-Governmental Organisation

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1. Introduction

The importance of gender equality has been debated, advocated and argued for over more than a century (Fissiha Hailu, 2017). According to Inglehart, Norris and Welzel (2002), the support of gender equality is necessary for the process of democratisation and modernisation. Similarly, it is necessary for the development and maintenance of a sustainable environment, equally it is relatable to the sustainable development goals of Agenda 2030. According to the United Nations (2019), gender equality is a fundamental human right and the 5th_{goal is about achieving gender equality and empower all women. In}

particular one of the goal 5 targets (5.5), is about empowerment and to: “Ensure women’s full and effective participation and equal opportunities for leadership at all levels of decision-making in political, economic and public life” (United Nations, 2019).

The emphasis on equal rights and women empowerment is expanding all over the world. This is true for countries like Sweden, which is one of the most gender equal countries in the world, and in countries like Ethiopia that is one of the most gender unequal countries in the world (World Economic Forum, 2018). Moreover, women all over the world are raising their voices, hoping and dreaming for a world with equal rights.

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countries in the world and sums up at place number 117 out of 149 countries on the Global Gender Gap 2018. Global Gender Gap measures differences between men and women’s possibilities according to economy, education and health (World Economic Forum, 2018).

The Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia constitution certifies gender equality by outlawing all sorts of discrimination concerning gender on national level. In order to execute constitutions and policies on local level, laws regarding discrimination of women has been revised to establish gender equality (Fissiha Hailu, 2017). However, that the Ethiopian constitution formally gives women the same rights as men, does not mean this is the case in practice: the position of women is still weak. The raping culture is

widespread, child marriage is common, women are exposed to female genital mutilation (FGM), domestic violence is unrecorded, and it is difficult for women to enter the labour market due to stereotypical norms

(Regeringskansliet, 2015-2016).

Ethiopian People’s Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDE) has

recognised the discrimination Ethiopian women experience, and the coalition party has implemented gender reforms on national level in order to recognise the country’s gender issues and improve women’s rights. The issue they and the country are facing is how to translate reforms into local practice and real change (Lavers, 2017).

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1.1 Purpose and Research Questions

The purpose of this research is to study how the gender reforms that the government has undertaken since taking office in 2018, are being perceived by three non-governmental organisations in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia in relation to their possibilities to work for women empowerment. The three non-governmental organisations selected for study are: Consortium of Self Help Group Approach Promoters (CoSAP), Jerusalem Children and

Community Organization (JeCCDO) and Association for National Planned Program for vulnerable Children And in Need (ANPPCAN – Ethiopia). The research questions are the following:

1. How do non-governmental organisations work with women empowerment in Ethiopia?

2. To what extent and how have non-governmental organisations been affected by the gender reforms of the Ethiopian government that took office in 2018?

3. How have Ethiopian women been affected by the gender reforms of the Ethiopian government that took office in 2018 according to non-governmental organisations?

1.2 Structure of the Thesis

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framework. Moving on to chapter 4, the Methodological Framework firstly lays out the research design of this case study and secondly why I have selected to study the three NGOs studied in this thesis. Moving on, I describe how the interviews were carried out. The chapter ends with a critical

discussion of the material used. Chapter 5 contains Results and Analysis where the chapter is divided into three sections that follows the three research questions that guide the presentation and an analysis is guided by the analytical framework. Chapter 6 contains the Conclusion of the research questions and a discussion of the main results. It also includes a discussion of ideas for further research based on the results of this study.

2. Gender Equality in Ethiopia: The Position of

Women and what Gender Reform is about

The chapter starts with a brief description of the position of women in Ethiopia and then present the gender reforms introduced by the government. Given the scope and interest of this study in how recent gender reforms have affected the work of NGOs and the situation for women, this presentation concerns the reforms of the government of Abiye Ahmed who became prime minister in April 2018 (Freedom House, 2019).

2.1 Women’s Position in Ethiopia

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contrast to the situation in real life, where Ethiopian women face inequality in several fields of life. Accordingly, Ethiopia is a patriarchal society. As explained by Cherinet and Mulugeta (2003), that it is due to the country’s culture and religion which has divided men and women in many areas. Ethiopian women’s main responsibility is for the household and the children. They are usually stationed at home with household duties and are dependent on their husband’s income. It is not unusual that the identity of a woman in Ethiopia is bound to the family life and that women are mainly defined by their roles of mother and wife (Mamo Bekano, 2019). Furthermore, in many areas of Ethiopia, women are exposed to harmful, traditional practices such as FGM, child marriage and abduction (Cherinet & Mulugeta, 2003).

2.2 Gender Reforms in Ethiopia

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practice by women, and whether women and men are treated as equals (Manlosa, Schultner, Dorresteijn & Fischer, 2018).

To demonstrate the cause of these reforms and the reasons for their implementation, parts of Ethiopia’s Prime Minister, Abiye Ahmed’s inaugural address towards the women of Ethiopia will be presented:

Even though the government has taken steps to ensure that benefits are accruing to women and recognise their all-rounded contribution to the progress of our country, we believe what we have done falls far short in comparison to that which have not been done […]. In the future, I have great hope that the women of our country will utilise the talents nature have blessed you with to continue to play a positive role in our country’s growth and its prosperity and for the success of our politics. Our national identity is meaningless without the participation of Ethiopian women.

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3. Theoretical Framework

The theoretical framework will be presented with the aim of relating to literature in the field and using previous research to develop the foundations and guidelines for the study in relation to my research questions. First, I discuss important concepts with a focus on gender equality and women empowerment. Then I present the analytical framework for this study. In the final section I make a summary of the discussion to outline my analytical framework.

3.1 Empowerment of Women

One main concept in this study is gender equality given its importance for gender reforms and relationship to empowerment. Osawa (2000) argue that gender equality can be defined as a society where women and men have the opportunity to be equal members and have the ability to involve in activities in every area of life by their own choice.

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Furthermore, in relation to NGOs and its significance for women

empowerment, Fissiha Hailu argues in an article that Ethiopian NGOs are important for women with lower status since they can support women in different aspects such as education and improvement of self-confidence (Fissiha Hailu, 2017).

Similarly, the authors Dibie and Dibie (2012) discuss how women

empowerment can be attained in Africa. They highlight different important aspects that are important for the work with women empowerment and explain in detail how NGOs in particular can contribute to women

empowerment in the African content. Dibie and Dibie’s research is suitable for the theoretical foundation for this study since it helps us highlight different important aspects that are important for the work with women empowerment and how it can be achieved. Therefore, these aspects will work as a guidance in relation to research questions 1 and 3 when I later in the empirical party of the study try to establish how NGOs work with women empowerment, and if and to what extent Ethiopian women has been

empowered by reforms in the eyes of NGOs. In the text below I will outline these factors.

3.1.1 Religion, Culture and Tradition

Africa is a continent with more than a thousand languages and ethnic groups with very diverse cultures and traditions. Some of these cultures and

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achieve a change for the better for women that are being exposed to harmful traditions that include child marriage and FGM, it is crucial to improve education about sexual health and life-skills, as well as developing a functional communication with traditional stakeholders (Dibie & Dibie, 2002).

3.1.2 Diversity Management and Equal Employment

Dibie and Dibie (2002) argue that many NGOs in Africa are involved in work to improve their way of removing prejudice. By doing so, they not only hire a broader section of people, but they also promote the opportunity to establish a field where diverse groups can grow. However, in order to empower women, men need to be educated in how to accept women as their equal.

3.1.3 Women’s Political Leadership

NGOs needs to highlight that women need to be prioritised in development processes. Dibie and Dibie (2002) claims that it is necessary to first give priority to people and families before materialism, like infrastructure.

Therefor it is crucial for NGOs to invest in education and welfare for women, women’s rights and women’s opportunities. To give women priority is therefore important for Africa’s sustainable development and NGOs plays an important role in it.

3.1.4 Protection of Women from HIV/AIDS

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with clinics in order to limit the spread. It is important with education within this field in order to decrease the spread of the disease.

3.1.5 Women’s Equity in the Society

Both men and women take part in the process of development. Women should therefore be recognised as equal partners to men since they provide half of the population. To accomplish this in Africa, NGOs need to foster education in relation to gender rights and they should encourage women’s sexual rights, control of their freedom to their bodies and also, escape discrimination and sexual violence (Dibie & Dibie, 2012).

3.2 NGOs Relationship with the Government

Given that a large aspect of the study takes an interest in NGOs and therefore, it is important to establish the definition of an NGO and their status in the civil society. The authors Karns, Minst and Stiles argues that NGOs are main members of networks and coalitions. It is voluntary organisations that has been developed by individuals in order to attain a mutual purpose. Mostly NGOs are working with one specific issue, but there are also NGOs working with broader issues like human rights and they can be found on national or international levels, as well as grassroots levels (Karns, Minst & Stiles, 2015).

The author Clarke (1993) argues in an article that there are several factors that influence NGOs development of influence. These factors are at many times dependent on the relationship between the NGO sector and the state. Clark claims that in some countries NGOs plays a vital role in the

development processes but in others, NGOs are weak due to that the

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between NGOs and the state, it requires that both parties share the same goals and values. To achieve a functioning collaborative relationship government needs a positive social agenda and that NGOs are efficient. A genuine collaboration is also possible when both parties share the same solutions without any competition but instead can complete each other. Despite this, there is a risk of the partners wanting to achieve different goals which in turn can create friction.

However, Clark argues that these kinds of healthy relationships are not very common due to envy and lack of trust since governments fear that NGOs will undermine their political power. In relation to NGOs point of view, they usually mistrust governments motivation as well as its officials (Clarke, 1993).

Another author, Bratton (1987) argues in an article that the relationship between NGOs and governments in Africa is rather complex due to that both partners operate in the international arena. African governments have the tendency of acting as gatekeepers in relation to NGOs within the states borders and agencies outside of the borders. Moreover, since governments and NGOs are structured differently and use different approaches in relation to rural development, the author argues that they sometimes clash. In relation to Africa which Bratton has studied specifically, NGOs and governments are usually able to cooperate and prevent conflicts that are open. The relations between the two partners vary from place to place and also from time to time in Africa.

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more likely to be acceptant towards NGOs rather than single-party states. Over more, it is easier for NGOs to operate in countries with weak political parties. Secondly, the policy regime is a factor that influence the relationship. For example, a government with a liberal economic policy can be expected to be more positive towards NGOs and that foreign funders are important actors in relation to the environment of NGOs. Thirdly, an important factor is the administrative capacity. It decides to what degree NGOs are free to function unhindered. Moreover, the extent of NGOs activity is another factor. Is the NGO small, governments can be determined that it is not important rather than if it would have been large. Furthermore, the geographical

location of the NGO is important because NGOs that are working with for

instance refugees or minorities might touch sensitive problems according to governments. Content is another affecting factor of NGOs program. It is possible that NGOs and governments differ in relation to methods being used. Bratton argues that the existence of NGOs is a test for governments position. If a government is exposed to a frail political legitimacy, the less tolerant it will be towards a powerful voluntary sector (Bratton, 1987). Clarke’s research and Bratton’s research are both unanimous that the relationship between governments and NGOs can be complex. Since Bratton’s article is focused on Africa it is suitable for this study due to the Ethiopian context. Since we want to establish the relationship between the NGOs and the government and what factors that can possibly contribute to it, Bratton’s article makes a good tribute to establish what effects the

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3.3 Summary: Framework for Analysis

In this section I summarise how the theoretical framework will serve. In relation to research question 1 and 3 I will focus on the aspects that was derived from Dibie and Dibie’s research: religion, culture and tradition; diversity, management and equal employment; women’s political leadership; protection of women from HIV/AIDS (research question 1) and finally; women’s equity in the society.

Research question 2 will be evaluated based on Bratton’s factors that affect NGOs relationship with governments: the governance system, the policy regime, the administrative capacity, the extent of NGOs activity, the geographical location of the NGO, and lastly, the content.

4. Methodological Framework

In this chapter I present and discuss the research design I use and the method and material. Firstly, I discuss the research design and why I have chosen to conduct a case study, and why Ethiopia. Then I outline why I have selected the three particular NGOs that I will study. Moreover, I explain how I have conducted the interviews. Furthermore, I have lined up ethical considerations to bear in mind while performing the interviews which is followed by

material from the interviews but also for the empirical study. Lastly, I have mentioned critique of this material and what to consider when using it.

4.1 Research Design

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of women empowerment and how their possibilities to achieve this is

affected by the government. A case study provides the study the opportunity to aim for high levels of conceptual validity and is appropriate due to the possibilities of new variables. By only focusing on one case, it makes the study more concentrated (George & Bennet, 2005). Furthermore, the thesis uses a qualitative methodology with an abductive approach which means that the analytical framework will work as a framework, or as a lens for the data. The data will then be analysed and interpreted through the lens (Lowndes, Marsh & Stoker, 2017).

4.2 Background Information About the NGOs

With help from my contact person in field, I have selected three NGOs working with women empowerment in Ethiopia for study. The NGOs are: Consortium of Self Help Group Approach Promoters (CoSAP), Jerusalem Children and Community Development Organization (JeCCDO) and lastly, Association for National Planned Program for vulnerable Children And in Need (ANPPCAN – Ethiopia).

In the process of selecting organisations I got help from my contact person at JeCCDO who has great experience within this field. I got the initial

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perspectives on women empowerment since they are located in several regions of Ethiopia. Moreover, by using three NGOs it gives the study a width rather than less. In the following text the NGOs will briefly be presented in their work of empowering women.

CoSAP is an NGO with a network 28 of non-profit organisations that are committed to the support of the Self Help Group (SHG) approach

(Consortium of Self Help Group Approach Promoters (CoSAP), n.d.a). CoSAP are organising SHGs for the empowerment of women in order to improve quality of life. Furthermore, CoSAP in support of member organisations arrange studies and workshops (CoSAP, n.d.b).

JeCCDO is an NGO established in 1985 in Ethiopia, Addis Ababa.

(Jerusalen Children and Community Development Organization (JeCCDO), n.d.a). In relation to empowerment of women, JeCCDO promotes a

mechanism called Self Help Group (SHG) which unify economic and social angles of a community’s development which in turn results in strengthening women.

ANPPCAN - Ethiopia is an NGO that was established in 1990 and focuses on several areas such as sexual reproductive health, empowerment of women and they also develop programs with main focus on education (Association for National Planned Program for vulnerable Children And in Need

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4.3 Conducting the Interviews

The interviews have been held at the NGOs offices individually, and at the beginning of every semi-structured interview the interviewer has firstly carefully present the aim of the study and asked the respondent if there are any questions before we have continued.

The interviews have been recorded with the participants approval and there has been a questionnaire were the interviewer have asked the participants questions from a form that has been designed beforehand. The questionnaire contains 3 themes in relation to the research questions and there are 18 questions in total. The questions are related to the theoretical framework and work as a frame for the construction of the questionnaire. During the

interviews the interviewer has except for recording, also been taking notes in order to not go too fast forward and miss out on reflections or follow-up questions (Esaiasson et al., 2017).

The respondent’s selected for interviews have been from various positions within the NGOs in order to give the study a width, but to protect the respondent’s identities, the positions of the respondents will not be mentioned. However, the respondents are both men and women.

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4.4 Ethical Considerations

When conducting the interviews there have been a few things to consider. Firstly, the respondents of the NGOs have been well informed about the purpose of the thesis and what it will be used for and that participation is voluntary, and they could decide not to take part any time. Secondly, they have also been ensured that their information will be used confidentially and in order to protect the respondent’s identities, the recordings will be erased after finished transcription. Thirdly, during the interviews they have given their consent before and during the recording and they have all been over 18 years old. Furthermore, the interviews have been held at the NGOs offices in order to keep it professional, but also to make the respondents comfortable since that has a significance for the outcome of the interviews (Esaiasson, Gilljan, Oscarsson, Towns & Wängnerud, 2017).

4.5 Material

As mentioned, the thesis concerns a Minor Field Study using a qualitative methodology in combination of primary data in form of face to face semi-structured interviews (Lowndes et al., 2017). Semi-semi-structured interviews provide an opportunity for open dialogues but are supported by a pre-designed series of questions. Furthermore, it enhances the possibilities to register answers that are unexpected, and it also eases the interaction between the interviewer and the participant (Esaiasson et al., 2017).

Because the informants work in women empowerment roles in NGOs, the interviews were not hindered by language issues: the informants were professionals and interpreters were not needed. The direct communication between the interviewer and the informant reduced the risk of

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Other primary data that have been used is the NGOs background information that have been collected from their original webpages for it to be as

trustworthy and realistic as possible. Another primary source is Abiye Ahmed’s inaugural speech. Also, a Swedish television video by TV4 was used: this was about the “Female Revolution” that Ethiopia is experiencing, and was made by the Foreign Affairs Reporter, Johan Fredriksson.

Concerning secondary data, I have used literature in relation to the

methodological framework and the definition of NGOs. This is literature that is directly focused on the aspects of relevance for this study and my

discussion. Furthermore, I have used secondary data about the Ethiopian context in form of articles in academic journals. Webpages from trustworthy organisations like United Nations, authorities like Regeringskansliet or the political unbound organisation, Freedom House have been used for

information about the gender reforms that has been implemented in Ethiopia. In relation to the theoretical framework, several sources and material have been evaluated and presented in order to determinethe possible material within the field. The theoretical framework that has been chosen for this study has been argued for its relativityin relation to this study and are scientific articles.

4.5.1 Criticism of the Material and Sources

When using qualitative data from semi-structured there are a few things to consider. Firstly, what has to be kept in mind when performing the

interviews is that it is possible that the respondents may distort the answers for their benefit or that they misinterpret the question. Secondly, the

responses of the interviews can be affected by something called interviewer effects which means that the interviewer can unconsciously affect the

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as much as possible, I have asked the respondents as straightforward and clear questions as possible (Esaiasson et al., 2017).

When I have collected the material, I have used Esaiasson, Gilljam,

Oscarsson, Towns and Wängnerud’s technique of source criticism for it to be as reliable as possible. This technique requires four criteria to be met:

authenticity, independency, simultaneity and tendency. Authenticity is important for us since we need to ensure that the source is produced at the time, context and by the persons who are being named. Independency

concerns the content in the source and involves three aspects. The first aspect is the possibility to confirm the story, the second one is the distance between the narrator and the story. Meaning that primary data is more credible than secondary data. The third aspect is that the story should not have been affected by external circumstances. Simultaneity refers to that the longer time there is between the story and until it has been written down, the more likely is it for lapse of memory. The last factor, tendency is related to the narrator itself and that to never believe in a lonely tendentious source. It needs to be supplemented with at least one other independent source (Esaiasson et al., 2017).

5. Results and Analysis

In this chapter the relevant findings of the material will be presented. The sections of the chapter are organised according to the three research

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5.1 NGOs Work with Women Empowerment

This section concern research question 1. Firstly, we are going to focus on the findings in relation to each of the three NGOs of the study before I make a summary of the findings from the three NGOs. Then I analyse the findings based on the areas outlined for this question in the theoretical framework: religion, culture and tradition; diversity, management and equal employment; women’s political leadership; protection of women from HIV/AIDS and finally; women’s equity in the society.

5.1.1 CoSAP

CoSAP is an umbrella organisation with 28-member organisations and their main approach when working with women empowerment is through

something called Self Help Group (SHG) approach that will be described later on. The NGOs doesn’t work with the SHGs directly, but indirectly with the help of their member organisations and also called, community-based organisations. The community-based organisations organise the SHGs in different communities with women that needs it the most.

SHG is a group of 15-20 women from the same social, economic background in the same neighbourhood. We are talking about the poorest women to be organised into a group with other women and then they meet every week […]. Then they discuss on their social issues. (Interviewee 1)

The SHGs work in different areas of life and the main ones are the economic, social and political areas.

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supporting time of difficulties, challenges and also, politically. (Interviewee 1)

These women often come from very poor backgrounds and are dependent on their husband’s income. Therefore, it is of importance for CoSAP to

empower them economically in order for them to take care of themselves, their children and their family. To do so, the women in the SHGs save money together and after a while, one woman takes the money and invests it in a business activity. Next time it is another woman from the SHG that receives the money to invest it. This is a process that is being repeated and therefor it is called self-help since they don’t take any handouts from CoSAP except for training, education, management skills and so on by the community-based organisations.

They start saving money and are starting to get involved in different business activities. They will be economically

independent, and they exercise leadership and decision-making in their groups, family and community (Interviewee 2)

Furthermore, the SHGs help the women to stand for their rights and fight harmful traditional practices. They are being trained and educated within this field which they bring home to share with their families. When the SHGs mature, they develop into clusters which is 8-10 SHGs that forms a cluster.

5.1.2 JeCCDO

Like CoSAP, JeCCDOs main approach is SHGs in order to empower

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In our organisation we have a program called Self Help Group approach […]. We help them to get organised (Interviewee 3) The SHGs are not only empowering women in the economic area but are also empowering women to believe in themselves and to speak for their rights.

The women are becoming active, defending themselves, their rights, challenging gender-based violence and demanding for basic service from the local authorities and so on. (Interviewee 3) A big issue in Ethiopia is harmful traditional practices such as FGM, abduction and child marriage. With education from community-based organisations and the women in the groups supporting each other, they empower each other.

When they have the weekly meetings, they discuss social issues such as domestic violence. The group members will then consult and discuss about it so that she can address the problem with her husband […]. Certain strong SHGs have been presented cases to for example the police, and even to the court. (Interviewee 4)

Furthermore, another issue in Ethiopia is HIV/AIDS. That is one of the areas JeCCDO is working with since women are often victims of it. One of the interviewees explained that HIV has returned in an alarming rate due to neglection by the civil society (Interviewee 5).

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5.1.3 ANPPCAN – Ethiopia

ANPPCAN – Ethiopia works with women empowerment mainly from two aspects. The approaches they are using is decision-making and economic empowerment.

For the decision-making component we provide trainings, education and also the mentorship for the leaders of women groups, for the women associations and so on. (Interviewee 8) The other component is economic empowerment which mainly focus on the economic ownership and to improve the income level of women. (Interviewee 8)

ANPPCAN – Ethiopia work with SHGs and Women Watch Groups. These groups are two different groups, but sometimes they overlap each other. The NGO do work with community-based organisations on occasions. However, they work more directly with women and organise the groups by their own.

Women Watch Groups are involved in reducing and stopping child marriage for example. They report to the government in those situations. They report also to ANPPCAN and the police […]. (Interviewee 9)

They [Women Watch Groups] are doing much in creating

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To summarise the NGOs work with women empowerment, it can be argued that they work quite similarly. JeCCDO and ANPPCAN - Ethiopia are both engaged in HIV/AIDS awareness raising. CoSAP and JeCCDOs main approach is to organise women into SHGs with help of community-based organisations. ANPPCAN - Ethiopia also works with SHGs but moreover with Women Watch Groups. ANPPCAN – Ethiopia cooperate with community-based organisations as well but are less dependent on it compared to CoSAP and JeCCDO.

Let us now look at this question based on the aspects outlined for this

question. Concerning how the NGOs work in relation to religion, culture and tradition, JeCCDO argues that they respect religion, cultures and traditions (Interviewee 7). Dibie & Dibie (2012) argues in the article that it is of importance that NGOs reinforce cultures that are positive towards women and gender equality, which the NGOs do as long as it is in a positive sense. On the other hand, the NGOs agree on that in regard to harmful traditional practices, they have a role to play in opposing this and that is when they have been organising SHGs and Women Watch Groups to prevent traditions like child marriage and FGM (Interviewee 2, Interviewee 4 & Interviewee 9). Interviewee 4 argues that “In order to prevent FGM, communities are highly responsible because they know the problem and who commits the crimes.” Therefore, it is important that NGOs like ANPPCAN – Ethiopia to have communication with traditional stakeholders such as religious leaders in order to inform and educate the general public about the issues (Interviewee 9). This in relation to Dibie & Dibie, is something that is necessary for the decreasing of traditional harmful practices.

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relation to the three NGOs, they have explained that when they have vacant posts, women are encouraged to apply (Interviewee 1, Interviewee 5 & Interviewee 8). Furthermore, JeCCDO and ANPPCAN - Ethiopia maintains gender policies in order to avoid discrimination (Interviewee 9 & Interviewee 4). Due to that JeCCDO operates in several regions of Ethiopia, they

encourage diversity and welcome employees from different cultures and religions (Interviewee 7). CoSAP and ANPPCAN – Ethiopia encourages diversity by encouraging people from different backgrounds to apply for vacant posts (Interviewee 1 & Interviewee 9). The way the NGOs are operating within this field, they promote the opportunity to establish a field where diverse groups can grow which Dibie and Dibie promotes.

As regards to women’s political leadership, it is significant for NGOs to work with women’s rights and to raise them in their education, welfare, opportunities and needs. As was mentioned before, CoSAP and JeCCDO work with SHGs that focuses on empower women political, social and economic (Interviewee 1, Interviewee 2, Interviewee 3, Interviewee 5 & Interviewee 6). With focus on the social and political field, they educate and train women to stand for their rights and be empowered. With regard to ANPPCAN - Ethiopia, they promote it as well by focusing on one of their main components: women’s decision-making, which also focus on

empowering women to know their own rights and value (Interviewee 8 & Interviewee 9). Just like Dibie and Dibie (2012) argues is of importance, the NGOs invest in women’s political leadership. However, due to that Ethiopian NGOs has not been allowed to work with political matters until recently, they are not yet much involved with political elections, but perhaps in the future.

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this by education through programs and collaborations with clinics. Since the NGOs don’t work on medical issues, ANPPCAN - Ethiopia and JeCCDOs main focus in relation to HIV/AIDS is awareness raising (Interviewee 3, Interviewee 4, Interviewee 5, Interviewee 6, Interviewee 7, Interviewee 8 and Interviewee 9). Interviewee 9 from ANPPCAN – Ethiopia argues that “HIV is one our component in all of our project areas”. However, CoSAP doesn’t provide a direct program for HIV/AIDS but claims that other organisations and the government cover this area (Interviewee 1).

Finally, concerning the area of promoting women’s equity in society it was pointed out earlier that NGOs should focus on education of gender rights, encouragement of women’s freedom to their bodies, their sexual rights and to escape sexual violence and discrimination. ANPPCAN - Ethiopia works with these issues with help of Women Watch Groups who are being empowered and educated into knowing their own rights but also, to report back to ANPPCAN – Ethiopia or the police if one of these fields are being violated (Interviewee 9). Similarly, CoSAP and JeCCDO organise SHGs which they educate in these fields with help from community-based organisations (Interviewee 1, Interviewee 2, Interviewee 3, Interviewee 4, Interviewee 5, Interviewee 6 & Interviewee 7). Moreover, the women of SHGs, empower each other to stand up for their freedom to their bodies in relation to FGM and discrimination by their husbands (Interviewee 1, Interviewee 3 & Interviewee 4)

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5.2 The Impact on NGOs of Gender Reforms

This section concerns research question 2. It is organised and analysed in relation to the three NGOs and the factors identified for this question in the analytical framework: the governance system, the policy regime, the administrative capacity, the extent of NGOs activity, the geographical location of the NGO, and lastly, the content.

5.2.1 CoSAP

CoSAP has a positive view of the gender reforms and its impact on their work and has a bright outlook on Ethiopia’s future concerning gender equality.

As an NGO, this is a plus. We applauded for this and are really happy. Because the women he is promoting are capable women. He [the prime minister] is not only doing the reforms because they are women, but because they are capable women, I believe. (Interviewee 1)

A year has passed since the gender reforms implementation and one

significant factor that has been affecting CoSAP work in relation to women empowerment is that a restricting Civil Society Organisational (CSO) law has been lifted which now allow NGOs to work in areas like gender equality, politic, advocacy and women empowerment, which they weren’t before (Freedom House, 2019)

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on gender equality issues or human rights perspectives, democracy, elections […]. (Interviewee 1)

Before the new CSO law, CoSAP wasn’t allowed to work with issues like gender equality and women empowerment, so they had to tone it down. The NGO had to be careful with which words they were using.

After the reform, our member organisations and ourselves has started to work with women empowerment and gender equality issues. (Interviewee 2)

The new CSO law has improved the relationship between NGOs and the Ethiopian government since they don’t feel chased anymore and can act more transparent.

The old law was very restricted and wanted to attack some of the NGOs. […] Before we felt that the government was coming to chase us but now this has changed our minds into accountability. (Interviewee 1)

5.2.2 JeCCDO

Just like CoSAP, JeCCDO has been very positive regarding the new gender reforms. All the respondents from JeCCDO are very happy about it and consider it to be a good start for the development of gender equality in Ethiopia.

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JeCCDO and other NGOs who are working with gender equality. (Interviewee 3)

In relation to how JeCCDO has been affected by the new gender reforms, the respondents also mention the new CSO law and that it has improved NGOs situation in many ways.

The previous CSO law was very restricting and it wasn’t possible to talk about politics and advocacy unless they had been allowed by the law. For example, if an NGO was to engage in politics or advocacy issues it had to raise 90% of the fund from local sources and only 10% by foreign funders […]. (Interviewee 4) Due to the new CSO law, JeCCDO can now work more freely and openly with questions related to gender equality and women empowerment. Before the new reforms and CSO law, JeCCDO wasn’t able to express that they were working on women rights since they were barred from this by law.

We have new initiatives that work with women empowerment and other aspects. We’re training ourselves at groups on women and child rights so that they can go and report to the government, to the court whenever a child is being molested, girls being exposed to FGM and when there is early child marriage. (Interviewee 4)

5.2.3 ANPPCAN – Ethiopia

In relation to how ANPPCAN – Ethiopia has received the new gender

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We welcome it. We’re standing for it. (Interviewee 9)

Due to the government of 2018 and the new CSO law, the NGO can work more transparent and efficiently with issues of gender equality.

One if the issues were that it was forbidden before to work with issues like women rights. It was difficult to work with it because of the law. Now, there is a new law. Now we can promote whatever we want. (Interviewee 8)

Moreover, the new CSO law has improved the relationship with the government. Before, they were forced to hide certain things from the government which they now can speak openly about.

It has improved our relationship with the government because we are now more transparently communicating with the government. (Interviewee 8)

In conclusion, the interviews show that the reforms have been very well received by the NGOs in the study. They all mention that the new CSO law not only led to improvements in their work, but also to a more positive relationship with the Ethiopian government.

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governments in the past (Interviewee 8, Interviewee 5, Interviewee 7 & Interviewee 1). Furthermore, Ethiopia has a multi-party system (Globalis, 2018).In the opinion of Bratton, a multi-party system is often more likely to accept NGOs rather than single-party systems. This in confirmed in this study, as the NGOs claims that they have more freedom now (Interviewee 1, Interviewee 10, Interviewee 2, Interviewee 4 & Interviewee 8). However, Ethiopia has had a multi-party system during a long period, but it is not until recently, in relation to the new reforms that NGOs was given more freedom.

Another important factor is the country’s policy regime. As mentioned, there is a new CSO law that was implemented in relation to the gender reforms (Freedom House, 2019). It has changed NGOs relationship with the

government (Interviewee 8, Interviewee 5, Interviewee 7 & Interviewee 1). One of the interviewees describes the CSO law as liberal and world class (Interviewee 1). Interviewee 7 agree and argues that “We can work more openly now” In relation to the new CSO law, the government is more open and welcoming towards NGOs work. One interviewee explains that the recently implemented CSO law only accepted NGOs to raise 10% funds from foreign sources and the rest had to be local funds. This is changed now which improves NGOs work and also, to be more transparent towards the government (Interviewee 4).

Concerning administrative capacity, which is about to what degree NGOs are free to function unhindered. Since the implementation of gender reforms in 2018, NGOs are allowed to work in whatever field they find relevant due to the new CSO law (Interviewee 1). The government has realised that they can benefit from collaboration with NGOs, according to CoSAP (Interviewee 1). Before the reform’s implementation, NGOs and the government were

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that “As an NGO we felt that the government were abolishing us, and the government felt that NGOs were Western mis leaders”.

Regarding the extent of NGO activity, JeCCDO explained that since the NGO is working more at the grass root level compared to the government, they are not collaborating in the same way that other organisations are (Interviewee 5). With regard to that CoSAP and ANPPCAN – Ethiopia are working on the same level as JeCCDO, it can be expected that they

experience it similarly. However, during the interviews, the NGOs have been positive towards the government’s contribution(Interviewee 1, Interviewee 2, Interviewee 3, Interviewee 10, Interviewee 8, Interviewee 7, Interviewee 6, Interviewee 4, Interviewee 5 & Interviewee 9).

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methods but that they are trying to collaborate to improve fields like poverty since it is in the both institutions interest.

To summarise the analysis of question 2 it can be argued that due to the government and its gender reforms of 2018, the NGOs are unanimous that their relationship with the government has improved (Interviewee 8,

Interviewee 5, Interviewee 7 & Interviewee 1). Most likely, it is because the government contains more open-minded ministers that value NGOs work and therefore has implemented the new CSO law that provides them more freedom in their work of gender equality and women empowerment. The fact that the cabinet consists of 50% women suggest that the women in the

cabinet may have had an impact on the positive development of the relationship.

5.3 The Gender Reforms Impact on Women

This section contains the results and analysis of research question 3. The analysis is organised in relation to the three NGOs and the analytical framework and its factors: religion, culture and tradition; diversity, management and equal employment; women’s political leadership; and finally; women’s equity in the society.

5.3.1 CoSAP

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Even for us to see that the president of the country is a woman and more, it gives a positive attitude for the country that we have equal opportunities. If we study and work hard, we can reach that, and also young children can aspire to become president or prime minister etc. (Interviewee 2)

Fissiha Hailu argues in an article that in order to improve the situation for women in Ethiopia, it is important that women in the cabinet have the same power as the men and that their voices are taken into account on an equitable basis since they are the ones that know the issues of being a woman (Fissiha Hailu, 2017).The respondents of CoSAP have been positive regarding this and thinks that the women in the cabinet do have equal rights as the men.

What we have seen from the media is that some of them [the women in the cabinet] are very vocal and not shy. They make decisions with their respective ministers. (Interviewee 1)

5.3.2 JeCCDO

JeCCDO also sees positive changes for the country’s women and are hopeful about the future regarding gender equality.

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Ethiopia is considered to be a male dominated society and by implementing women on high and important posts, it is encouraging the development of women to step up and make the country more gender equal.

Well, it is a process and it might not happen today. But I think the future looks promising. […] The women that are now in power will encourage other women to come onboard and take power. So, I think there will be equal opportunities in the future. (Interviewee 7)

Ethiopia, just like many other countries is dominated by men in the politics (Fissiha Hailu, 2017). Due to the gender reforms, it encourages girls and women to aspire to become politicians and it also gives them the motivation to study harder.

Now they [girls and women] say that they want to become ministers and parliamentarians. Before people weren’t interested in that because they know the challenge. But now I think that they see the opportunities and the possibilities, and people are really aspiring to get engaged into politics. (Interviewee 7)

It doesn’t only inspire women to aspire and work harder, but it also inspires employers to invest in female employees since they now see that women of the cabinet, are just as successful as the men are.

It will encourage employers also, to take in more women. (Interviewee 6)

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5.3.3 ANPPCAN - Ethiopia

ANPPCAN – Ethiopia thinks that Ethiopia is under change and that the reforms will have a positive impact on the future of Ethiopian women and girls.

They [the women in the cabinet] are convincing the community; they are convincing the people that they are capable. Because of the leadership of the women- Ethiopia is changing. (Interviewee 9)

The respondents of the NGO argue that the gender reforms are empowering young women to take action and achieve for high positions. The women in the cabinet motivates young girls to dream of becoming politicians.

The reforms encourage women into participating in politics. (Interviewee 9)

To summarise, the NGOs has a positive outlook of the Ethiopian women’s future and claims that this is only the beginning of something promising. To further analyse this question, let us now look at it factor by factor in the framework based on Dibie and Dibie (2012).

If we start with the area of religion, culture and tradition. Dibie and Dibie (2012) argue that there are certain cultures and traditions in Africa that can be considered to be obstacles in relation to human rights. Cultures and traditions that promote child marriage and FGM is such an example.

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change to the society’s harmful cultures. Moreover, Interviewee 9 explains that Ethiopian people are very strict with traditions. However, ANPCCAN – Ethiopia said during an interview that the gender reforms encourage parents to let their daughters stay in school which will in turn protect them from harmful traditional practices like early marriage (Interviewee 8). The gender reforms give parents another perspective of their daughters potential. Instead of marrying off their daughters at a young age, the reforms of women in the cabinet ensure parents that their daughters can succeed just like their sons. This motivates them to let their daughters be educated as well. Concerning this area, it is also interesting that some of the interviewed women argues that men might see the gender reforms as a threat. In contrast, the men in the study argue that they don’t consider the reforms to be a threat (Interviewee 2, Interviewee 10, Interviewee 1, Interviewee 3, Interviewee 4, Interviewee 5, Interviewee 6, Interviewee 7, Interviewee 8 & Interviewee 9) Interviewee 2 argues that “They [the men] might see it [the gender reforms] as a threat because they are not used to it”.

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more of an effort to employ women. Like Dibie and Dibie argue, this

promotes the opportunity to establish a field where diverse groups can grow.

The area of women’s political leadership concerns that women’s priority is important for Africa’s sustainable development, according to Dibie and Dibie (2012). In relation to the gender reforms and Ethiopian women, the gender reforms encourage the Ethiopian society to include women in the

development process and to make use of the country’s whole population. One of the interviewers of ANPPCAN - Ethiopia mentions that the Ethiopian population has a greater number of women than men, around 51%

(Interviewee 6). Therefore, it would be unwise for the country’s development to not include the whole society since it gives them more power and capacity. Furthermore, the NGOs argues that these gender reforms influence women to become political leaders since they see that it is now possible (Interviewee 8, Interviewee 5, Interviewee 7, Interviewee 2, Interviewee 8, Interviewee 6, Interviewee 3, Interviewee 1, Interviewee 10 & Interviewee 4).

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To summarise the analysis of question 3 and its analytical framework, it can be argued that they share many of the aspects. In relation to the NGOs and Dibie and Dibie’s research, all of the factors have influenced Ethiopian women’s situation due to the gender reforms positively. However, the NGOs are unanimous that this is only the beginning of something promising and that these factors will develop during time and improve Ethiopian women’s situation even more for a gender equal society (Interviewee 8, Interviewee 5, Interviewee 7, Interviewee 2, Interviewee 8, Interviewee 6, Interviewee 3, Interviewee 1, Interviewee 10 & Interviewee 4).

6. Conclusion

Ethiopia has for centuries been a male dominated society and its women have been affected by it in many aspects. Aspects such as harmful traditional practices and discrimination, only for being born with the “wrong” gender (Cherinet & Mulugeta, 2003). During 2018, Ethiopia underwent significant transformation in relation to gender equality on national level. The purpose of this thesis was to study how the gender reforms introduced by the Ethiopian government since taking office in 2018, are being perceived by three non-governmental organisations in Ethiopia in relation to their

possibilities to work for women empowerment. The three selected NGOs for study were the Consortium of Self Help Group Approach Promoters

(CoSAP), Jerusalem Children and Community Organization (JeCCDO) and Association for National Planned Program for vulnerable Children And in Need (ANPPCAN) – Ethiopia. Three research questions were asked:

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- To what extent and how have non-governmental organisations been affected by the gender reforms of the Ethiopian government that took office in 2018?

- How have Ethiopian women been affected by the gender reforms of the Ethiopian government that took office in 2018 according to non-governmental organisations?

The research was conducted with a qualitative methodology through a case study of Ethiopia focusing on three NGOs: Consortium of Self Help Group Approach Promoters (CoSAP), Jerusalem Children and Community

Organization (JeCCDO) and Association for National Planned Program for vulnerable Children And in Need (ANPPCAN – Ethiopia) and their work with women empowerment. The material was analysed using an analytical framework that for research questions 1 and 3 was based on Dibie and Dibies’s (2012) research concerning African NGOs, and for research question 2 based on how various affect African NGOs relationship with governments derived from Bratton (1987).

Concerning the first question of how non-governmental organisations work with women empowerment in Ethiopia there are two main findings. First that the work provided by these NGOs fulfil the criteria in the analytical

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organisations. ANPPCAN – Ethiopia’s main approach is decision-making and economic empowerment. However, the NGO is also establishing Women Watch Groups and SHGs that are empowering each other, support other women and watch each other’s backs.

As regards to the second question and about to what extent and how non-governmental organisations have been affected by the gender reforms, the analysis shows that overall the gender reforms have had a positive impact upon the NGOs relationship with the government. In general, the NGOs have received the gender reforms very positively and welcoming. The NGOs are unanimously responding that the new Civil Society Organisational Law, which was established as part of gender reforms undertaken by the government, is the reform that has been affecting them most and very positively. It allows NGOs to work with gender equality and women empowerment freely and transparent which has in return improved NGOs relationship with the government. Concerning the theoretical framework, it can be argued that the gender reforms have had a positive impact upon the NGOs relationship with the government in the perspective of Bratton’s factors.

Finally, regarding the third research question about how Ethiopian women has been affected by the gender reforms, according to these

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their daughters and provide girls with female role models to admire. Furthermore, the NGOs argues that this is only the beginning of something promising that will set the standard of Ethiopia’s future concerning gender equality.

Finally, what is the contribution of this study more broadly in relation to our understanding of work towards gender equality and women empowerment? Gemma Burgess (2013) argues in a scientific article that research about Ethiopian women in political spheres and the appearance of women’s activism in Ethiopia is very limited. Burgess argues that Ethiopian women’s contribution to the society is in many aspects hidden (Burgess, 2013). Therefore, the results of this study contribute to the acknowledgement of Ethiopian women on national level and how they have contributed to the civil society’s development regarding gender equality. Moreover, as pointed out in the introduction, gender equality is one of the key sustainable

development goals of Agenda 2030. More specifically, goal number 5 which is dedicated to gender equality. The conclusions of this study have

established that gender reforms have the power to affect a country’s gender equality and empower women, which is an addition to goal number 5 of Agenda 2030.

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Interviewees

Interview 1. Male Officer in CoSAP. Conducted by Frida Tegnell in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, November 25, 2019.

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Interview 3. Male Officer in JeCCDO. Conducted by Frida Tegnell in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, November 26, 2019.

Interview 5. Female Officer in JeCCDO. Conducted by Frida Tegnell in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, November 27, 2019.

Interview 7. Male Officer in JeCCDO. Conducted by Frida Tegnell in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, December 4, 2019.

Interview 8. Male Officer in ANPPCAN - Ethiopia. Conducted by Frida Tegnell in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, December 9, 2019.

Interview 9. Male Officer in ANPPCAN - Ethiopia. Conducted by Frida Tegnell in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, December 9, 2019.

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Appendix

Questionnaire

Theme 1

1. How do the NGO work with cultures, religions and traditions in relation to women’s position? (Both harmful and encouraging). 2. How do the NGO work with managing diversity and equal

employment?

3. How do the NGO work with women’s political leadership and women’s opportunities in general?

4. How do the NGOs work with questions related to HIV/AIDS? 5. How do the NGO work with women empowerment in Ethiopia?

Theme 2

6. The Abiye Ahmed Government has implemented gender reforms on national level since 2018. How has the gender reforms been received by your NGO?

7. Do you think the reforms have an impact upon women’s equal rights and opportunities as men in the public sphere?

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9. Do you think the gender reforms could disempower men or make them feel threatened?

10. Is there anything that has changed in your NGOs work in relation to gender equality questions since the gender reforms implementation? Theme 3

11. Do you think these reforms affect women’s employment opportunities?

12. Do you think these reforms affect women being discriminated? 13. Do you think these reforms encourage women into participating in

politics?

14. Do you think these reforms improve women’s education? 15. Do you think these reforms affect abuse against women?

16. Do you think these gender reforms empower women from both lower and upper class?

17. Do you think Ethiopians are susceptible or not towards the gender reforms?

To Empower Ethiopian Women