Sprego tools

In Sprego, the data-management and the programming aspects run parallel. The programming tool is the functional language of spreadsheet programs, while the data-management is based on real data tables [41][42].

2.2.1 The concept of function

One of the reasons that functional languages are more effective as introductory languages than other text-based languages [23] is that the concept of function is brought into classes from mathematics, and calling functions is simple; consequently the focus is on the problem, not on the technical details.

In spreadsheet interfaces the tools are more user-friendly than in classical functional languages, a feature which also serves non-professional end-users better. In programming, and consequently in spreadsheeting, n-ary functions are called, with various data types as arguments. This use and practice of n-ary functions can help maths studies by providing examples of a wide range of domains and ranges.

One further aspect of Sprego is the application of multilevel functions. This feature is mostly avoided in spreadsheeting, as it is considered high-level mathematics [24], and therefore not suitable for primary and secondary school students. However, it has been proved that when introducing the concept of multilevel functions with the proper methodology, students are open to this knowledge and are able to digest it without any difficulty [14].

2.2.2 Sprego functions

Spreadsheet programs are considered user-friendly due to the high number of functions included, according to software companies and most textbooks. However, it has been proved that memorizing functions and their arguments does not improve spreadsheet problem-solving [40] and not knowing

with cognitive load theory [32] and the concepts of thinking fast and slow [5][29]. To avoid the failure of user-friendly spreadsheet-teaching, a set of Sprego functions were defined, limited to a dozen general purpose functions (Table 1). The dozen functions are categorized into three subsets to further lighten the cognitive load. The Sprego Text and the Sprego Number categories include functions whose domain is text and number data types, respectively. The Sprego Pro category has four general purpose miscellaneous functions which require a more advanced level of computational thinking skills.

Table 1: Sprego functions

Sprego Text Sprego Number Sprego Pro

LEFT() SUM() IF()

RIGHT() MIN() ISERROR()

LEN() MAX() MATCH()

SEARCH() AVERAGE() INDEX()

However, we must call attention to the fact that the set of Sprego functions is an open set, meaning that further functions can be added, if the problem so requires, and/or the students’ abstraction level increases, and teachers are sure that the dozen Sprego functions are stored in long-term memory.

2.2.3 Array formulas

Arrays and along with them, iteration, are introduced from the very beginning of Sprego programming [17][21][22]. This is another concept whose simplified version arrives from mathematics but plays a crucial role in programming. In spreadsheet interfaces the declaration of arrays is a simple selection, and as such, does not require a deep understanding of memory allocation and the syntactic rules of creating arrays.

By making the selection, students practice and, through practicing, understand that with one array the same operation can be carried out on all the items of the array.

2.2.4 Unplugged tools

Teaching and learning programming, developing students’ computational thinking skills and computer problem-solving abilities are extremely demanding on all the participants of the teaching-learning process. To further lighten the cognitive burden, within the framework of Sprego, several unplugged tools were developed and introduced in classes.

Figure 2: Various unplugged tools used in Sprego classes

Figure 3: The application of matrjoska dolls for understanding multilevel functions and input-output data flow between levels

To make students understand how the output of one function can serve as one of the inputs of the function on the next level, we use matrjoska doll avatars, their 3D printed version, or origami tools folded by the students (Figure 2 and Figure 3).

One further unplugged method frequently applied in Sprego classes is role-play. Students carry out the algorithm by themselves following the instructions of the teacher or a selected director. These role-plays are accompanied by further unplugged tools which are usually prepared by the students.

2.2.5 Semi-unplugged tools – webtables

Sprego relies on real-world data and problems – authentic data sources – to carry out reliable data-management. To provide these data sources, webtables – tables or table-like structures embedded in webpages – are converted into datatables and problems are formulated based on these data [41]. The wide range of webtables available on the internet makes data-management classes motivating, students are interested in the content, and find these problems valuable and useful [43].

One further advantage of the use of these authentic sources is the conversion process from webtable to datatable. The webtabledatatable conversion involves various knowledge-transfer items and serves as a practicing platform for various topics within informatics and other school subjects and sciences [42]. During the development of the methodology and its use in classes, we concluded that the conversion process fulfils all the requirements of TCPK and of the teachers’ belief in the incremental nature of science. One further ‘side-effect’ of the webtabledatatable conversion is that the process can serve as webtable semantic validator, where, based on the algorithm of the conversion, we are able to tell whether the webtable is correctly designed and/or formatted [41].

2.2.6 Semi-unplugged tools – applications

For further assistance, 2D and 3D Sprego applications were developed [44][45][46]. On the one hand, these applications function as role-plays with our matrjoska doll-avatars, while at the same time they imitate the Evaluate Formula command of spreadsheet applications. The role-play and the evaluation sheets appear side-by-side on a graphical interface, and the animations are played simultaneously in the sheets, relying on the advantages of multisensorial observation (Figure 4).

Figure 4: Samples of the 2D and 3D Sprego applications

3 SUMMARY

The essence of Sprego (Spreadsheet Lego) programming is presented in this paper. It is an approach to teaching spreadsheeting and introductory programming within spreadsheet interfaces. The main idea of Sprego is that programming is taught with minimal tools, letting students focus on the problem, instead of on the details of the interfaces.

Most of the methods are adapted from classical programming-teaching approaches, with a wide extension of unplugged and semi-unplugged tools. The importance of these tools is to make programming more understandable, to lighten the cognitive load in the teaching-learning process, and to make Sprego programming enjoyable.

It has been proved that this algorithm- and programming-oriented approach is more effective than the traditional spreadsheet-teaching methods, provides students with long-lasting knowledge, and serves as an introductory programming language to further studies in computer sciences.

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